9 10 90 https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/c2b251a29f7c07b4777ff57b5eef0eca.pdf 3235d2917b3f86667f84d6a679b33c52 PDF Text Text (_ c/1 \.7 ~ CHAPTER VI I CONCLUSION: Z- /v C-- As AFTERTHOUGHTS ¼ promised in our Prefac~ we have tried to avoid forcing our research and findings into manicured paradigms and neat frames. / of'iher-11 However, Drumvoices 0t-fhet1' ~ J does advance theories and thesest/1-manyAwell known and someAoriginar , _ _,,:~ j.l'"-1"\\\~-SlcJ6yhQ&. h<Utl\~Dttda critical hbtory;and one must take stands. Indeed, the poets have taken their own stands, as individuals and groups, since to project an inner self to the public is to -.J work out one's systems of beliefs, perceptions, relationships and values within the function or framework of poetry and poetics. ha.,ve, Such stands,\ always And es1, represent~critical choices for poets.A/or Afro-American poets they have ,,e;~ealed · a unique crisis-continuum in that so many "unusual" factors attend their written "commitments." One factor was the apparent self-mockery that initially accompanied the poets' use of written English. For the I early bards, there was the simpleM but grave~I task of "proving" their ability fl, to employ literafy skills; this tes alas, was conducted by "liberal" slave,., V master~ while many states made;Biack literacy a crime punisht ble by imprisoni ment, beating and, in some cases, even death. There was much confusion and misdirection of values and energies in the earlier poetry: the poets were neither encouraged nor allowed to retain an African flavor (let alone language). The Christianization of slaves had I aided in the development of a ghastly "duality" -or wall between the African I and himselfM which cluttered the poets' self- and world-views, indeeasending S53 �most f lack intellectuals into psychic chaos. by W E.,B. Df ois, held Afro-American This tendency, called a "veil" i n a state of moral limbo up through the beginning of the twentieth century. And though there were exceptions (Horton, Whitfield, Whitman, Frances Harper), any- one with proper '-" background study can understand the isolat ionism and alienation of a Phillis Wheatley or a Jupiter Hammon1 who refused freedom for himself it for young Blacks. but advocated One need only read David Walker to discover the boundaries of Negro "freedom" in the "free" states of jarly America. In the meantime, a folk traditioni on the plantations, among escaped . slaves, out of the minstrel era~ was also developing. This folk strain in the poetry (separated by Wagner from the "spiritualist" vein) has survived as a conscience, more or less, of Afro-American letters, philosophy and art. pl .,fl' y And even thoughl'critics .., lilte Wagne: k make false distinctions between the folk and the literary (or spiritual1!96) realms, all but a few of the ntw~ .._, "intellectual" poets l\delved into the folk roots and origins in one way or another. ~ -. 4-./ This fact is not as obvious in/\poets lJ.i:.e Countee Cullen, Claude McKay or Jean Toomer as it is in, say, Paul Laurence Dunbar, James Weldon Johnson, Sterling Brown and Langston HughesM but it iden11P,&! Co.n:'oe:ft: At the same time, however, the ambivalent attitude toward the Christian God and white people is as evident in the C___? itis folk poets asAin those steeped in book theology. Examination of the artificial boundaries established between folk (oral, gestural) poetry and l i terary (intellectual, book) poetry has not been pursued with enough intensity by critics and writers. ~ Europe "Qr larger America have J~ecuifeJ. I Just because communal art forms does not �mean that Afro-America has to follow suit! Or does it? And, as we stated -#;e.. in the beginning of Chapter VI, the social-connnunal value~ ofApoetry has yet to be viewed in the context of/lack reading trends and habits. fr»- we know Blacks place great emphasis on the dramatic presentation of a poem. Witness the magnetism and charisma of poets at live readings and the development of a national / lack audience for poetry via such vehicles I/ as Ellis Haizlip's ~ •I showi Sou. All ~ the foregoing statements tie in with our opening remarks about stands ~ eei~ ~ taken by poets. For, if the trans literation, if you will, of the thought or impulse to the page results in a reduction of poetic intensity, then the silent reading of the poem cuts a similar nerve1contact ~ : len reader and the originating idea or instinct. poet ~ One has only to hear an "intellectual" A Robert Hayden read his own works to understand this principle. r, Our point, then, is that much of the !i.t__.51 strai! t-laced poetry of the early periods has less meaning for us when it is not delivered in its natural environments of church services, abolitionist rallies, choir-singing, dances or social activities. For example, one should avoid listening to a poor reader present dialect poems of Dunbar, Davis or CorrOthers. A number of devices and t h e m e s ~ are central to Afro-American poetry. And while there have been instances (Wheatley, Hammon, Ann Plato, the Creole/ oets) wii poets 1 -t1•IIIP<h:a:sz:,=#e!etl immune to the social whirlwind, most Afro-American poets have been in that whirlwind. segregation in America turned a "curse" into Hence, patterns of 1'blessing /(t~ paraphrase Alain 1 11 Locke) and provided fl ack poets with private languages, forms, styles and tones. From the ditties, blues, /pirituals, dozens, sermons and jokes, the - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - �poets fashioned an endless stream of poetic forms and fusions (Tolson d~ . •the Plndaric ode in a blues form) . And that same., segregated pattern gave these poets their ominous themes~ heir grave tones and tem.:l, perament51which, coupled with their crisp insight into America's contradictions tt> 1o and paradoxes, allowed them_ to project,/\prophesJandArefine their "duality" into one of the most powerful aesthetical tools available to any group of writers. Hence the Afro-American poet has his own private (cultural) F o v- e~~M\>~J symbols and themes as well as t h o s ~ r g e r world.~ost/lack poets I have written poems about lynching@~!!!!!!!!!!!~-1.)but most Euro-American poets have not. Themes related Xla.ve.~y, to10b ~ .. discrimination, the c(fflblV~\efJC4 of · h on\e Less ()ess and res+Less. n~ a.., Christian God, psychic tu'rn,11L~, ,':,·· in a .white world,Apoverty reinforced r-,ve~~.and TV\tl.ltU 1 by oppression, racism, prejudice,~castration, i/ius the landscape of terror I and fear resulting from a web of social inequities, all, in one way or I another, work themselves into Afro-American poetry. ,~--- old'ff¼:8ed• ;eir wt J t i U i l ( - - 1 i ( j "lfll 0 stvf 1¥ ••••• om• I . ldi!MJJI ••t;iun? 01nl• - Though certain forms and themes have historically dominated Afrcr- American poetry, Vhique, IOU I 1 •A ,t/0~1<.ttthns. characteriz~e :tJ$B: oP. #\eJ~ Yl». a, a ;:, .,. . -~ . -rhe • a\s0L~ _ , ' and divergent approaches Outside of~dominating clusters,- 1 1heme.s j the poets ~ I Q . ~ other interestsJtnd preoccupations. ~v-ol'A~t family _units, 1 haweve9 Mo.ny of:·fh;T" ><P;rf-. ,,~ ,,-.ends ~/ti ve "4~ isf-,d ....,_:; for hundreds of years-/4even if such a fact is obscured by a socio-media representation with all its accompanying pathological emphases. culture i~<-Lvdes. .7 ------- ..auo. i (,:;:_ -. "-■ i :: I Any young Black ' sAanalysis o f wh ite ~~--~ ~ :_ his own unstated or implied cultur al preferences.) ,1..-,c; I :,) ..,,,,, 1..0 �True, Africans in the new land have lived theft,ghtmare amid-. talk of an a; and, understandabl>J the darker poets' songs are full of unpleasantries and recollections of that~ghtmare. But the end of jdack poetry C/.lh .f\eV.-'tl-:#:iae self-pity, chauvinism, ideolog1 , rhetoric or complain,t (Baraka says., 'the ~nd of w,an J s ~is Beauty"). Thus Margaret Walker, amidM: her sisters' use of "safe" female subjects and her brothers' '--' trips to the altar of the white literati, is able to celebrate / lack life (For My People). Robert Hayden transcends artificial barriers between (GlhO VS) himselfAand nature and enters the flower (Night-Blooming Cereus) as does ) Henry Dumas in Play Ebony Play Ivory and Pinkie Gordon Lane in Wind Thoughts. Other examples of such diversity and sensitivity abound: Owen Dodson '-, (Powerful Long Ladder), Langston Hughes (The Dream Keeper), Alice Walker (Once), Raymond Patterson (26 Ways of Looking at ;{° Blackman), Joyce Carol > Thomas (Blessing), an~c~oss-spread of almost any anthology. We have said the poet takes a stand not inherent in, say, the musician's, when he commits his thoughts to paper. social change And.:ove,,. The pas'+,f:'Q'w ye:u•.r and 'I\ position~tlSnot unrest, thejlack poet .whose aesthetic or religious dLl()he.6- v,At/1.,1/Jd.T - ~ of vested interest group~ c~e · up before many a stran(:court, at which times his own feelings and we,-eI\c/:fen ..._neutralized sensibilities , in favor of the "popular latex brand." Serious critics and "cultural stabilizers" need to examine such "one-way" /1, approaches to poetry/criticism, especially as they have occu~ed over the ast ears. We mention this ~ "side" show of the contemporary ,, ff poetry scene because its presence has often dirtied the waters of \ open thought and either crippled or destroyed many a budding talent. In a few �cases, it has even muffled a rich or significant voice. time the critical flood gates were "ope However, it is d" completely and honestly . Only in this way can Afro-American poetry cont inue to breathe the breath of the ancestors. Finally, as winds of change shift, speed up or slow down, and the "tradition" congeals, readers and poets must ask about ultimate designs and inherent missions. As the drum stands at the cross oads of traditional African and Afro-American culture, so the poet should stand at the center of the drum. Most poetic principles, and the language asssociated with them, rely on the vocabulary of sound and music. Music is the most shared experience..lthe most vital commodityi -among Afro-Americans. "'' is music's twin. And poetry word Ir\ Both the metaphysical and the metaphoricalAstem from and return to the drum: _ life, love, birth and death labored out in measured rumble or anxious cocophony. Between the lines are the rattle of choruses, the whine (hum) of guitars, and the shriek of tambourines, framed by rivers that will not run away. And the drumvoices urging us to cross them, cross them. - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - -- - - � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_09_16 Title A name given to the resource Editors proof, Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, Chapter VII. Conclusion, typed with handwritten edits, p. 553-558 Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/1d4a331448565a899ce6b7925f7a2028.pdf 9a93d5c659d2e3cea1b73c96fb1d45b9 PDF Text Text CHAPTER VI FESTIVALS © FUNERALS: ....,BLAC' POETRY OF THE 1960s CB They winged his spirit ® ~ 1970s & uoun<le<l his tongue but dea t h was slow coming .... ~ */ wno killed Lumumba What killed Halcolm .......... festivals & f unerals fes tivals & funerals ....-festivals & funerals & fes tivals & fun erals •.. - MI - Jayne Cortez G -e. Overviewl The space be tween festivals and funerals can be infinite or it can be deathl: short. her poem . So ffayne Corte%ay;uthrough the twistings and turnings in Bu t whatever the space, or the pace, we all slip , slide , soar, and tr i ? as we make our way between the polarities (assigned each a t birth) 1. -1-h ,, fex; li~fl,.t··e 11.·ve and the k ind of dea th we die. J Black poe~ of the 1960s and 1970s ofte~ face! life and death "straight up": ...._,t hough, as ue have seen, /1a ck poets in other times did not cringe from the breach~ of racial nightt mare!" , violence , sexuality , unbeautiful lan8uage , wicked or rcliGious folkisnf , and the demandt, of music:-~~R- each of them seemed to hear/0-albeit from , different. drummers ~1• ., Gt, To attempt a discussion of contemporary / 1ack poetry is to turn others' tongues into flae1es : "!laspher.iy! ! " "I was the first !" t' ✓ �"We started it! " "That antholo?,y w.:t s i ncomplete since it didn ' t include me !f " "It al ] Jf~7,-9.~ ~ii in this place G, r that plac ~ ! " "His /her poe try is not J lack enough ! " and so on . Nevertheless , the "smoke" from the s i xties is be~inning to clear and, while more hin~ sight is needed, there are import.:tnt observations that should be made . Henc'? in this chapter , the format will follow preceding ones i neliii. e s ■i.1-e wi t h a -------- poets. de- emphasis in biogr aph ica l-critical J,.n not: es- on bv1 indivi dua l Most serious poets who began writing in the late fifties,11xties ~ e()tllf . a nd ,{> e~enties+ still have much g rowin g and threshing t o do . volume s really contain earlier poetry . Als 91 many r ecent So it is not easy to evaluate (or ev en list) / lack poe try produced over this period . Yet, historically speaking , c e rta i n undeniable trends have occurred, and t hey look roughly like this: r;;:-ack/o etry since t he Harlem Rena issance ( sec Brown, Redding , Henderson, Jackson) has had cycling curr en t s of "ragJ'( and '' fire " thou gh not t he sustained gu sh witnessed in the mid and late i[) sixties; )(l ack poet ry a ft e r 1945 expressed a bel ief (see Ray Dur em ) t ha t white libe rals were not reall y i nte r ested in mounting the ( o,-. qain~1tJ.lL 1he wc,y 1 1 " final " chariots of f ireAon behal f of Blacks (desp it e Communist= Socia lis t pronouncemen t s ) ; i::~es ,)6.ack poetry of the ~ s; )(~ f.,S _/ and early ,t9Ub provided a ytvil:. ond jcL~TitaL ¢ l;rn aT-e. , i ghts gr ound~wellAfor the volcani c bur s 1 of the later sixties; fn/.1ack a po et r y of t he ea r ly sixties t he r e was planted the anvil shaped t he s t yli stic, at ti tudina l and l i nguistic cha r acte r - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - �of what i s known a s t hc,1/ew / l a c k / oe tr-y'; pu rr e nt / lack po e try , desp it e " ev o lution s " a n d "chang e s," h as not a,, r adically alt e r ed or l a i d to rest t h e be s t ~w r k of Hu ghes , So. r.,e~ ~ - ~C21l ;""' ~ Davis, Toor.ier, h'alke r, Hayden, Br ooks, To l s on Johnso) and Dodson; ~ xc ep t fo r what S t ep hen Hen de rson ca l l s " t en ta tiv e " a nswe r s , (~ ·9'•; ,,il.'.lc k p o et r y d e fi e s a l l d e f i n it ions ~ Hari Eva ns ' f " Bl a ck . J., - -.._,/ a.. Woman") '\-s plinter i n g o f f int o f nnuni er/\b le directi ons, s t yles , ~ tl orms , themes, con sid erations and idea s . +l"l4f. . Thi s chapt e r, all abov e c o nsi dered ( ! )) wi ll briefly sketch th e J..Z h::sa-s of poe t ry f rom the fift ie s int o the mid1 s i x ties . Again+ c hronology will he --,t;;7t, vialA"tld /(n& tel s i n~ ; m~ny of the poe t s lis t ed were wr itin;:--; in the for ti es and fiftieE, 1 ~ /4hffanlld I . most d id not rec e 1.ve~a tt en t1. on until th e six tie s. The ske t ch wi ll include a g eneral look a t t ransi ti onal poe t s ( olde r and youn ge r) as their wo r k appears ) in abou t a half dozen an t ho l ogies ( f r om I Saw How Black I Was , 1958 , f e to Ka leidoscope , 1967 ) and what feu vol umes we r e bein g b rou gh t ou t a t the time . Ila. s n Jut> =::.. 1Mn . f oe exanina t ion ( see Lo ck e ' s and Bont emp s' • di visio'lS '3 . of t he/\Ilenai s sancej ';t akes up the poe t s who c ame to r ecogni t i on unde r the banner of the> ~ a c k/ o et r y . 1 /3 a c k ,4 r ts /'I\J · (ment a nd who loo ~ y fall into t h e catego r y of , /ew Ol d er poet st , :1yd e n, Br ooks , Randa ll, Walker , a nd o t he r s i will be briefly reµ is ited to see if t he "new" mood wro u ght any sign if ica nt c h a ng es in t hei r views and /or th e i r poetry . we Touch IJP, an Criitc.. t'.~rn , Tho ug~.al.Be s tt uwi,e aJ H0 te e,, this boo k is primarily a h istorical g u i d e,ffd esigne d t o a i d a. dcnES, EeaEff@ISj • !Im! Jm; ~ a de rs in t heir e xplo r a t ion of,Ji ack poe t r y . I Onl y a na l ve person �would attempt, a t t his stage, a full critique of the poe try of the 1960s and 1970s. However, there are stylistic patterns, similarities, and t hematic clusters whi ch will be pinpointed and as sessed from time to tirae . Some of the most provocative of recent studies of contemporary / lack poetry a re Henderson's The llilitant Black Wri t e r in Africa and t he United States, i (r,,q with Mercer ~ . too~, Joy Flasch ' s !-Ielvin To lson (1972) -c,r.,.,."""",,,_ the ~ew Bl a ck Poetry (1 973); Sh~rley Williams '~ Give Birth to Ilri[;h tness (1972); Gibson' s . . . Modern Black Poets (1973 ) and Jackson~ '-------- and Rubin's Black -......, Poetry in America (1974) . ft] S9 ms ] "l ] I !l b$ _$/ Literary and Social Landscape• - LeveL C--- Assassinations, highl\political corruption, upheaval , violence, change , ClAS .. A' ol:J , l±)t ideolog~es, flamin g rhe t or ic • conteml\Jlrary period. ~_o.;L n a:;ta a I -...._ describe the Revolutions (of all k inds) mock and mold the wo rld. From Cuba to Vietnam, Harlem to Chile, Pakistan to Watts, Nige r ia to Indonesia, Kenya to Berkeley, Jackson State to Kent Statej -the facts and I \ A~~ not ,,,n symbols of change have been dr ama tic and violent.f s-{N(,A ovev-cast, .h (Jw€1/efi') 1hwar-1ed moj o.- tJevtl<Jp me110 wher~ ll 1 EAJtin the iJ-ac k spher~ L£tdo p was declinin__ef(by t he mid\fif t ies) ' 1 ' and vocalist: t~ ,; \1 ~::- a nd / azz ' s greatest · · B~,:.l(LLH,l.. interpreter, Charlie Parker, was dead . Al tf;icians co~ n11ed /(St pr obing new forms under t he leadership of Ii l es Davis, John Coltrane, the Modern Jazz Quart e t, Wes Mont gomery, ~ a EJ:l-;i,,agt~ Charles,~ Ornette Coleman, Bill y Eckstine, Sat;lah..ll a\ Fitz ge r ald and Billie Holiday ~ ho died in 195J1 Ray Ella g,Llie ,.._J\!loliday ' s name and - fame a8ain reached a worl'){-1ide audience wh en , i n 19 72, Di ana Ross, formerly of the Supremes, starred in t he controversial moviel Lady Sings the Blues . Saxophonist Coltrane, a major influence on the current generation of musicians and poets , di e d in 196 7. An i nnovator, he sparked new int e res t.$ in mu sic witr 7 �of sound~' - .:.~;~f!ll"'SNl•ttt~-t.ti-08-fiflllll.is~;liiiltlic,gt;~~'.!.t'!t~tfE'l.Js.-u111@6111'flllli••!li!!J)!.lllllJl}l•IM••■□ El511JllliCr.iei!J~iiai 0 hi ■ ei,J ~ The / i ftiesAa lso witnessed the ma tura tion of ,-ihythm ~and •4'lue s, popularized •rn ., weaving by/ lack radio di s c jockeys . ~ - - et:!_ J. D:!5 1; it social _ ::, Int er4 commentaries with the news, they ~ "1er ! Re.sv!t'.-ii . anticipa t ed t he new oral poetry of t he~ 1xt1es . ftp±n ur cr from these broad+ I). ~ (J..J ~ cast ing styles were/\ programs ~ ~ndstan (started in the late iifties) . Yo ung white America wa tched } lacks dance , listened t o Little Richard and Chubby Checker , and trie<l to i mitate it all on TV and in their homes . 1 This 1 period gave birth to the fi rst whi t e s uperst a ~ 'joul fartis: JElvis Presley . fl · r· jg] 'J istsr" s iid!E bl t 'fhe new f'-J.1ack social mus ic, r . and the dances accompanyi ns it, freed white American youngst e rs from the prudish and self-righ t e ous inhibitions of their fo r epar ents . )1tl(>t~tot«c." echoc, ffrtom"'ft<i-e -t.1e;ii1es . &ut-fh-ell'-t t--em6\ ml Gene rally , Americans ience and industry developed more rapidly than 1A : «' U.~ '") in previous periods • ..JMeia:,ia launched Sputni~k , a feat whien ,.r.as fo llowed ~ v ~ by/\.Afne ican- Russian scienc e and space - explor ation r a c e ~ ~ continue s. " ,,.---. iaYne.w..s !!d,\coverag e Te l t star paved the way for i ■ ? \!,. bio chemical warfare and a tomic n~v~ researchA,b ecame of ~loba l 2.ctivitie5J while the nin ht mares people live• daily . The American literary scene was swamped with political novels , sa tire , writings on t he war and experimental/J ournalistic pros e . The " under ground" newspaper emerged as a majo r vehic l e f or this new writing . The symbolisr.1 and ~~ f'.'tey,fut-t di ,,1still present . Hm1eve r , t he psychology~_employed in ~ a r lie ~ w: it· § ii~ i nfluence of the writ ers fror.i t he Depression and wa r years is r, ivin~ wa y to gad3e try and a new wave of existential concern . Black , Jewish, Chicano, aYr~'r- I nd i an and Asian writers are grabbing more of t he liter a r y s t a ge - ~ IS..r.een in H-.e n.e.w ethoit. StltJr-n a..l.1 O.l'ld fuJc. l i~h•ttj c.om fllJ\(tS lts we. l..1.- <U n,w inTe,,ett ~rom estt:bl,'thed fu bUd , h·5 . �(~) 5~A Jfo n tempora r y -.?- ' ,k111111iia~ N. Scott Nomaday , Ra l pl . -2 Isa11: r orltl~ vriter s o f i nf l uenc e inc l u de : • Saul Be l l mv~ , - -----.... Ellison , ~iddt el Hai :d 9 Fr ank Chin , ~~-~ -;;.hhr U.td li Hali;;! , Ch ~ a Ac hebe , Er nes t Ga ine s , J a mes Ba ldwi n , Paul Chan , f liatma y 8 ' 8s m:sz;z Albe rt i!u rray , I s hmael Re e d , Tinlli&M ii!) Lh,. James Ngug i , William De mby, Sh awn Hsu h'ong ..,_; 1 Kelley¼&ffd liC±:~ 7all&d!'. ~ 1\ rih; -lilliam Helvin Black writ e r s a re inc l u ded i n the g ene r a l l is t i ng b ecaus e:, d u r i n g the cont empora r p e):-iod , many of t hem ach i ev~d r ec o gni tion on , c. v sr6J.. Mi.(.Lion cop•~ ~ . par with the b e s t wr iters ever)7vlhere . " Reed @_ C UH• d wa s n omi na t ed i n ~U►'1 6se.C1.eAv .. w-'.S ~ L.S!,!1 t!ld1wt.J Scl.d. t wo categ or¼es f o r i he Na tio n a l Book Awa r d i n 1 9 7~. /i Am et-1CAI'\ tempor a r y/\po et s ~ l 4 ' " ~mpo rt a n t con{, · Stanl ey Ku 7 . z, Cyn Za r c o , Rob e rt Hayden, Richar d Eb e r h ar t, Rob e rt P e nn lfar ren, J O's t l·:ont oya , Gue nd olyn Br ooks, Laws on I nada , Kar 1 Shap iro , Rob er t 1ar ga s,1,ftr,.,H1i11111il~••T iiiililcli1asi.sws-.. Jo h n Ber ryna n , enry Duma s, ,, 1 / -Mkl,atL._HQ)"~e,. t or Hernan de z Cr u z , ~ f obE!r t l:owe l l, Dan i el Ha l pe r n , Rich ard Am iT\l Wilbur , Paul Ve s ey , J ames Di ckey , I mamu~ araka , Sy lv i a Plath , Willia m Bell an~ J ar:ie s . Wri ght. IIay den rec eif:fih a N: tional Book Awa r d nomi na t i on i n 19 72 , , _ , o ~ - .± "tio~~.~•A.o• 0-c.-o.,, ..... ~J) ~ ~"ir..... Many of t he / l ack fic s@t wr iten, ~nd poets ( s ome 1 r, f ror:i the p re - a n d r ost-J.wa r ~f,,10'1 s chools) died during t h e con t emporary pe riod (Tolson , Bo n t emp s,~ Hugh J s , Uright, Dur em, Dumas, Di Bois , Ho rn e , Ri vers, To ome r , Halcolm X, e t c . ). Inde ed death , i n one way or a not he r, not only p r e o ccup ied write r s (wh it e and f 1ack ), b ut wa s often r oman t i call y IJ Ursu ed . Bea t poet Ke nne t h Rexr oth asked> " i,n 1y hav e 30 Amer ican po ets c ommit t ed s uicide sinc e 1900?" Those p o e t s n ot conc e rned >elF-d~uw\te.eL.ttnenn with death we r e inves t i :-;ating de cade nc e o r t h e • • •• • ~ £ socie t y . The dev e lopme nt of c on te~p o r ary poet r y c ann o t be v iewed p r o p erly with out unde rstanding t he ' f e at " p e r i od . - -/ As a p art ia l p roduct of th e / e] op er e a t po e ts emuln t ed tlte ~ (drop- out) ~ age 7 a. mann e r isms and ap ed t he "man a l on e " a ssociated with mus i cians . BeJ{op ua s one way t he u sed to f i gh t th e c omr:ie r c i a lization of his arf-. f 1a ci\na n He also used i t i n pla y ing �" Someth i ng , " in the word s of Thelonious Honk , "t hey can ' t pl a y " meani ng whit es) . I mport ant t::.5'¾ f (ihev \ eat poe ts wer e Lawr ence Fer i lir.;hetti, Rex rot h , All6 n Ginsbe r 0 , and Gr egory Corso, amo ng the whi t e s f..> and Bob ✓ o...... .,ao ~ I ~ . Kaufma n, Le f o i Jones/ ~ t • jj ' C L 2lts a I ,/Sp~An ed Joan, . among ~he n~ h:222 1u id!i I i alz a:rs ytrab JOE''L ( The 11 I f P?t d D no] J Daw !Ill&§ @ cat f•~ovemen t , which nur tu r ed occultism, rejection of the Estab lishment and an exi stential view o f l ife , was c ent e red in New Yor k ' s Greenwich Vil lage and t he San Francis co Bay a r ea . :rt ~ died i n t he ear ly / ixties . 'Na Kau fman is viewed by many a s the unsung pa tria r ch of t he ~ er a . $QM ... ~t,.__c ritics say maj or whit e po et s of t he movemen t enthusias t ica l ly t ook ,,,,.---:- 7111d~ . ,,l their cues from Kaufinan' s i nnova tions , bu t were no t s o w;.; ~ i n r "4' d I irtl I w •11. n Edi (3 Q..&) G?R(J)s As a k ind of s piritua l hei r t o Toome r , Kaufman is a c omplex , sometimes f ragment ed , but brilli an tly original poet. His wo r k , like t ha t of many of his c ontemporari e s , i s i nf luence1 by Eas t e rn relig iou s thought a nd t he occult . Stylis ticall y , Ya ufman ha s t he ~ s weep~ of Whitman coup l ed with t he bes t techniques o f mode r n poe t ry . lie pa ssionately exper iments with j az z rhy t hms in poet r y a nd ofte n invoke s j a zz t hemes , moods a nd mu s i cians . Han0 f at poets a nd ent hu s i a sts l at er joined or we r e spawned by the vil :.fi -:;,h ts strur;g le1 wh i ch was intensified by several thin3s : Hartin ! Luther King ' s Mo.n t gomery bu s boycott in 19554 56; sit- ins and o t he r dr ama.{_, t i zation r of s egregation a nd discriminatio n ; the cha ll enr; es travel in 1961 (CORE ); t he widening ac t i vitie s March on Washington (1963). - - - - -- - - - ------------- i Jim Crow in SNCC (196¼ 64) a nd t he . Ot her s i gnifi ca nt ac t ivities : n flamed and �inspired the hearts and imagination of fa ac k American yo uth especially. ~ 13 The Huslims ' (tfation of Islanx growth to~ O_g; members by 1963 and t he Congressional action on j(ivil / i ghts _jegislation \ ere t wo seemingl y u~ related but stra tegically i mport a nt events . The growing inf luenc e of ✓ the }~slims sugg ested that many Blacks no longer believed America was ~ h'):1a n at.s. , f\ , 'nHJr< u"l G'\ sincere in its pledges to implement/\.e~n when they became law. r t t • g ...,,. L ~,t~ ot='violente;.J their distrust were the continued/\.~!L Hn s , nightf ridings in the ~ outl1; 0 and hatrassment of Blacl:!, in public places and their homes • .1 ' .,,_,Cl\~ Jt i11't\y ofl~""''"'~ bj lt z $757 ~ mm~t t · Till ' s murder I' uit J/1:!""""Y of« '"""'""'- !H a cks reeled ,,,} under the killings of Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner , Halcolm X, Hed gar 1 Evers, King, the Kennedy brothers, and the three Black Panthers £ t ~:\.t.t4 ~~fi bY police @ § y in a Chicago apartment]: . #ay 1966 , however , hd I ~ lack7'ower signs and slogansAbegeln to replace the "He shall overcomei'\i\ w_ee,...,,'(\fi' / lack and )'hite 7Dgether" exclamations. Young p ack America, NePui:l'f!, Afro ha irdos and African jewelry , attended cultural festivals , back-to-=- A~,·~ c,we ► ConFt~nte; Africa rallies, poetr y r ::,., I - 1n~s, a nd ~ in revolutionary broadsides and tabloids . read Clfll community news published :._::.,; Rhetorical forays by H. Rap Brown and Stoke l y Ca r micha el, young SNCC officers, set off a flurry of state and national l aws a gainst i nciting to r iot and of weapons across state boundaries. . J ?TBA and,, cw -artrl ~ 1,ilt ~ setAf he stage for gun battles between police and the often imagined ,, ,,snipers." - These conflagrations were repeated in scores of cities after Dr . King was as sassinated in 1968. Watts poe t Quincy Troure cap tured the shock and horror, and chronicled the official reaction, in his poem "White -leekend ": �The deployed military troops surrounded the ~fuite Ho use and on t he st eps of the Senate build ing a soldier behind a na chine gun 32,00 in Washington & Chicago 1 , 900 in Baltimore }aryland 76 cities in fla me s on t he landscape and the bearer of peace still lying in Atlanta• •• • Int e last stanza, Troupe ~oted with curdling irony : f, a en tations ! Lamentations ! Lamen t ations ! Worldwide ! Ru t in lew York , on Wall Street the stock n a r ket went up 18 po i nt .... -1 riting , fallout from t he / l a cl·/ evolution reverber ates a round the globe . Black jou r nalist Tho as Johns!'on reports Irish revolutionar ies sinz "We Shall Overcome . " Posters and emblems commer cialize everything J from Af rican hai 1s t yles to the raise d clenched f isti the initial symbol of ' lack unity and defiance . beg innin~ with ~ A ,.vave of } ~a c.: mov ies f c alle1 /::;rloita tiont&, experiment al ~ ul tiJ million~dollar ~f~ Putney Swope (1969) is t hea ter patronage . Black movies retrieved t he crippled movie indust ry fror:1. the brink of disas t e r . leanwhile , the murder, incarceration an~ political hai rassment of / 1ack men and women ma«e rZ:l·ac.~ · · t h cm h croes an d l 1.ero1nes in 1 • / ye t • • a 11 y symb o 1 1.ze . ' con1.IT1un1• tiesM ironic t he torment and of Ame rica (see Samuel Ye tte ' s The Choic e ) . " genocidal s chemes " �-I - Criss} crossed by paradoxes , poli t ical contra<lictions , social revolts -.. and reli~ious . - . ambivalences , t'.1c . /lac ;~ co;,11i1unity is nevertheless ~ene rated by its s i nger s nn ~ pe r :ormc rs . re4 Black popular music !1as not only r eached unpr e cedent ed a ud iences , but unprecedented money-making c apabilities . .I, -~ ,l/ii{~~ 7-J . ~ ,1hythm:: and )'-'.Lues , ~ ~~~"'fflWll!r.Adicd abou t 1965 , ;;ave way to ', ;ioul " ~ "I ' m a Soul ~fan, " Sam an d Da ve announ c e cl in · th e 1 a t e/~' ix - t ies · . . ---- uA. .( The I mp ress i ons told lovers that you " gotta 1ave s oul" and Bobby Hornack reminded listeners .J t ha t the "Woman ' s Gotta Ha v e l.t ",;j\- presunably " Soul." are W>ittJL1devtto, i".11; ~. . J:'1\·::\ o . ,., ~ J ....__,, 1 '-'-' Tilack recording coapanies n , .1'o/own ( Detro 1 t) , ._...,'""''"""'"i:Nioal:iiaali11io-• 0 Hayfield I s soundtrack a lo u 1 ~- -----_ Superfly (1972) sold mo r e t 1an 22 ,-OGG ' O()(r _..,, copie7 and :Iarv J ,-, ~ay ' s W1at ' s Going On (1971) set records ,for album sales. ,. c . tly , however, Stevie Wonder has surpassed them all . Literally dozens of singing groups/ modeled on the q uartets and ensembles of the / ifties~ a r e releasin g a l bums re gularl y . These folk or " s oul " poets have be c ome dv-o.ti-e.. r:io re "conscious " in recent year o/ and many now ~-L1 i!. the i r song s with political nessages and exaltations of j iackness . :-::uch of this new wave came o n t he heels of severe criticism by Ilarak(t,_)who a<lmonish e <l the s inf! e r s for doting on unrequited love. he sAioJ ~ -rl,c,mN ~ ~ \;';\ Too n any)~ r e p reoccupiet'i"witht\ my baby ' s gone , gone\' e; Black: consciousne ss activi t ~, and creativity in i enera3:.,-jnow fl o urish~ . Related involvement includes : .._.d evelopment of j iack acting ensemb l e s; op ening of fre e sc hools and / lack un iver.sities; es t a blis hmen t of J1-a c k j atio nal i s t/ jG1tural commune s ; i n c r ease in the number of / 1ac k books tores a nd African bouti ques ; establish1:1ent of / 1ackJ t udie s pro g r am s o n whit e a n d/ ia c k -----'------ - -- - - - - -- - - /5 Lf - - - -- - ~ ~ �campuses and, in some cases, quota systens for enrolling / lack students; the escalation of / lack <ler.1and~ for "cream o f the crop" jobs such as }¥ announcing and the hosting of variety shows; expansion and creation of new roles for/ lack newspapers, magazines and radio st.:itions; formation of c,i!--.ea. -th e.. ack Congressional caucus • and similar units in.....i:a:=t ano - ,~·\..4M'E: bo<l ltS professional~~•~~~~ and, finally and impo rtantly, new engagement with In<leed, future trips to AfricaJ - Africa and her problems and possibilities. M to the yo ther country" or J oraeland" i-' are <lis cuss ed at all age and social levels. Mu c of this renewed interest is understandable in li ghi of the emergence durin~ the contemporary period of several African nation=states and the increased fraternization among Africans and Afro-Americans. '"::', carionized today by great numbers of z: ■ sn,Je"T~ Clod. P I ____s;l,,t'lack Rn tellectuals , did much to foster this curr ent interest in Africa . expelled from th _ Jation of Islam Shot to death at a and had formed a splinter grou p known.as the nr ~anization of Afro- American Vait y . His Autob iography of Malcolm X (with Ale.~ Haley, 1965), whic:1 (.:is he pre icted) he <lid not . . 1alcolm X, .f;;, to see in Jit hu b.et print, chronicles )1is odvsse . as !!alcolm Li ttl e, hustler " De troit Red. 11 t1 Ha lcolm X, and El-Haj j t1a lik El Shaba zz. 1 i £ ;\lionized b)' (~,:rmichael , IL Rap Brown , Ossie Davis, Dar aka an<l vario us other {l\jolars, activi sts and artists . Black poets , especially, have fo und !'i.:i lcolm (and Coltrane) ...-- . · t1.ess sourc 1 irni bf · · t· . I 11sp1ra·1on c.:in be seen in For :.'alcolr.i: Mf~ s impac t · 1 intlic.:i · · · t ion · ,\ part1a o j) ~,..,, on poe t s Poe111s on t 1e Life anJ Deat h of Ma lcolm X (1967), edited by Dud ley P-andall .:ind Viarga ret G. Burrour;hs . Shabazz;° Robe rt Hayden noted ; ~ In "El-Hajj lalik El �f He X' d his name, be ~me his people ' s anger, I q_ exhortetl ther.1 to vengence for their past; rebuked , admonished them , Their scourger who would sha:ne them, drive t hem from t he lush ice ga r dens of t he ir servitule . First World Fe stival of Negro Arts , held in Dakar , Senegal, in 1966 , Hayden was awarded the Grand Prize fo r Poe try . A maj or even t, t he fest ival was attended by experts , scholars , artists and enthusiasts of ~ / lack / rts whq ga the red for @ days to hear papers and Jiscus sions , view art exhibits) ;;;;;, cultural performances , and give pr elimi na r y dire ction to the Black Arts Hovement. Presiding over t he festival was one of the archite cts (with 1 I - i>)'e$ &de nf r ~ < f Jt I I Senghor,1..,.Senega ~ "'1/1 ct sair~ ~ Damas) ~£ .;::::::::;; a Phi losonhy of ) lack_;fumanism. ~l'*llllli·• ....- •...lilli?lililSiil@@ilii§- 4iDWiEiiiid._2iliiiF■t•Jil . ss.t.. s-■ ?iiEiild•PlliJ1is•l1111-■11111!11!11!!11&•1•-.1• • • · • • - - A rican- ori en t ed publica tions such as Pr~sence Af ric aine and Black Orn heus have renewed t he ir inte r ests in/J.a c k American write rs . magazines (Blac Likewise , ,/1- ack American journals a nd popular Wo rld, Jou rnal of Black Poetry, The Bla ck Scho lar, Essence, Encore , Ebony, Jet , etc .) hav e bezun to publish r.1ore nate rials by and a bout Africans . - The revolution in ~ fil.:ick / rts was signaled by n any events including the Fi rst Conference of ~eg ro 'dr iters in 7·1arch of 1959 . Langs ton Hughes was J an i mportant fi gure there4'"as he wa s .:i t the Daka r ea thering seven yea rs l a t er . The First Ane rican Festiv.:il of t!eg r o Art was held in 1965 an<l t he Second AFNA - - - -- - - - - - ) - - - - - �took place in ~fovenber of 1969 in Buffalo , ; , Y. Interlacing these and ot 1er conferences, sympos ia and conventions) were excit ing developments and expe rit T11ents in lieW York , C1icago , ,Jatts , Phi ladelphia, Atl an ta, Baton Rouge, St . Louis , Cleveland, Det roi t and 'iJash ingt on , . C. Durin" t1ese periods of social turnoil and artis t ic upsur g 7 writers and poet s often al i zned themse ves with ideological positions and regional movements . Consequently , , l a c t / rts communes and regi onal brands of/ c ons ciousness grew concurrently . an<l;(lac·/ationalists lack Splits betveen older r-vil finhts workers were paralleled by splits between older writers and it younger pracw oners of ~ l ac / rt The splits wer e not always clear-cut, however, for many older activists and poets joined the new mood in spirit, thenatic concern and per sonal lifenstyle, while sor.1e of the younger write r s ..., retained the influence of the earlier mood s. Corn _licating things even more t were the variants on t e done.nant themes of each camp . Gwendolyn Brooks , !J 6 ill ; r:.andall , ~:ar za ret Danner , l~a r ~aret \Jal ~er and John Oliver 'illens are amo ng the older ~rouv of writ ers the new nood . Youn~er urite rs whose who vi8orously took u p the banner of '(' wor,·s i(? . f,Le , • /f'ome "tradition" include Henry Dunas (Poe try /or :-~y People , 19 70 and Pl;:iv [bonv Play Ivory, 1974) , Conrad "ent Rivers (The Still Voice of llarlen, 1963 , etc . ) , J ulia Fields (Poems, 19 63) , Al §i_n ~ oun;; (D:i cin" , 1969 , etc . ) , and Jay 1;ri ~h t (T :1C Homecoming , 1972J to name just a fe\ . ~ he crea tive pronise o f this period was dealt a severe blow by t he unti;1.cly dea t hs of ,umas and Rivers in 1963 ) These poe t s are deeply influenced by the noods and preoccupations of the I" period (self-love, racial injustice , violence, war ,t{"l ac · ¢onsc i ousness ::md ;{istory) but they work along tested lines and experiment with i n caref ul .... and thou ~ t-out frames of reference, . Host of the writer s of the per iod ,, �( their styl es and id eolos ies notwiths t and i ng ) lave found themselves engulfed a t one tir.1e o r a nother i n heated debates ov e r '1 ue stions related to t h e _:;r.i..a c k/ esthetic," the relationship of writer to reader, vt.~ 11> I lad,"• white audiences, a nd t he pa r t politics should play in their life and work . this writing , these discussions continu e in most sections of the At lack fo r ld . The flurr y of i deo logical and a e s t hetical debate among the poets (and o t her writers) has of t en been precipitated or attended by c rit ical writings, historica l Jif¥ies , social essays a nd pub lic political statements . Some of t he individua l s asso ciated with i n itiating the plethora of rhetoric on the question of a ~ l a ck aes t he tic (and related issues) are Ron Karenga , Gwend o l yn Brooks , s :aka , ~ ttd«,-Jp r:dua r d Sprigg s, .ill 2 i:t\,{e, ..,.., • •Jt,.ttller (Black World) , Redd i ng , ~ ~lis on, La rry nea l, Ernest ' ' ais e r, ~lel Wat kins, Ron I elburn , P11tlL•,: 11\ l".mda ll, Lerone Bennett , Jr . , ~a t h an Scott, James Emanuel , Ton i Cade- Bambara, John Henrik Clarke , Don L . Lee, Ed Bullinst a nd cultu ral, by/ a nd Stanley Crouch . A number of important stud ies , literar y lack and wh ite wr iter s , a i ded in whetting or prolonging the critical t h ir sts . -rne~t. Some of WIIRAimportant and/or controve r sial wr i t i n gs ' in Africa and the United States (1969) ~ ,lacL r'.xp r ession ( 1969 ) and The Bla c k Aesthetic (19 71)~ Xhe New Africar Culture (1961) and Nee -African Lit e rat ur e : ------- of Blac~- ~fr itin?: (19 68 ) ; J a hn,~ Langston Hughe ~ Blacl:~enius (1971 ) ; O' Daniel , c ~ l ack Poets of the United St a t es : Paul Lawr ence Dunbar to Langston llu~hcs (1 963 , French edition ; 1973 English trans . Douglas) ; p lagner) Befor e the r!ayfl:::. ( 1962) ; Bennett (196 ~ ,~ Shadow a nd,... A-c ~ Ellison, ~Unde r st anc.ling the New Black Poetry (19 73) •, f ttende r son\ f ~ f~ Colloquim on Neg(ro Art : - Fir s t l·!orld- Festival of Ne gro Ar t s, 1966 ( 1968) • - , ( 7··/ ~· �/ I .: Ed itions f r e se11ct! Artie~ The .1 .n;r o i\ov c l in America (1965) Hother is Gold: ._ ~ Bone, Study in West African Literatur e (1971) ~ Ro sco e, The Crisis of the Negro I ntellectual (1967); ative Sonl: v/. Crit ical Study of Twentieth- Century Negro American Aut hors Dynamite Voice s: Black Poets of the 1960 1 s, ~ol . People (1963) , Black Nusic (196 7), Home : Social Essays (1966), an<l f!.a ise Race Ra ys R.a ze (1971); Bara ka, and Give Birth to Brightness (1972)© WilliamsJ 1 numbe r of / lack cri tics , artists, and activists heatedly d e.4.-, nounce whites who research or criticize/ l ack literatur e , saying tha t only t.10se who have lived the ; hack j xpe rience can wri t e about it . Another group holds t ha t whit e s ca n r eport on~ l a ck wr itin;; if t hey a r e sinc ere and sy□pa t hetic. The ulack Arts ~lovenent, as t 1e contempo r a r y pe riod is some t imes cal l ed , t ook place in the sh.:1dows of ~vha t many/ "second Reconst ruc t ion . " -Yerm!d l a c · social cr i tics have ~'"'1-..l\t he ;renc e , muc h of t he wr iting is a r evolt again s t pol i t ical hypo cr isy a nd soc i a l a l i ena t i on . I n the angr iest poe try , autho r s - shower;.f di s dain aml obs cen ities on t he "s ys tem" and whites in general. Re fusin g "integra tion" even if offered, younge r poets derid ef Ame rican values """' and at ti tudes . "L'nlike t he Ha r lem group," Hayden no t ed, "they re jected entry into t he mains tream of Americ an lite r ature a s a desi ra ble goal . " Of course , rJo r e than a few of the older poe ts were wr itin~ in the / ix ties and a re wr iting today . Hany of them , howev er , we re sometimes laid aside by young readers who were unable to separate " poe try " f rom the fi ery dec l ama,i tions of Ca r r.i ichael, Drown an<l i nnume rable locals okesmen a n<l versifiers. Of t en the poets exchanged superficia l indictments , indulged in name-calling a nd, as groups or individuals, began rating each other on their "levels of r7-laclmes /s" even thou gh no criteria existed t hen an<l none exist f today for . ~ ,- �such judg ing . t he ~ f3f a c . A· ts Huch of the dis pute cent ered around the question of who " start ed " If or~New Black Poetry ~ ovement J . While it is true that there ·leading ligp.t_s of the new movements, it is misleading and false to .say tha.t -one geographical region of the country or one group of persons is solely responsible for either the main (or ma jor) writing output or for kicking off any tradition of Blacks writing about themselve • Such a stand would d:ismiss the Afro-American musical· pa.-st, · on the one hand, and distort the historical develop 1 ment of he creative writ·ing and thought; on the other~ Anyway , the - .- question of who started what is not · that significant. During t he sixti e s and intu the seventies , literally hund r eds of/ lack poets star ted writ inG and pu lishing M in tabloids , magazines, broa dside s, anthologies and i n iv "J ua l colle ctions . Also showcasing the n ew poe t rv were the new public a tions: ....... umbr a , Black Di a l ogue , ~ d The Journal ~o~f~H~l~a~c~k~P~o~e~t_r~ y. regions. Si~nificant clu~ters of poe ts developed in ~eographical And t he atmosph~r e ~as enhanc ed by a number of Afr i can thinkers, a rtist s , poe ts and novelists who arrived ~f\_America to t each, lecture, pe r forr.1 and travel. The importance of t his interac tion among Blacks from various pa rts of the globe c:mnot be overemphasiz ed . Black write rs and students now read Afr ican, Hes t India n a nd Afro- Latin writers. l!l1■ 0•a•- 1 �Hughes acr1uainted American audiences with ,\frican literature i n h is ant holo ;::; ies: An African Treasury : Es s ays , Storie s, Poems by Black Af ricans (1960 ) an \... Poems from Dlack Africa (1 96 3) . Whisoers from a Continent: In 1969 , Trinida dian l!ilfred Car tey edit ed he Lite rature of Contem orarv Black Africa . Ma rie Collins compiled Bl ack Poets in French (1972) and Keor Apetse Kgositsile edit ed The Wo r d Is fl ere (1973). Other scholars a nd writers also wrot e critical studies or edited a ntholo gies of African and Caribbean litera tar e . Black writing received a significant boost whe:} in 1971 Senghor and Af ro - Cuban I "' / / poet Nicl olas Guillen were nominated for the Nobel rize for literaturei thus fulfilling James I eldon Johnson ' s 1922 prophecy that the first J lack writer I?, I, I to a c hieve substantia l international fame \muld not come from ~ · Hei ghten ing the feeling of the period was Charles Gordone ' s winning of t lw ~ 1- F'orf.(I ,;m ~1')-:-wrn '[ I _ nn 0 Pul itzer / 'r ize for dr ama (:lo Place to Be Somebody , 1970) . / l a ck writers now pub lishing or l i vin~ in the U. S . are d i ge rian novelist-poe t Achebe, exiled South African poet Kgos i ts ile , :Jigerian poe t- playwrig 1t \lole ,,,,,-- 1 I Soyinka , G 1anaian poe t ,__ Kwesi Brew Sou t h African critic Ezekiel Hphahlele , iger ian poe t- playurir;ht I~ Ia rtini ~ ce'sair~Guianese poe t- scholar ~ Damas . poe t- playwri ght ;111/i The write rs f rat ernize, ext change ideas and compar e s t y l es . I~hahlele , for example , has written critical 6'~nd rf...yt'I studies of / 1ack L\me rican wri ting (Voices in the lfu irlwind , 1972) while~ *I 1\ Brooks has praised African writinr, (I n troduction , Kgositsile ' s Hy Naae is A.TT1e r i c a during the current pe rio d fo r either tempo r ary or perma nen t residenc . illff, ~ Added to /~\piill·-•f•111&1:::;ij~?;~.,...-. activities and - - -- -- -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - WOA he establishment . of changes ~ (i) �J1ack publishing houses (Broadsid e Press, Third 1!orld Press, The Third Press, etc . ) and hundreds of i - . news organs and literary journals . ·- ~~ ~ ~ ~ _/. . _______ ,....... A . ...,,...,~ ..."": ........~-1.11-.....-"""';-a;-tq,N,JI!(,. ....,._.__. G Btenjqg ,1 11 iliiht Ml l&s:e,sic. have also been published . Blues, 8 Bontemps, Anumber of important antho lo gies Some of the more notable o~ c~ Beyond :jne 1962; f Sixes and Sevens, [!reman J 1962; {American Neg ro Poe~ -,- ----------- - - 963; Soon One Horning: .... New t riting by Ane rican !legroes, 1940 pJ..)962, Hill, 1963; fNew Neg ro Poet Q_Hughes ~ 1964; fi<al eidos cope ,I Hayde1:_J 1967; Blac < Voices, E 3 1968; fl! Iack Fir e;) Jones and Neal , ) 1968 ; The New Black Poetry, Major ,{ 1969;LSoulscript, (J ~ dan, 1970f000Y ears of Black Poetr"9 ~ Lomax, ; ,( ew Black Voices, t ~raham~ ( Bl ack Spirits, ~ "-and 1972; The Blac k Poets, Randall, 1971; 1972; \ andc ~oe try of Black America, (Ado: , 1973. In addition to these and oth e r nationally distributed a nt holog ies, man, collections of/ 'lack/ iterature were compiled and published in various re g ions • &El §, A �\ "t ~ :J i h a;:-& J et //,· I}!!./ L '1• !... e ~ ,od t ]q mi.., lft;ome\ o 11\_J r--me ou,ert\nd youn~er nan, l/' 1rh,.e.111 1., '" e 4fi" I t j pj pp · · · (Embryo) , Sterlin~ Pl al ~ , JI ur Own Hear t be.::i t /' Half ; . 95 rs] Rt Good News Ab out ...__., "":...3 ~ •••- -•••-.•-••- ■b 3 Colt rane , Ilis torv is ... 5 §, Lucille Cl ifton (Goo<l Ti1;1es , \ ~ the Carth..S____!, and An Or dina ~v Homa, - 11.------. 5. c<.,t-N~h i...- Ji pJ-g] I -- I E Cd iI Eill p@L±Ul (Dear John, Dear • •~ Cu ey, ..___.., lack II.::ilf Jil:1cke r) , Jayne rou~e ned ,., ..;;a kki Giov anni (n ack Jud g fment, Black Feeling , Blac k ✓ I Though t, Re : Creation) , Reed (¢ a t e chism of I d. neoarnerican David Henderson ( De ~ayor of Har lem ), ~r thur Pfister (Bullets, Beer Cans & Things) , Baraka (Black Ha g ie ), John Ec1'41- s ( Home is Whe r e th e Soul Is), . . _ Bontemps (P e rs onals) , .::iyde, (S elec te d Poems , Wo rds in the �Time ), Lee (Th ink Bl a c k , Dlack Prid'"' ~ ) , ~onia Sanci ez ,/"""'\ (~H~o~m~e~c~o~m~i~nygi ■•••D, Randal l ( Ci t ies Burning anJ }Iore to Remember) , - - - - - - ' L - - -~ - Crouch (Ain ' t No Amb ul ance s for No Nig 8Ahs Tonight) , Hug!y.,.s (The Panthe r and t he Lasr ; -~m ) , Norma.n J-okilln'f.D · At k ins (Heretofore) :,,,Hay 11iller h lli'H s e~, ( Into the Clearing , -- / Aus t in Black (The To rnad o in 1y lfouth) , Tolson (llarlem Ga lle r y) , ~ ":r::m,es (Ivory Tusks), r!a ri Evans (I Am - A , Emanuel (Pan t h e r .Ian), e s ey Bl ack Woman ), Julia Fields ~ I___. Stephany (~loving Deep ), Et e ri dge Knigh t (Poems from Prison), Gwendoly n Brooks (In the fecca, Rio t , Family Picture~ s Dur em (Take No Pri §2uet.,s ). . fictio represent ative o f theA_g r e a ~ c c_ .J 1 ), Roy Hil l (49 Poems, etc .) , Ra y Far from being exhaustive, t his list is mere ly p4r1 od J X ~ ~3 ~ \::Sf/?t :ti:tb@ §]lFT · " also writ e ehildr~n's'•· storie·s (Evans, JGrdan,Clifton)., cs.n ~L~o <U 4t,ti*CJU7.iKTMUpe.1 t<lAtld •L&H)f """'~ w,,.·,t• 111••• eed, ' Young) A. •Cri ti~is, (Neal) . ,lhe li d t g rows and c~ ang es c on _.,.....,...S: . Hany of t h e po~ts t.1twl (. stantly, e spe c ially in view o f the ffitll'iftt unfoldin g of sur rises . it t o say that the con t emporary mood of Jrlack poetry is multi complex . Suf f ice and Th ere a re g ene raliti e s; one is that most of the poets unr e serve d l saturate their wo r l· with obviou ~ lack references and cultural mo ti f s. There is also an an t i-in t elle ct ua l flavo r_; a s many p oets turn t he ir backs on academic or Western f orms . l ite r a r 1~ rtveellet ,-h This ~ a ~eneral disre gard fo r t h e esot e r ic, c~scure and s omet i me s a c t,\ allu sions,,. emp l oyed in mu ch 'rj'--·-- - -. whit e poetry . "'f'l ~_;rSL tt."' 1 t The r e a r e e x cep tions, of cours e,;{- notably inAspecialf\.symbo lism o f Mus l i. ,1 po~ts (Harvin X, As kia Tour:!, Bar.:ika , Sonia Sanchez , and other s) . These excep t ions can als o be s een in works of poe ts who e xplore Af rican ncestor / u lts, Voodoo , mystic is1:1 a nd Af ric a n langua r:; es Q t eed , K. Curtis Ly l e , wi ~ Tou r / , Kau f mnn) •.:w.et ~ !!!:.!' Dumas, Noman Jordan , Sun Ra , Gene rally , t h ough , / 1ack poe ts are I �ta-"" allusions , i mages and s ymb ols i n t he mo r e c oncr e t e cultural ifs , a s indic a t ed in a li ne f r om c e ':,• fPSP 1 j Si if m .... ~ ] j ■ ti 2 11 '·'/ Redmo n d I s " Tune for a Teena~e spiced as po t-liq uo r . " --:,.....,...n:. TOTE,1S e i - r 1, Horning : ,, Threshl old of t e lrew Black Poe try ._§ ' Hy Blackness i s t he beauty of t h i s land . '-- . I -fj-- ?)Wrigh t called -r/,eM~ ~ " tJ., c:1..,...lbv- {p._r,,. .tiz_ -0 c,L.. Bl a c k s " Am e ri ca 's me t apho i;" and La nc e Jeffers re f erred to~ 11 t he beaut y of t h is land . 11 "1f\Q. were taken well in advance of . Lanc e Je ffe rs II -1 B oth · ~ 1 Q :S-- II f s t ances -....,' .. lacyride 11 poetry of the sixties and seventies . 1argaret Walker's discussion of her playmates in the Alabama "dust" (1 937) is \ not sel f -d epr ecating ; and Gwendolyn Brooks ' ~ po rtrait~fatin Legs Smit h (19 4 5) is fa r from being unhappy. These are only fou r r andomly sel e c ted poe t{{ affidavits of Blacks viewing themselves "po 3itively" before the advent of the )l'ew) Ha« J'oe try ~ We could , of cou r s e ~ t he poetry of Phi ll is Whea t l e y t hrou gh ,~ :~ \e:::ed s of examples1 fro m Atiiiil Hu ghe s . But the p oin t, a lr eady made , i s s i mply that o ne is s eriou sly r emis s in loo k ing a t r e cent/ l a c k p oetry wit h ou t co n s i de rin g its h istory . 1he poets who wrot e and publishe d b etween 1 94 5 a nd 1965 , fo r example , d i d not wo r k i n s ea l e d chambers of tunneled vision . o f c on c e r n , evolved .F f Cm~vhat h a d ~..-te Ca c h g r ou p , e ac h cluster been written or said b efore . Some of thes e p oet s were heavily i nfluenced by whi t e wri te rs, t e ache rs~ a nd cr itic s . However , .:,_; t h e best of t hem a ppl i e d their knowled ge and t ools to t he servic e o f t h e J lack li te r a r y tr a di t ion. Oth e rs we r e unde r t h e dire ct tut elage o f Slack s (Pau l "'•ts w~u,,, Vesey s t udied with .-,I\ Johns on , Ro,,_T - J oyc e Ye lde ll with~ Iayden) a nd b ecame part �of a continuing line of / 1ac' tau ght Arthur P fist er ) . A?t::.:JS111i thour,ht and writin g (Ves ey in turn Wha tever t heir make-up+ or their mission, t he poets as a g roup show g rea t facility wit h languar;e , dep t ,1 o f insi ght and passionate concern f f or their coll ec tiv e a nd individual hu r ts l - and a s humans . as Blacks .._y ~ itlt~"""' The wor~ of thes ~ poets , and ths-t of the ir older pen- fellows , can be found in several antholo g ies : ...... Poetry of the Negro (19 49 , 19 70); the bil i ngual Ik zag hoe Zwart I k Was (I Saw How Black I Wa s , 195 8 ) ; Beyond the tlues (196 2) ; American Neg ro Poetry (1963); Burning Spear (1963); Sixes and Sevens (196 3 ) ; I Neg r o Vers e (196 4 ) ; .'ew Neg r o Poets: / l:SA ( 1 96 4 , 1966); Poets o f Today (1 964); Jfe the bilingual I !<:: Ben ~:ie m-re ,Ie g;er (I Am t he :Jew ::eg ro, 1965) ; and Kaleido j ~ q--, s c ope ( 196 7). Bont emp s a nd Hu ghe s e d it ed Poe trv o f t he Ne 0 r o in 19 4 9,l first majo r co lle ct io n s ' n e e Cul len ' s Car-oJ.in g ~us: , ft J 1e was r ev i s ed by Mow Ile.ck ~was .I pick the best fror.1 the pas t as well as the present -~tt..W 1, •..,/, ~ ' - ~ S were published in I olLm<l and En gla~f and{ ed f ed by nosey Pool , wi~h \?ey•cl~ t he assistance of Pa ul Bremen . "' vaaft~ oF ft;J7/i;tki t1, ~ Q.f\Q , Dr. Po ol (19 O5J . 73) , a lffl-H~~.._ came acros s ,• .,/ I\ Cu llen when she was p reparin ~ a paper on ,\rier ican poe t ry in 1925 . This disL /, covery l ed t o a llfe - long interest in / lack culture a nd po etry . During 1959ft 6O she tour ed th e United Stat es on a Fulbr i ght travel g r ant , spending several months visiting and lecturing ac @ j lack colleg es and uni versities . work in / lac k poetry h a s drawn mixed reactions fro 11 c autious/ and critics . J;!ei; I 7 ix l ack wr iters But her importance in helping to br ing a tt en tio n to filac k poets , <ff) �despite c ri es o f " e x p l o it a t ion ," is und eniah l e . Ev en more controv ers i al is nr er:ien, who a pp ears t o fancy himse l f a s n n Eng l i sh Jea n- Paul Sa rt:~ ; l e o r i g ina t ed t h e lleritar,e Ser i esM " d evoted e ntir e l y to t he wor ks o f Af r o - Ameri c a n au t hors " /4with IIa yd e n ' s A Ballad of Ren cmb r a nce in 1 963 . Sinc e t ha t tira 7 Br emen , wh o e d it e d Si xes and Sev e ns and You uetter Be li e ve I t : ~ Bl a c k Verse in Eng li s h (197 3 ), ha s re lea s ed mo r e tha n @ of Afro - Americ a n p oetry . vo l ume s r..anda l l ' s Broadside Pr e ss serv:We s as the Amer ic an V d istribut or of the s l i m book~ wh ich have included the ae st he t ical and hi stor ical ra n ge of / l a ck po e t r y : .:::::__,; Horne (IIavers traw , 1 96 3) , no nt emps , Ri v e rs (The St ill Voice o f Har lem, 1968 ; Th e Hri ght Poeras, 1972 ), e, Evans the ~fo sic? J 19 68 bu t wi t hdram " at t h e a ut h or ' s r e q ues t"), (\-:here is a ll ~!!!!£J ALdn s (Heretofore, 1968), Llo yd Addison (The Au ra & the Umbra, 1970), ~ud r e La r de (Cables to Ra ~e, 1970), @Y Rand2. ll, (Love You , 1970), R!!S!£D J Reed, whom Bre!llen calls "the h est Bl a c ~~ poet .;riting today" ,~ e c i sm of : neo ame rican hoodoo church, 197:J), Ja!'.1.es W. Th on pson (First fire: PoeMs 1957,¢:1960, 1970), ,, Jods o n, Harolc.l Ca rrin ;': to n (Drive Suite, 1972), Clarenc e . !ajor (Private Line, C, 19 71 ) , t he " first no n - .AI:le r i c an c ont r ib u to r ' '..!..Mukh tarr Nu st a pha (Thorn s and 1"\ T 1istle s, 1 971) , Du r e m (Tal:e :-Jo Pri s one r s, 19 71) , and Hny den (The ,a g ht - Bl oomi n s Ce r e us, 19 72) . Br emen no t es tha t b o t h Har i Evans and Ra ymo nd Pa tterson orde r ed t h e i r boo k s withd r awn be cau se t ~1ey " we r e s u sp ic ious of the con t r a ct t e rms . " In addit i on t o suc :1 " sus n i cion , " fe lt a l so by o t h e r J lack p oet s , t he r e i s ~r ea t r e s en t ment of u r emen ' s f as t- d r a w cr i tical eva luat ions of the po e t r y i which -li b~o"'der Conc.e~n.s a r e o fte n cau stic , r idi cu l ous _ ..,_ a nd na r row, and r e fl ec t a l a c k oF,\U . .__,,c ;-- ----- 7 2 : He calls Dur em , fo r e x amp l e, o ne o f t h e f irs t J '1a c k " I s s tat emen t a bout Re ed, c omin~ as it di d in 19 70 , d i es v iolenc e t o ---- the autho r a nd the cri t i c a l a t ~ osphere in which p ack poe t s g rapple Dumas wa s bo r n i n th e " incredib l y na med t ot1n" of Swee t �Home , Arkansas . ?:eve r t.1eless (alas!), one wo nders where these.J31.acl~ poe ts j ';.~ 'l1~~ess. --'I 15g ~diseases" "fiC as Breuen di<l not e:dst . ~ Xegro Verse , edited by Anselr 1:o llo, has no introduction or for . rd , · · have gotten publis 1ed if such 't butAdoes include a dozen blues and/ ospel song, poems . fJNT"6 New Neg ro Po ets was ·,ntheiltLe '{1l"OG~~ edited by Hughes wi th a For• rd by Gwendoly~. Use of the word "new" A.exemplif i e s the kind of spirit that was in ascension a t t he tine . .?fe:~se a. r'd Gwendc,lyn cW,'A Broo ks & &2 is also her usual/\.definitive se l f : to be t;egroes fA t the present t ir.1e , poets who happen also (£) are twd.ce-tried. They hav e to write poetry , and they have to remember tha t t hey are Negroes . Of t en t hey wish t hat t hey could solve the Negro question once and f or all , and go on from such success to the composition of textured sonne t s or bi ant villanelles about the trans; ience of a raindrop , or t he gold-stuff of the sun . They are likely to find sign~ f icances in those subjects not instantly obvious to their fairer fellows . The raindrop may seem to them to rep r esent racial tea rs~ and t hose might seem, indeed , other than t ransient. a. Jl]1e golden sun mi ght remind them t hjf they are burning . There is an attitude in this statement that the Gwendolyn Ilrooks of 1968 will reject: - "poets i ho happ en also to be 1egroes . " Eut she refl ects Cullen in the " dar k tower" nnd his ruminatins on t he "curious t hing " of the f 1ack poe t. ..s She also presages the twistings and t urnings in Jayne Cortez 'I " Festivals & Funerals. 11 ~, in introducing the " New r;e~ro Poe ts," she informs the reade) ~ '~1ere a re some of t he pr evailing s-t ars of an early tomorrow . " Ha lter Lowenfel s'ff decision to include "20 Negroes" in Poets of Today ....:.,/ wa s spurred in part by 1is recoinition (along wit h Shapiro) that " most gen e ral �ant hologies of Amer i can poetry exclude rlegroes . " Lowenfels shared an award with E .f. An au t ho r ity on Whitman, Cummings in the thirties+ ;i nd has he l ped a number of/ l a ck poe t s make it into print : .._Dumas , Tr oupe , Pa tte r son , Redmond , Car ringt on , .1ajor, Reed , Ha r per , Hayden , a nd many others . Lowenf el s ' was t he f irst new whit e- edited ant ho logy t o i nclude such a of Blacks . There were @ poets i n a ll. One of t he most i mpor t ant anthologies is Burn i ng Sp ea r which contains t he work of the Howar d f oe t s : e~".. Walter DeLe~all (1 936t Govan(_< v ) ,;F-ffe r s (lq/qif Qg , Percy Johnston (1 93 l LeRoy Stone (193~f )I ) , Al Fraser ) , Na tha ~ J) , 6 -~ Oswald Ri cha r d s ~ ~ and J os e ph White ., Durni ng Spear , subti tl~fe_, Ant hology of Afro- Saxon Poetry , was an out gr owth of the Dase i n Litera r y ec;To.bl..,'siieJ .✓ Society , .cl--.::.:.::}• at llowar u Unive r sity , whi ch 1(1 j i1 1 1 Ill Da sein : --;L "' ,n Quart er ly Journa l of the Arts Al9 61• ~ Johns t on , i t s founder , served a s publishe5 while DeLegall was edi t or . Their connec tion with the older group of poets a nd scho lar s is ev iJ~n c in the advisory boa r d ~ A. Brown , Arthur P . Davis , Ov:en Dodson and Eu~ene C. Hol raes . ~ J effer s , St one and White \Ne.r-e.. )(• !\contribu ting edito r s . : Sterlin; Fraser, Govan , Po e t s in t he i na ugur a .:. issue of Da sein , whi ch doub l ed as a memoria l to Richar d Wri::;ht , were Delores Kendric k , Clyd e IL Taylor , J effe rs, Will ian Jackson, Ve rnon A. Bu tler, Rober t Sl au ~ht er , Laur a A. Wa t·ins, Govan , Fr aser , De l or es F . Henr y , R. Orland o Jackson , DeLega l l , Johnston and St one . Ther e i s no sin~l e uni fy i ng t hr ead r unni ng through e ither Das ein or Burning Spea r but/ 1 l a ck influences and subjects are clearly imbe*d . Burnins Spear, fo r examp l e , is published by J up it e r Hamm0~ Pr ess, another connection- [ M in namei to t he tradition of/ lack poe try . I n a back- cov er no t e, t he e i gh t contributor s are ca lled "a new breed of young poets who are to Ame r ican poetry wha t Cha rlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Thelonious Honk a nd . lile s Dgv is - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - -- - -- - - -- - - - - �are to American jazz ." Afte r t hi s important analogy , the s t a t eraen t cont i nues : fT hese e i ght Afro- Saxon poet s are not members of a l i t e r a r y movement i n t he trad itional sens e of the wor<l , becaus e t hey do no t hav e i n common any mon is t vi ew a bout creativity or aesthe tics. Col l ective l y , however , t hey a r e i nd iff e r ent to most critics and reviewersMl.. since criti c ism in Al:ierica i s . co{ L.:rolled and written in the main . by Euro- Americans . ( fi il ti 1 IJi:? •7-·-••t•s• IFS?? Poems by DeLega ll , Jef fer s, Johnston and Stone a l s o a ppear i n Beyond t he Bl ues .'1n d.. and in numerous " little" magaz i nes . -- ~A.all ~ t he poets participa t ed in rea ding- lectu r e pr o~r ams lead ing up to t he wi der inter e st f in poe t ry in the V l ater six t ie s and s ev entie s . DeLega l l (Philadel phi a ) 1 a mathema t i cian and electronic da t a;;::p r ocessing s pecialist k ~blished in many ant hologies and ~y quar t erlies, a nd e I\ read h is poetry a nd lectured a t va rious ea stern an<l southe rn col l eges . Fr ase r (Charleston ) i s a pol i tica l scient_ 5.,.,itlt a specia liza.-E-'t,-e,R- in Af ri can/ f f a i r s . Along wi t h DeLe ga ll , Stone, Gova n, Johnston and Richards , he ha s been r e corded r e adin~ his poe try at the Libra r y of Congress. Frase1 cultivated a coffee- shop a ud i enc e fo r his r ead i ngs and )~ I\ a ppeare d before co l l ege gro up s . He i s a philosopher- mathematician . One of t he older members of the gr oup , J effe r s (San Francisco ) i s cr ed i ted wi th having " i nfl uenc e " on the Howard / oets . He has taught Eng lish and writing at ha lf a dozen Amer ican co l l e ges and unive rsit i es. His fi rst volume of Wa. poetry was Ny Blac kness is the Beaut y of This Land (19 70~ and~sec ond , ~en I '-4nA 6....,119Ii'i Know the Powe r of ?-Iy Bl a ck Hand, 1111••18'/\out in 1975. Broads ide Pr ess . ~ - -- - - -- Both a r e published by- Jeffe r s has al s o written nove l s , short stories and criticism. - - -- -- - - - - - - �Johnston (Ne w York) currently t eaches at a college in New Jersey and with - - - . . I // Stone "co-a uthored the revolutionary verse pamphlet Continental Streamlets . 5 Also o. playwright, J ohnston published a pamphlet of his poetry, Concerto for Girl and Convertibl e in 1960~ and was considered the leader of the Howard / oets . 1 White is a native Philadelphian whose wo rk appeared in Liberator , Poets of Today, and other places . He is a technician for FAA and has uritten short as well as successful pr_l'~e+~ As a group, the Howard / oe{ ~ ~resent one of the toughest intellectual in contemporary / lack poetry . Haybe the fact of their having such interests, ba ckgrounds, a nd training aided in their vitality, virtuosity and power. To be s ur e , t hes e ar e " conscious" poets; bu!: l.1voiding slogans and sent i ment al he ro-wors hip~ t hey present pr ecis e analys e s and int e r pr e tations of thei r world . .!ost of t hem gr ew up in t he Je- op e r a and s o t heir s ubjects quite natur ally include Hiles Davis, Le st er Yo ung , Charl e s " Yardbird" Parker , Cliffo r d Brown, Sonny Rol lins, Thelonious Honk , and other makers and contr ' butors i1'f·t hat 't!-e struggle ~ . per iod . !!:" ,\if11 ,a,(oFtl'\C.el"r\F f:'ol" . . I.· . I ,.1.e"!, _1v1l J{ights and ~ 1 j lack merges with ~ Arwareness of the " bomb ," middle:: class pretensions, history, mythology , r eligion, and the various trends in poetry: ,_,modernity, / eat poetry, jazz·• • - . and folk l yrics.tlneLegall celebrates t he / lack pres ence (" 1y Browns kin Business") and satirizes a pretentious Howard coed ('\,equiem f or / Howard Lady") who is "cultured " and performs every social ameni t y pe rfectl , . She wears "Hi gh-heeled t ennis shoes ' 1; but he hopes , near the poem 's end, that the presid ent of The Unive rsal Institute of Eugenic s will send a q, New sp e cies of female who will be r obed in clothes of "sincerity" and who can be called "A Woman ." - - - - - -- - -- - -- - -- - - -- - - - -- -- 1 �In " Psalm f or So nny Rollins" he announcef t1at he i s Absorbed i nt o the womb of t he s ound . I am in the sound \ The sound is in me . \ram t he sound. Rollins, the Harlen pied pi~e~, will l e ad his list.en, to "truth," "Zen," r~ - "'-Y,SJ " Poe try ," a nd " God . " t f ter "The Bl a st" (nuclear bomb-± g;.,/4the re will be ... no I, no world , no you. /) also wr i tes convincin3l y as in " The Lynching": I f He was soaked i n oil and the match t hrown . 1:e scr e aned, he cried , he moaned, he crackled in his f i e r y i nhuman danc e . Gavan's interests span the turbulence in "Hungary," spac e explorn t ion ("The ,\ngr y Skies _\r e Call i ng"), and "Prayer_;" wherein he asks "Chris t " f or a new dawn's light! Jeff ers is a livin~ example of the ~ wri t er . 11 hel pless plight of many a j,1ack t)me..-.ic« n \ltl1o ugh he had been writing for s eve ral decades, h i s work was whit e'~lis t ed by anthologis ts a nd his poetry did not appear in book form until the sev ent ies . "Hy Blackness i s the Deaut y of this Land" s t ands as -:. ::: a rebu ff t o t hose who s a y ~ l a ck!,. po: try was("invcnted" ~ecentlyJ Jeffers ' f poem, writt en in t he fift i es, is at once defiant --1 proud ~v-bvle.nT : )- (V ;ry bla ckne s s i s t he beauty of t h is land, my blackness, tender and s t rong , wounded and wis The narrator , after t he fashion of Margaret Walker, chronicles the hur ts, t he happines ses , a nd t he hungers of Blacks . These he sta nds against his �"whiteness" and t h e perversions of lar ger America. " Black Soul of t he La nd" mines the same vein: ..., rich reliance on t he well-d e ep streng t h of t h0 past. ack The "old black man" in Georgia is "leathered, lean, a nd strong ." And these are secrets that "cracke rs could not kill": SJ a secret spine unbent wit hin a spine , a secret source of steel , a secret sturdy rugged love, a secret crouchin~ hate , a secret knife uithin his hand , a secre t bullet in his eye . The poe t asks t e old man to pass on his source of strength so that he , and h i s fe l lows, wi ll be able to "turn black" the soul of the nation 1 ? and America shall cease to be its name. J ef fer s ga t her s up a fu r y of love , anguish and commitment in other @Ills "Her Black and African Face I Love , " "The Han wi t h _.< "ll egro Fre •dom Rider," " Ile r :)ar k Body I Clust r, 11 Fur nace in His ..., "_ nlack Han Day, " and "Prophecy . " Johnston echoes Jeffers, though in a different voice and style, in many ~ rilll,h\l of his poens . But Johnston ' s/\.conce rn is with / lack music and musicians. " To Paul Robeson, Opus No . ~" celeb rates t he r.mltiJ}acetecl talents of t he man whose song "stood Dr ooklyn on its fee t. " " In .[emoriam : Prez" is a ma gni fi cen t t ribute to the/ r esident of jazz : ....,Lester Yo un;whose music cot tinue s to " ignite the heart ." n "Fitchett ' s Basement Blues , Opu wonde r s why everytime ~ I want Coltrane or Sonny all I ge t is l! rubed-0 ... " ohns t on �" Dewey Square," with its ::feat" repe rtoire and interes ts in contemporary everyman, is a poetic summary of the collective history of Johnston ' s genera tion . \ords for " unki nking hair ," recollections of radio shows, / reminders of,,..r(elief and HPA , ancl Duke I:llington, all leave Johnston with the knowledge that nothing V Has changed but my postal zone . In other pieceo/ he surveys the current and past/ lack musical scene : '" Round ' Dout .- idni3ht , Opus 17 ," "Variation on a Theme by Johnston, " and " To Bobby Timmons." c//. "Black J s Hy Rewarcf Richards says , no tin~ -ttrcrt Sorr ow came , and I left the wor l de , • . J Anf experimentalist, his " o }1o t Forget to Pemember" includes a " prelude" -.:..,/ and an " interlude . " Like the ot er poets, he writes primarily i ~ (almost no rhyme} and int. e foreGoing poe ,co~sq.ni l'I r..e/\Eepeat~ II e verse petal falls . " The Howa~d/octs all touch grief and an~uish, as does Richards in " God Bless This Chi d and Ot ..er C il ren\· • • "?.equiem . " ~ 9Pfll' es ,,,-- I s_ ntax and vocabulary, it '-' sely - re senblf\_-=e ~:p:rn:iaJJy t.~ t he beats ancl At kins·. Wo rds and p rases i e "matron ic diva ," "sepiacenic mar t yr," " alburnen 'c ha-1k, " "womb-::-,rize," and "b ack ae~ is" convey the mys tic al and eerie sense i pliea_J/' t he repet ition of "sleep " and graphy of the poem':{f-Also experimental and or i g inal tJ! innovative t 1 iijf.Yone. llis study of " Flamenco Ske tches " is separated into five part s : and bill. ouvert, seliM, i'ew Yo r k is "red in weeping " and Chicago is "Illac ,:=· =--/ draped" as Niles utters in "nutes . " ~ ~ The musi c captures the Dissonant no·stalGia of one k iss of a Spanish lady as it weaves in and ou t of trans continental exper iences .ttt>J~~ and locatiot ; . r~ avis I ii' use - and knowledge of wo rld musi & ii 11@ ,•oifiirl Finally , �the 1:1usic i s .:i ske u to Comment on a cloud of oriental ninths comment! In " ?-;otes from the Cubicle o f / %isgruntled Jazzman" Stone becomes a ve r bal . ma es t r9 ripping in " changes ,'' rattling up " thirteenths , " stormin~ the "m_inor . t ones " - '- a 11 " wit1 · l impuni · ·t y. " mode ," and whi ppin~ up " passing M ~s f Soul" repeats " <lown" as th~ sorio/ drops into " dep t hs ," " the abyss , " and t he " infinit~" ~-: here black- eyed peas & greens are stored .... po i gnant reve lation is raade in the e nd : r' I r a ise my d mm f ~ \ bent k i nl~y h ead t o charlie ___,,, t---&shou t I ' n blac k . I ' n bl ack I ' N · rom Look § a c k . ~ J & ~ / · e t hink imme <l ia t e l y o i:/\ titles Hoke T, in<. Blac , (Lee ) a nd " Say It LoudM I ' m Black and I 1 '"1 r>ro 1d 11 (J;:u:ies Drown) even thou:,h this poem preceded Liem by several years 'f\. t o say not1in~ of Josep1 Cotter , Jr. ' s " Is ~ t Because I ' m 1 Bl ck ! " But 1., .ite c a n a lso <lo lig ht and touching · things1 as in " Picni c " and '--' ~ s DoneJ ' which places "music in the air" a s he prepares for bed and " Day h is " woman" sets her hai r. the r an~c of these poets . His i r oni c, s a tiri ca l "Inq uis itive " d is p l ays The narra t or wkncle r s where " Gods " and " buddhas " h i de if the earth and sky are both vi s ib l e to man . ~ -- - -- - - - - -- - -- - - - - - �0,011{" Little c rit i cal a t tention has b een niven the , Howard(~ Wt'>;·hh~ ft c the other poets .v44Wl . up ; weU~Known ,. Anders on (1 9 38 • 1 / , ), Julian Bond (1940~ 6' ' ) ) , }1argar et Dann~ .i4 1 Naol"li Mad geL ~ James Randall (193 8J / ) ....:...:.:,.._ Durcm, !lari ) , Gordon Heat '? ~;lOp) ~ mcs C. Ho rri f ) , Peter T. Ro ge s Horne, Ted 1, V O' Higgins, / atterson, John Sherman Seo tj Car cl I James H. Thompson (1935~ Simmo , I , . ) , Vesey, Sar ah Wright (1929,:7 ), Robe rt Earl Fit zgerald (1935 ~ Joyce Yeldell ·(194 !W L,1l,~"" ) , Lula Lowe '..'eeclen (1913,½ Fernton (l'J 32/V Lero ne ten:-ie tt, Jr . (192 8- ) ' ), Calvin e.c..-i.~c✓ ) , ~ loria C . Odeh t [osc .,j'. ft\, GA.tis; ) ,ti:!..•me5 Emanuel (192 ¼ ), Alfred Duckett (1 9laj- Ca r l l!ol:-:ian ( 919J ' " Ioria Davis, Evans, . ficki Gr ant, Julia Fi e lds (1938~ ) , .1 arles ), Le slie H. Collins (1914- John Henrik Clarke (19151 Joans (192 8 1 ,. uut _they a r e leg i on, Johnson Acke r son, ), Eugene Redmond (1937 i Cuestas (1944,7 ~ pet,IOd u;; durin ~ t t1 1.s ,._~. including • ~as well as \Jf'l~dv,,'1L1a.._ names : or any of ) , Sarah Webster r..:ib io (1923£ ), ) , Eo:•t 1 Fuller (1927,j ) , Carl Ga r dener (1CJ3 1fo) Zac1~ Gilbe rt_ (192.Ji :Ii{., ), Fr ank ·crby (191 G/4 ------) San Cornish (1938- ), ~;anlf · 1 son , J r . :. 1. ) , E·r:-ies t J . rr P • \'auryb 'nn (1 °291 J a -e~ •.• 0 ✓ N Alba (191511! '68) , Fr ank Lontlon ), Catherine Car t er ) , :-1ar y Carter Smith (192 (lO?Q ,_ ;;I ), Robert J . Abrams (1924i ) , i:i lliam Browne (1930;- ), Yvonne Gr e ~ory / . Br own (1927J~62 ), I sab ella :iar.:.a Br own (1917,6 ( 1917,:; "' . ) , Roy Pauli •. ir ray (1910 ~ ), l!e r beri Cla r k Johnso n (1911..! ), Oliver La Crone (1915/4 La time r ( 1927! (1919;1 , ) , Oss i e Davis (1 922 ), Roscoe Lee ), Oliver Pi tcher (1 923~ ) ·fJ ) , r o,ne , I Ishmael Re e<l (1 930N (1 942~ ) ), Don Johnson (19 42~ Mance 1.lilliar.i Tom Den t LeRoi Jones (1934 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - 1 -- - , �Ed Robe ..!:on1 .:lorgan Brooks , Solar.ion Edwar ds (1932tJ Gorge Lo e ) ,J'Vilma Howar: Htlt-t Leroi 13 bs I \llen I ) , Lloyd Addison (1 93 I Polite (1932t ) ,~ ourwood Coll ins (193 7 1 ) , Bobb Hamilton, ~!ay Hille , 1 Stanlcy Horr is , J r . (1944 fi d nA~L>91es '-- ~ i s -non- ~xhaus ti ve lis t was o f t en int ermingled with early poets (as e ~ far ba ck as Phf llis Wheat l ey ).,.-. tH der one s (Johnson , McKay , Dunbar) r '-' 1/~1 ~ and spiced wi t h a good offeri ng of pos t- Rena i ssance poets (Walker , Broo ks , ~ '\ ao,, Tolson , Hayden) . , tame s ~ Ful ler, Bennet t , J r. , Holman , Yer by , Davis , and Clarke fall in t he ca t egory of ~!a;E;a~" poe ts-Lmost of whom under took M full-time dut ies as novelist s , ed i tors , lawye rs or t eache r s . Ot her impor tant movements para l l el· t o this phase were t he emer gence of lit era r y ma gazines ~ (Free Lance , Phvl on • ~ ), es pecia lly on } l ac k c ollege campu ses ; / l a ck "---" newspapers ' r enewed intere st i n versv esla:liC,sl..,,n..ef\1[ of poets\ i n resi dence ~ CCBliliill•llllflJP•®"'Aslt! a t sou t he r n.)1-ack colleges ; the f l owering o f regi ona l "movement s " or writing collectivesM such as those i n New York ' s Greenwich Village (Y* en , ~ . etc . ), Cleve l a ndf' s Ka r amu House a nd ~D:ef I:aoce JI (ca s pe r Leroy Jordan , ~ Atkins) , Howar d ' s DaseinJ rmip , the De tro i t poe ts , a nd Geor gia Douglas!, Johns on's home- based workshops _. - - . . _ _ in ifas hingt on , D. C..1 ~;'o t ✓ eiclvs1~~l+' A~ vall ~ t hese devel opmen t s occu rred """" among j 1ack poets , however, l\t nere also were r a ci a lly mixed writing communes and edi to rial staf f s . / J ul ia Fields , A,i.,e,1N" for examp l e , was in r esidence at t he Bread Loaf h r i te r s Confe r ence inl\I:n:;l and and studied for a while i n Scotl and . Redmond, who won ·writing awa r ds and publ ished in l it tle magaz i nes be t ween 1960 a nd 196 5, worked with t he st affs of the Three Penny Broadside (Southe r n Illinois Univ ersity) and Fr ee Lanc e (Washington Univers i ty) . Ot her poets and thei r outl et s were Dumas (Tra ce , ~J Jones An tho l ogist ), Patte rson k (Fl oa ting Bear ,r~ n _ gen) , Gloria C. Oden (Ur banit e , The Poe try Di gest , The Ha l f ,loon), Rivers (Kenyon Review , Antioch Review , ~ evelopment of:;(~~fi ening audienc e s J :27 1 was a c entral oc...im i.n mos t of these activitie59 For example , on June 16, 1957 , poets Calvin He rnton • d R,:ymond Patterson read t o gethe r at I 41:..:I' . : ' . - - - - - - - - - - - _ _ _ ______ _ _ _ _-.::.:, ..___,:__ .:___ - �i Ohio Po e tr :t in (Kulchur , Met r onome, Umb r a ), Hance Williams / (Blue and Gold), and Au re Lorde (Venture ). largaret Da nner published a AS (e1 1,.\ )l'A$ series of poems in Poetry ma gazine illr~l ~5 2:J and i n 1956 became an assistant editor . Of thes e pa r a llel move ents a nd deve lopnents , one ot he r de served special notice . Cl Though not on{\ pa r wi th the Howard / oets, the Umbra W> rkshop pa r t · cipants a ided i n t he production and <l i s tribution of) lack poe try in the early s i xtie s. Cent ered in New York ' s Greenwich Villa ~e, t he Umbra poets we r e fo unded by Tom Dent (New Henderson (New Yo r k) . rleans), Calvin Hernton (Cha ttanooga) and David The workshop , which also i nvolve<l a r tists and fiction wr i t e r s , pub lished t he fi r st issue of it s u~br a quar t erly in 1963. Other issues came out in 196.'.. , 196 7p 68 (an antholo:::y) , 197 0/4 71 (tabloid a nt hol ogy ) ,, i ssue) . and 1974# 75 ~ who now Dent first served as ed ito) and 11ender son , 1i1i!j~the __publica _ t ion froo Ber l·eley , attracted to t he U.:1bra uorkshop were - took over i:1. 1967 . Other s Reed , Rolland Snellinr,s (now l~orman Pritcha r d , singer Len Chandler, dancer Asaman Byron , t he Pa t ter son bro t hers (Char l es and Hil l i am ), paint e r s Ger ald J a cks on a ni Joe Over s tree t, Lennox Raphael , Dumas, James Thompson , J ulian Bond , Sun~R 1 Durem, Steve Cannon, and Joe Johnson . ..._., damaged by two event s . , The pr omise of the Umbra group was One was a failure t o pr inf an in t e r v iew (conduc t ed by Raphael an<l o t hers) with Ralph El l i son. The second, r esulting in a s e rious -=: ttifl l- split among members, was a controversia l anti-l'ennedy poem~by Durern . President rennedy ha d just been a ssassina ted when t he Durem pi e ce ~as approved by the edit ors . tas t e . Her nt on, Dent and Hende rso n decided I 1---;-==r=== l~ a s . i n bad Other s , acco r din~ to Hender son , want ed t he poem printed a nd subs equently w.:is treasurer , thr ea t en i ng h i m wi t h bodil y harm , " _.,. 316 ~ast 6th Street in New York Git. A fa vfi\g):i. te Hew York gathering place for readings was the Market Pl a ce Gal lery~2305 ~eventh Aven~e t where Ro s coe Lee Browne was featured in the late fiftie S(;, In July and ~~ Augus ~ ~f 1960 a numb ~?? .,of )'lack poets ·'r'-'€Lt.d . r. ·. -✓there: Lloyd _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _s_o_n !_ _ ~ ~ .!'~ _J ~ _!lbrams,.Al.l!t,;>'wne, Phil Petrie, Allen Polite , Sarah , · �The inci-.:en t is viewed a s one of the near- fatal bows to the Umbra s roup . Later Snellings, t he Patt rsons, and others wen t /ptown to work with _ , s Jones ' ' newly fon1ed Dlack Arts Rep ertory and Schoo l . 9- 1 T ,e work of Umbra contributo ~ ngesjfro,., the occasional and humorou_:'.;) ~ Bond to the serious a F Durem . 1 and T:1ompson1 also appea r~ i n t he early anthologies Henderson , He r nton , Den~ {c. Oden , along with wor.~ of ot 1er " Village" poet , s uch as G (Newark) and Joans (Cairo, Illinois) . ater ant .. olog i es : Poems by Durem , Spe il.man , Jones Some are also represented in two "Clac· Fire (196 8 ) and The Poetry of Black Araerica (1973) . Though racial consciousness is not blatantly evident in t hese poets, t he Henderson, and Hernton . protest is t here, e specia lly the works by Durem, ·r:ibra na<le clear its twofol I ·obra exists . '1re. ~inau~ur a 1 aim in issue: 1 to provide a vehicle for t 10se outspoken and you t1ful Jrit ers wl~ pr e sent aspects of social and racial t) r e a lity whi ch may be called 1' 1 unconmercia 1 ' but cannot with any honest y be c onsidered non- essential to a whole and healthy societ)(:;l · ·· A- ~ t He will not p rint trash, no matter how relevantly eals ui t h r ;i ce, social issues, or any t hing else . (l)ent views " Love" as a " b lue tom" lurking "icily " in t he dar kness . Hende r son sees a " Do -m town-Boy Uptm-m " and asl·s : tun I in the wrong slum? (~ Pis " Ske tches of Ilarlem" include the " GRE T 1.!JHT[ boy confusing t 1e @, was bar oon an . . . t:1e sun . in Seattle . ~ AY " and a sma l l / lack Dur em, who ran away f r om home a t age Whi e still in his Mid-teens he joi ned t he Uavy ffe and became a membe r of t1e International Bri7,ades during the Spani sh Civil '\ Uar. llu~1es t r i ed to find a publisher for his works as ear l y a s 1954 . himself Duren said : w. " fuen I was ten yea rs old used my fists . 'tho.. <:>peu~L . Of lfuen I was /1, right , Hilton Hosannah, M. D., and BroW?;eAreading"fthe works of Hernton• Others associated with~ O.Y\d \.0-r.~Ton Hvo.hes, <J · 440 ~ ~ - -- - - included J~hn Henrik - �t irt y- five, I used the pen . I ho pe to live to use the machine ~· un .... The white ilo rt h- Anerican has been drun > for four hundred yea r s . " Hi s work does not have the finish of a Hay en or Broo ks, but he pr ovides an exciting shot in t he arm f or "fi · s period of j lack poetry (thou; h Br emen ' s t black,tpoet 1 is unwarran ted) . Take ~~o Prisoners (1971 ) contains many of Du r em ' s memorable poems a n<l a "Posthumo us f e f acet ' signed in 1962 a lthough he d ie<l in 963 . "White People iot Tr ouble , Too " surveys the plight of whit e s followin g the Depression, r ecession and war, and notes t ha t such an intrus ion in t he affairs of whites does note ual slavery . After all, lif e (or history ) ca ls f or ,J; One toot h for one tooth . 1!ost of Durem ' s TJoems ar e short, satirical, ironi cal and mus ical; a s in " Br oadmi nded ": r Some of 1y best fri ends are whi t e boy s . Hhen I meet ' em I t reat ' em just the same as if t hey wa s people . lac~ 1istory , slaver y , ·social inequities , prison li fe , a d "pal e f'O~ poe t s " to whom he confesses his~s no t " ufficient l y o scurc" to mee t ,:h ite Ile writes of/ . . 1 s t an d ar d s . critica S tranze 1 y , T a ·e ".. o P risoners · <l oes not inc • 1 u d e " ,\ wan1. . ,j ~ "A Gold Ha tch to t l1e FBI ~-:an (who has fo llowed me 25 IA ears~ wh ich traces t he agen t' s surveillance of the na rr ato r th ro-ugh t he " b lind alleys" of ~[exico , the hi gh Sierras, t he Phil armonic, L. A., ~lississi ppi , and ot her place s of violence an<l mayhem . But i t is not all over , th~ agent is told , for in the end y I ::1ay be follmrin ;; you! �The wor L of Village poe ts was ,.i ~h l i ~h t ed by t:1e v e r sa t ile anJ pr o l if ic L~~t,j J ones (J ~ Ima:au "'g Am i ri Bar aka) , Sp a n<l Ted Joans . ~ ..._,/ Def or e h is new 1 ~ lacl~" s tanc e of t he r.li<l a nd l a t e six t i es , J o ne s pub l ished in l i ttl e ava nt= gar d e ma ga zi n e s (ed it i ng seve r al hi1aself) and was ide nti f i ed as t he no s t ta l en t ed Il l a c k among t he; (ea t s . Eis t wo v o l umes Suicide No t e (1961 ) and The Dea<l Lecture r i Pref ace t o a Twent v Vo lune + (1964 ) tou ~h in t e l l i g ence . show him as a hip , arro gan t , ll is infl u ences at t h e time , \li llians , Poun ~ a nd Charles Olson . advent urer in s t yle wi th an el lipt ic a l and sometime s sacrilj :; i ou s 1') - po s ture . °\ 4t:i'.eh. a.u. aest he tic~ philosophy was shared by t he Illad~ Iloun t a i n po ets : ~ r,eo r ge Oppen, Ro be r t Cr e~ · y , Rob ert Duncan , Denise Levert ov , Pa ul Bl ackburn , Edwc.lr<l :Jorn , Gin~ b e r :; , Corso , ._; ry Snyder and ?!i chael ::cLlure . A r:msic critic f or such nagazines as Dmmbeat , Jazz and r!e tronor:1e, wi h an 11 · · · • J ones nurtur e d a c.J.retu ~ 1(,, intense in t erest in ri;'iLac 1.: r.:usic, \ ear ~ - - - . .. •=•llii• h is verse. Hence , the belief i• n ha t Jones "suddenly b ecame / 1ack" is inJei Censib l e . orce " ~ t 1c 0 tca : _saaa,oh ~ s e ction o f a " lJegro Sp iritu al" a s a n in scri p t ion . ~e. uses a The p o em is t yp ical o f Jones ' s ab ility to r.1er ~c nur1erous ideas , symbo l s a nd i nag es in o n e poem . Lorc a ' s deat h is lamen t ed as Jon e s us e s exc e r p t s f rom t h e Ca t h o l ic ; ass , r eflects on h is c h ildhood , explores my t h o l og y , gat 1ers b its of poet i c con-t., fe tt i fro m na tur e a nd h ea r s Lorca " l a u ghing , laug hing "/4-mayb e mock i n g h i s k ille r s M ~) Li ke a Span i sh guit a r . I n " Epis tro phe " he f i n d s p eer ing ou t t h e window " s uch a s t a tic r ef e r e n c e . " So h e wishes " some we king a nima l " wo ~ come by . In t h e ti tl e poem fr om his fi r s t volume-LPrefa c e - !., he a dj us ts t o th e way " g r ound op ens up " r1 ,., ' - - - - - -- - - - -- J �anJ t akes him in whenever ~ he goes out to "wal<. the dog ." Life is as monotonous as the " sta tic reference " of window::.watching : I) i;obody sing _, .. 1 • • ano t her Vllla,;e poe t closely identified with the h ats , pub lished ar,d oThe.,. voL/me s Ted Joans (1%1) , ~ T~e Hipst e rs (1961)!, His most widely known ~ poem fron this period is "The ,3f ledged ) , Whitman and the/4a ts. ~ B~a\"7~ rL~ wit h its deb ts to Hughes ~ he acknow4-,- Beg i nning every line with the phrase "I h ear, " and lover by her husband: Joans na r r a tes the murder of an unfaithful wife ""\ I hear it coraing fas t e r than sound the . 38 0 t he .33 I hear it con in8 closer to my sweaty fo rehead I hea r it s weird whistle the .33 I 1ear i t gi ve of f a st ea::1lik e noise wh en it cuts ,-j t hrough riy s weat th e • 38 I hea r it si71 ~e :ny s .·in as it ent ers r.iv 1e ad t he . 38 I hear dea t h sayin g , He llo , I ' rn he r e ! As a group , J oa ns, Jo nes a nd Spe tf nan can b e car eful y compared to t he Ho -1ar d J6ets . T t ~e same a ~e ra nz~ an 1 li1<e ' s i milar . disc jocl ey ~ F:·! ones) studied a t Hm ard Tniv~i t y and has A.~eo?J r adio stations . His book r eviews l\_articles on jazz ~ I'\ i cpublic}~ncl T. e Nation . I n 1964 his first w> - have appear ed in Kulchu r , their themes and i nter ests a re volume of poems, The Beau t iful au ays, was published . He ha s a ls o published a book- leng th study of_r- ack Music (Four Lives i n the Bdop Dusiness, 1 , 66) . so.vs In "Zapa t a & the Larnllor<l./' t e " thief," the speake)f is running in " circles ." 1 T~1e poer:1 I count ry . is a humo rous treatment of revolutionary strug3le in a Latin Anerican I n "m1at _is It," Spe if}-n applies a similar technique . This t imc s tran r;e a ca t " h ide s in 1our face ," ln t'.1e corners of the mou t h and in " that \ c::myon" behind t '.-1e eyes . " A T~1eft of Hishes " is experiment<.11 ln its use �oS" ja::;~:,e<l l ines and shifts between t!tc tan~ible and s ur r eal \•JOrl<ls . In the end we a r c t old that hon e q Ljo \fa'~ l~;g~ ~ el our no i se . Anot h e r poe:..L who Joins . . . " 1.rrevRnt . er ,, Generation . 1.s . -. . t ,,11.s _,../ ,/4eat innovator Kau fman of th e San Fr ancisco Bay area . sides Cr oe, fer lia ghe t ti ' s City Lights Soaks : Els first works cane o ut as brooul '~ and " Does the Secret Hind Hhisp1er . bo . inis t ''.anifes to , " 1 ·a u fman ' s poetry , co{ , through unde r statemen t and i r ony , i s marked by unusual and s urrea l i nagcs . Ilis boo ks are Soli t u des Crowded wi t h Loneliness (1965) and Golden Sa r d ine ( 196 7) . 2 c'.1ievin 6 11 So l itudes was pub lished i n fre nc:1 , " lrnmediatel y 11 a not oriet, rare a.::.10ns b ooks of roetry by forei 3 n poets 11 (j :ic:cet , -../ Sardine). Lead ing French :na::;azines reviewed the book , publishers noted, - adding ttnrt " Todav in ) ranee :(aufman is considered anow~ the r: reatest - , - :Jegro-American poets alive in s:ii te of h is continuinz. exclus ion from Anerican anthologies , both .1ip & ac ader.1ic ." 11 ( :aufnan ' s themes are racial mer.10ry ,\fri c a n Dr ean"), jaz z (' 'i alkin; Pa r ,· e r Home , 11 " ~:e st Coa st So u nds ~ l 9 561 ' '), ot !1e r poets a nd wr ite r s ( " la r i ... Cr ane , 11 " Gins ber ~ , 11 " Camus : _,I want to Know" ), inca rc c r a t ion (a se r ies of @ In " The Eye( ioo/ i n J a i1 Poems). h istory , my t hology and r eligion . :1e say5_; . ~ eye s t oo hav e s ouls tha t r ag e . ••• L\ 11 Ci n c ophr e n i c po e t 11 :ne e ts wit h " a ll five " of himsel f a-.~Pa ~ vote is t aken to " expel " t he 1 \1eake s t 11 o n ~ who r esent s it and soar s over all limit s ,_} to cross , spira l, and wh irl . I Somewha t t yp ic a l of Kaufman ' s e l li p tic a l cons tru.c t ions and ua c ky i mag er y i s " Heav y ':la t e r Bl ue s ": @ �The r ad i o is t eachi ng 1;i.y gol df isl I am in love wit .1 :1 skindive r who sleeps unde r wa t e r , lfy ne ighbors ar e drunken linguists , & I s peak butt e r f l y , Consolida t ed Edison is t hr ea t ening t o cut off I my brain , The pos tman keeps put ting s ex in my mailbo x , I put my eyes on a diet, my tears are gaining Ll 1l too much weight . In this f orm and styl e , Kauf ma n i s no t only rela t ed to th0 Joans , Spe Atkins, and the ! l~~ed a t s but to Jones , young Los Angeles poet K. Cur tis Lyl e . Amo ng the olJe r poets who did not come into ro"inence until the 1960s Vesey (Columbus, Ohio), llolnan (Hinter City , (Princeton, J ew Je rs ey), O' liggins (Chicago), (Cleveland), I:manuel 0 7brask::i)~ 1 ucl-ett (Brooklyn), At;dns andall (Washing ton, n .C . ) . The se poet s, nnd othe r s of t heir generntion, ~re not s imilar enough to be l nbeled a "school" CJ_ or "mover:ient" but t hey came of nge dur ing t he integr ation push when words t;ke 1 ) J I j " identity" and " huma nity" engende r e d more philo s ophical discussion than t c y do t oday . The se a r e t he men who went t o World Var II a ttended nortt1ern white gr a duat e s chools . a ca de!'lic or pro f essional ca reers . i ~ os cc l ynchi ng OJ'1 4 ~ 4-,;_.e, Hos t we re k oaeignttt poe t sJ pursu i ng i e se1; as t poet and pro fes sional, brid ges\tlQ mi ddl e pa ssage between Afric a_! and \ fro- A1:1c r i c a . At Fisk Univ er si t y he studie d c r ea tive wr itin;: under J ames WelJ on J ohnson , t hen went on t o law school at ~a r vard . iJh& r 'dying a t the s irbonn 7 in Pa ri 7 some of his poems wer e published, thro u~h t he i n t ercession of Richard Wr i ~h t , in the Fr ench magazine ~ I sence Af r ica ine . Ve sey has he l ped ~r eatly in t he i n te r pr etat ion and �~ . d 1ssem1nat . . · · de . 1on o f· 1-r .. c' gritu Paul Vesey (bir th name Samue l Allen ) i s the name under which he publi shed h is bilingual volume o f poems Zahne (Ivor y Tusks , 1956 , Germany) . Elfenbein Ves ey wor ks with skill and precision . " The Staircase" i s a poem on which , ~ he"says, "I ,w uld r es t my case , I think , and t hat of t he Ne gro i n t h is lan{ i/°-~(Blues ),lf1 e poem s t udies the ~ ac k predicament t h ro ush t he plight of a man for whom the "stairs mo unt to his e t erni t y . " Perha ps , like Si syphus, t he st a ir is purposef ul ly "unending" s i nce t he ro tt en f l oor , t he "d r ipping fau cet" and t he " cracked c eiling" also remain . The nan is joined by a "twin" .., who later 3oes "exalted to his wo r ms ." Vesey also wr it es a n e l egy for Dy l an Thoma s ("Dy lan , Who j s Dead" ) , a pr aisf o ~ fo r ~ baseba ll legend Sa tc hel Pa i g (" American Got h i c" ) , and a power f ul <!.'A Moment I Please !> piece ~i n t e r weav i ng t wo different id ea s and t hemes : 1 I\ ' ~e.rie..r4J. c. 1r c..u m.STo..i'\Ct'S ~1 and th~ Ul,DJ t 3 · •'i of uan , the othe r ff{ e.w 1n~ 1 lhg 1 called "nigge r " by t ,-10 adol~ent s ir l s . tribute to Lo uis Arms tron3 . ~ one viewing t he uni verse spec. ;t ,'c. n ;<, t he N eali t y of beino/'_lack and " To Sa t c:1 11 is remi niscent of Tolson ' s Speaking in t he poem , Satc~el Pai3e says one norning he i s goin3 t o g rab a "handf ulla sta rs ," thr ow three st r i~es t o bur n down t he " ,1e avens , " !) .Cb,W'L '1} AA ~ And look over at God an<l say How ab ou t that ! - Ho lman ' s wor k i s among the few ent ries f or poe try in Soon , On e Horning . But he is also ~ r-epresen1td- n ot i1er a nt hologies. He has led an active li fe as a /ivi l =fi ght s fi gh ter JL-i.format ion_/ fr f i cer of t he Un it ed Sta t es Commission on Civil Ri 3htsj edit or (~ Inq uire r), writ e r~and teac her. Hhile a stud ent e a t Chicago Un iversityJ he won s eve r al awa r ds f or writing A Holman , whose poetic s ubj e cts r ange f r om complex ps ych ic medi t a t i ons to racia l pride, is very good indeed bu t much overlooked. · The leisure clas s finds clocks "intrude too I , �ea rly" in 11 \ nd on This Shor e ." f. The genera l indif fer ence is also cap tured : c ros s th e cu ps we yawn at private murders. wh1c~ "Picnic: ..__The Liberat ed " examines the shifting unc e rtainities withf\leisured ~outherners r.1.ust live . The tension of everyday southern life li ~ erneath the merriment of the picnic ground s, where men rotate the liquor in "di cups" and "absently" discuss "civil rights , money and goods . " e Yet as the '{... "country dark" comes in and they return to spri, ered yards and "mortgaged houses" t hey do not know they are J ~' Privil eged prisoners in a haunt ed land. Ye t this s ame poe t can hear "Three Brm•m Girls Singing" through t he "ribs o an ugl y school building . " hc1Y ~ Celebr a t i ng t he,l'l a ck musical pas t , Holman (\them ) Fuse on pure sound in as af t of Ap ril light . . . . Idl. ~·righ t, nm-1 a/ ede ral.Jistrict / ud ge in New York , was a Lincoln I University poet a nd/-1ith Hughes and Cune'l edited Lincoln University Poets (1954) . He served overseas in World \· ar II , later r eceivinz law training a t Fordham. Hhile he wa s in t1e Army in Wale s , he published a volume of 1i s poetry , Fr om the Sha ken Tm e r (1944) . " The Afric a n Affair" find s ·1d-1. '; !right on a safar i t o f i nd out what " Black is . " He d iscovers it in "prisons," in the " devi l s dance ," where " des erts burn," th0 'iddle / as sage, and a r eas ,, whM•e. i !Pr " conscienc e cannot ::;o." His search carries hin deep into Africa1 wher e " tra 'e--c s sha ed T'.lY fa t he r ' s pain ." . In " Four Odd Bodkins for Ny ooms" t here are "never bloor.ling petals" and " never burnin~ suns . " ) -u c.lt.ed ~, a••~,.. O' Hig;_;ins~ a member of the " tribe of wandering poets ." �After studyi ng wit;1 ~ g Bravm at llowarJ , O' Higgins won Lucy Ho t en .::ind J uliu s Rosenwa1tt j e11owships in ~-,ritin;-i; . I e l ate r served i n Ho rld War II , after which he cof authored, with Hayden, The Lion and /J1e Ar cher (19 43 ). O' lliggins 'j style is l ess formal than e ithe r Holman ' s or HcM . Hright ' s . ~ He dJY is closer to Vesey, especially in poems J.il.e "Young Poet" and "Two Lean I\ Cats; ' in which the rain fell like "ragGed jets" and made a " grave along" the street. The lean cats , running in "checkered terror" into a poolroom, find that a "purple b illia r d ball" makes t he color scheme explode . The much anthologized "Va t i cide' f " For !lohandas c! andhi") sees Gandhi "murdered upright in t he day" and le f t with his f lesh " opened and dis pl ayed ." likening Gandhi ' s death to ~ But , Chr ist ' s , the narrator says s uch a person who created the " act of l ove" knows the guilty carry h i s " death to their ro rn:is ." Gandhi ' s "marvelous wounds " contain the sun and t he seas .</l'nifferent, yet similar, t hese poets sought t 1rough their ind i v i dua l voices to deal with 1:1an ' s curren t and past hu r t s . At kins, for example , saw t he " s,mllen deep" rise h i gher as he "uent walking" in sect ion t wo of "Fantasie . " '.) A " restles s , ifA(.ke.t H~t:;..a.:.:1.L:1_) experinent alist with a very high regard for craftnanship , A.At kins uas a Cot, ~U k'M1' founder of .;..F.=r.;;:ec=e-= L.,. a=n.:::.c. ,.e. (1950 1 whichj\Uve rs called the " ol dest black- bo s s ed n agazine a r ound ." Between 194 7 and 1 62, Atkins'-, poetry appeared in nul'le rous '--' journals and other outlets . A few a re View , Deloi t Poetrv Journal, !1innesota I Quarterly, naked Ear, Ga ll ey Sai l Review . His volumes of poe try are Phenomena (1961), Psychovisual Perspective for Husi cal Composition (195 8), Two by Two Poetic Dramas set to .1usic, 1963 ), Atkins (The Abortionist and Objects (1 96 3), and Heretofore (1968). as complex as t , e ~ e_'._ry / said in Sixes and Sevens, i~f.tf Atkins 'I a e stheticM" ideas are often early trai: n~ n mus: and literatur ~ h1 , e was trying for " egocentrical phenomenalism: an objective const ruct of properties to substa ntiat e effect as object. " _ _ _ _ _ _ _c......__ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ ' _ _ He �sea rc h e s af t er the " J e si i~n..:!<l i na:~ i natio n ." -- In " Ni gh t a n J a Distant C~wrcl~ ' he moves " Forwa r J a b ru p t" t hen "up" t h rough n serie s of interming li.n~ " ~ a n d " e lls" wi tll won.ls l i e " wind" a n d " r a i n ." I ?) ' There is more than ~ hint f Tol s on ' s ab i li t y t o meand er among Gr i.e co-Romanf a nd Af r o- Ame rica n tr a di t i on; v in At kins 't poetry . But he is unique . " At War" informs t he reader that bey nd t h e "turning s e a ' s fa r fo am" the " e pheme ra" of a "momen t's daWD " . 6 I su<lden ' d its a ppear .... v La t e r{ i n t he s ame poe,:, , af t e r a llusions to llef ngway , t h e silence spl its : ' I y j ! Sh ! Li s t e n a monentfl,\ j ! Listen ~ ini t ha t h u r r . ~a s of a s h ore o f f u gitives . / Once .\t.·ins ' s technique i s under stood , however , his poe try can be e n j o ed for its witty , wacky , ~ G ! l lphiloso phical musin,,s , In " Ir r i t able Sono " h e "') inve r ts , reve r ses and convolu t es re~ula r sy nt ax : Orsa: upon retu r n !_; Coronary farewell Le aves ne lie. Dare , s ir? ~ ~h! De nay ' J Torao rrou , t ocorrow O in t o day? Atk i n s writes o f t h e f ine a rts, John Brown ' s raid on llarpe r+ s Fer ry, f lack and f ~1e ro e s (" Christo phe"), t he " Tr n inyar d at !U ght_;' ~ the Clev eland lake front 11 J ) ( ~ :;~ 'l!fflbjee~~~W"~· At -.'Ml.O t he r end of t he s t y Us t ic a nd t h ematic pole i s Randal l, a libraria n by tra ining and tra de who , as we shall see in our discussion of poets of the late s i xties , f i g ures p rominently in t he development of an a udienc e for the S �_/ew l a ck/ o e try. Randall also served in World h a r II and writes poems about the war, love, violence, a rt and the, tlack presence . His well~ known " Booker T • and W. E • B • , " <l i ge sting t !,e Was hinif o is controversy, was seen by D1 Bo isJ and this pleased Randall . The poem first appeared in Midwest Journal, 1952. Randall has also written abou t and translated Russian poetry . With ,1argaret Danner he co~ authored Poem Counterpoem (1966)1 and his Cities Burning appeared in 1968 . }fore to Remember (1971) pulls together Randall's poems from "four decades ." His work has been pub lished in Umbra, Beloit Poetry Journal, and other places . He initiated the Broadside Series (poster~) in 1965 with h i s own "Ballad of Di rmin gham. " The series grew quickly, laying the foun ~ <lation for h i s Broa dside Press, the mos t signi ficant,/i-a ck press in Amer ica . Tta dall ' s , or of t h is perio d has the stamp of formality . lle, /Vrites in fr" ,,... ,, if in ballad~ and free: verse fon'1s1 but he ha # a t i ghtness t ha t ,rl'!'l be relaxed L the l a te sixties . ------ mental, of a land "Lit t!1is cla II " Le gac " chronicles the hur t , phys i cal and a b·oody moon ." But the one who is "moulded from vo s : ~ ( .1y tea rs re deeI!l " er s pect ives" reca sts t ~ t I 1 Al ' le Y.lV tears . ti,Je- ir.nnemorial theme of , •.,e onlv pass this wa:i7 -• T e r e is no need to cor.1plain about dis comfort, the poem says, because ...... even the moun tains;f ·n their huzsnessf are dissolved " m1ay andall ' s Pacific E ita?hs e r e recollections of the war . are e i ~rammatic and haiku-like. 'J) 11 by the seas. The short pieces Here is a poignant one ("Iwo Jima"): Like oil of Texas My blood gushed here . Prominent in a g roup of De troit poe ts (.targaret Danner, Oliver La Crone , ·laomi Lon g Nadgett, Ja::ies Thompson and others), ~andall often enmeshes himself �in a sense of personal injury over his people ' s 1istory. This tendency , and a deb t t o the/ lack poe t i c tradition (especially Sterlin~ Brown) , can be s een in " The Southern Roa<l~' .w~~~ h e "black river " serves as a " bo unda r y to hell . " The country is " haugh t y as a s tarj " tJ) And I se t f orth upon t he sou the r n r oad . The variet y of sty les and themes f ound in these poets is found a l so i n younger poets of their generation: 1 '-' , Br owne , Re dmond , Pa tt e r s on Jay Fright, Ander son , Eernton._ and Pol it e come r ead i ly to mi nd . 'v poets, Patterson is par ticular ly i n t e r est inz . Of t hese His " Black ~11 Day" yi elded = from its second l ine the t i t le f or I Saw How Black I Was . .,J /J.~o (J._ Jt5Z /( •· piIW-sor1 l7 ~l Lincoln Univers i t y poe t , ~won a n awa r d f or h is poe try wh ile s ti ll an unde i.q, graduate. A nat ive New Yorker, he s tudi ed pol it ical ;;;-enc e and English ( and has worked as a counselor fo r delinquent boy s an<l /1..a n Engli sh /nst ruc t or . Patterson said i n Sixes and Sevens t hat h is f i r s t poem was writt en during World 'i ar I I a s t he " out gr owt h of a Ca i n- a nd- Ab e 1 conflict wi t ho ut t he d ir e consequences. 11 11 T:1ree .,/ iews of Dm•m 11 includ e s t hL " · h t, " s i lken shaw 1 o f n1g the disappeara nc e of " co rner spect e r s " and t he " s plittin~" o f " s tillness . " The musical " Tla Tl a" presents fre e verse spiced with a lliterative language ~ of landscap e , sea s on and na ture . 911!!!9311•1~j " Alone, " t he protagonist ~ " keeps poems warm1 ' as h e watcne s over t he sleeping l ove rs a s well as (R ~ who wak e and weep . Patterson did not publish a book until 1969; and its tit le , 26 Ways of Looking at J( Black Man, s hows the influence of Lnag ists and modernists 7 (see ~ Stevens '! 13 Ways of Looking at / Black_Jir<l) . much about thef It also reveals ack poe t' s ability to for ge and merge his academic training 45/ ~ - -- - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - �with h i s own i n<l i geni s ~ - The speake r i n " Bl a ck a ll Day" i s " looke<l " in t o - "rage a nd s hame" by a whi t e passerby ; but he vows t hat " tomo rrow" I ' ll do as mu ch for h im . Patterson construct s a solid poetic foun dation, "stone on st one ," a s he paints precise portraits o f "the br " ("You Are the Brave "), or t he In the work o f Pa tt e rson e who do not bre ak" when pr ovoked e " tirel ess and r a~ i nG s ou.i..,' ("Envoi") . a nd t he yo un ger group o f the period one finds ange r or protest, though the genera l t endenc1 is toward experiment a l verse As j lacl< poe ts, t heir sub pinpoints the surest and richest human feelings. -+he.y do n ot Shv'1 j ects more o f t en t han not ref l ect t!1i s f a ct. Butf\varie t y. iis•••••·ailiitrilllli?l!jQ._tiilta ( 0 Phf llis Tfheatley I .,A.: ha.d 6ee11 ~A the knm-m female poe t un til the mi' ~ c entur 'l when Franc es Har per t ook up t h e E , ·ra;;;;-~h n ~f s k i An elina Gri . ~l , . A 13 new mood ~ ~deuc ed "n}!:,J,..wor k of Geor gia Dougl a s , Johns on (th e mos t f mous poe t after Frances ..,, Harper), Gwendolyn Bennett, An I. "!'II .J - l . . /1 Spencer, Al i ce\ .:elson't,Dunb!9', He l ene Jo hns on //~.br 1 Gwendolyn Brooks . (a young s par k i n t he ~Fenaissance) , . !ar garet Wall-er~ ....., an<l Between the forti )t~nrr1cll,O, L women poets increasei and sixties, t he nu,eer of pu~lishing ~ 'fk1try :;J!~rf}"'~.is in s~eri!isrnrt .,._o f wh i. t es (r:ien) ; and since r emained unde r the women in general have not had the range of opp ortunities open to men, cert a i n l y the ack woman went t h e wars way of that flesh! r.s poets of the period 1 still __,;.:&ias- irapressive: I\, ---.__, But the li s t o0 lack women Gloria C. Oden (Yonke rs, New ..., York), !fanina Alba ( font gomery), Margaret Danner (Pryorsburg , Kentuc ky ), Mari Evans (Tol edo), Ju lia Fie l ds (Uniontown, Alabama), Vivian Ayers - - - -- - - -- -- - - - - - - - - -- - �(Chester, South Ca r olina), Audr e La rde (?leH Yo rk) , Naomi Lon~ ).Iad ;;ett (Norfolk ), Pauli Murray (Baltimore), Sarah Wrigh t :tar y l and ), D. C. ), and Yvonne Gre 0 or y (Na shv ille) , a;non 0 t :1e ~fay ~tiller • do zens • .,al names .%-n 1952r/,_ two years af t e r Gwendolyn Br601 s won the Pulitzer , /ri z el\ c .\ . Oden , who uses her initia ls "as a way of being anonymous , " received a John liay Whitney Opportunit y Fe llowshi p f or The Naked Frame: = / Love Poem .:ind Sonnets . She has worked as a s enior editor of a raaj or publishing house an<l current1y teaches English in Baltimore. In t he fifties , she joined the Village poets in Mew Yor~ where s he re a d her poetry in coff ee sho p s, reviewed book s and worked on a novel. Her poetry has also appeared in The Saturday Review and The Poe try Diges t . ~oting t hat she appeals "primarily to the intellect ," Hayden (1':aleidoscone) c m:ipared her to Cullen , adding t ha t she ''is concerned with poe try as an a rt expressing what is meani ngful to everyo ne , not just a vehi cle fo r protest and special Al t hough G C. Oden us es a variety of forms, her poems are usually pleading . " crisp and ~~ l l c ctaa.l:.f; tart . CV "The Carousel" in an empty park rid e s me round and round, and the dark drops for her as she ~~~ " her surroundings with explicit / word-choices : \ "sight foouss s shadow . " In "Review from St aten Island" an item in the view is "spewed up from waterc:;j 1 Late; we are tol<l : ~ ' One 3ets used to dying living;' and " even t he rose disposes of summer ." He hea r t he dislocated w01!lan in " .. ·r\s when emotion too far exceeds its cause" (phrase q_ from Eliz. be th Bishop) . Retreating from he artbreak , she admits that she t oo .,,,. knew "love ' s celestial v enturingitt": _, 0 1/ I, t oo , once trust ed air that plunged me down . Yes , I! I �; anina Alb a is similarly ters e and poi gnant . The Parchments (196 3) and The Parchments II were published before her death in 1968 . English , f6sic and French in public schools an<l was for a long time a member of the English Department at Tuskegee Iustitute. use of Greek ,Jtytholo gy to draw a subtle "unwi se" actions . ~ She t a ught " Be Daedalus" make s £iji' analogy between Blacks and Icarus,. Death comes as a "tax" fo ------- "parching" the sun: , Suns can be brutal things . " For Malcolm X" recalls "History ' s stonin~ ." Iargaret Danner is r ic.h L r·, sensitive . Born in Detro i t, s he has spent t he gre a t e r par t of her l i f e in Chicago.., where s he was o Poet ry . - e~ editor of Her poems in that pub l icat ion in 1952 pr omp t ed t he J ohn Hay Whitney Fellowships Committee to offer he r a t ri p t o Africa . And in 1962 t he literary group with which she identified in Detroit was the subject of a special issue of the Bulle t in of ,·e3ro History . She has published four volumes : Impressions of African Art Forras in Poet r y (1962), To Flower (1962 ) , Poem Counterpoem form er poet - ln residence (with Dudley Randall, 1966) and I r on Lace (1963). a t Hayne State Univ ers ity , s he f ounde d Boone House , a l i ve ly c en t e r fo r the arts i n Detroit, and a sioila r cultural program in Ch icago: y ologonya ' s . s She emp loys Afric an t erminology and theme,.,; but s h e can a lso writ e delight fully in other ve i ns/ a s in "The El ev a to r ~~an Adhe r e s t o Forn . " wings" t h e eleva tor r eminds her of " Rococo art ." , T e " tan man who Struck by his ele gance~ and 1 ~ foe-i ' Godspeedings" -the ijaQ-~-1onders why so intelligent an<l a rtful a "tan" man has ,.., to run elevators . I t i s a meticulous poem, subtl• y exposing the lie that education qualifi es you . She fin a lly wishes the elevator man ' s services could be employed i ,I toward l ifting them above their cripp ling storm . �Fa r Fr om Af r ic a : ~ Four Poens is a shee t of sights, sounds and s ugg es tions carry ing t he r e ade r ac r oss "mou l ting days " in "t he i r t wi l i ghti " ( " Ga rnishinG t he Av i ary" ) , "lines" of "classic tutu~' ("Dance of the Abakwe t a "), " eyes '-' lowered" f rora " despai r4 " ("The Visi t of t he Pr ofes sor of Aesthe t i c s ") and t) a bed of gr een mos s , s parklins a s a bee tl ee . •. Ma r i Evans is ano t her ~ind of t r ansitionalis t M shiftinz vf r om / ivil ~ j ights poe try of t he ear l y phase to , f i nally , a more obvious )t'1 ack" s t ance of t he l a ter per iod :) " ~ ~ wo r ked as a c ivil service emp l oy; t~l!f-V.::show hostess and pro ducer , and i ns tructor of writ i ng . Sometimes refe rred t o a s a spiri t ual , if t echn i cal , he ir t o Gwendo l yn Il r ooks , ,Ia r i Evans empl oy s i rony , s us ens· and rich folk i dioms in ,! ( fret death and funera l , wonders if ' ers 'i@ ~ " The Rebe l, " pond ering Ther e ~ hun or an d sa t ire in 11 : -, •• II r--' 11 Trouble . ...,,. a ck mai d) '\1aff i e .;_;,,,-' en in I'-.ome " a s t he poe t int e r l a ces (in t h e ma nner of Ves ey ' s "A Homent , ::>leas e" ) two di ffe r ent conver sations . ~ ~ h,,,_ ""'" Cv ~•os'~/,/feeke:_.s:_;; t o know whethe r she ha s rea_ly di.ed or just want s to cause a e clear , " i s al lowed to eat "wha t ev e r " she like s . The Alternating 1"0 ,,,, t he maid ' s s ilen t resnonses with t he recit a t i on of a menu 97tt he mi dd l e--=-class environment (" Rome" ) , the po en inci dentally r e cords t he tr ac.l itiona l s oulf ood it ems ~..____.., t he ma i d c r av es . " The Emancipa tion of George- Hector" (" t he co l or e d t urtle" ) s hows a growing i mpat ience wi th one- st e p-at- a- time social~ change polic y . ✓ The turtle us ed to s t ay in h i s " shell" but now he peeks out , ex tends his arms and l eg s , and talks . and sentimental. But t his same poet can wax phi l osophi ca l " If the r e be So rr ow" it should be for the things not yet dreamed , realized or done . . :J Add to t hese t he withholding of love , love �" restrained ." In " Shrine to what s oul d De" an audience is ask ed to " s ing" .) songs to " nobili t y," and "Ri gh t ousness. " The chi ldr en should bring " Tru st," t he women " Dreams, " the old men " cons tancy ." I ron ica lly the a ud i ence is told to ignore t ears that fall l i ke a " c r e scendo , " and c onstantly as " a sof t bla ck r a i n ." Her t r ib ut e to_/o spel s ingers is telling in " • • And the Old Women Gather ed." One cannot (despite " Rome" ) escape one ' s s e l f , the poet says , a s she notices that the " f i er ce " and 'not melodic " music linge r ed on even as "we ran. " . F1.e . ld s ,-ll.1:ru 1 y J u 1 1.a 1 1• II ( Tenne ssee) ,-in England any ~ YB"' 4 u~"'1,n . . 'I d . cl at r1\.nox Co 11 ege -tse~ nr I w:f1sp1.r1. t •, stu 1.e .._ co t land , and ha s t aught 6, h igh sch oo l and co lle ge . He r work a ppear ed in l:r,1br a , Hassachuse tts Review a nd othe r journals . with Ha r gare t Halker, Tor.1 Dent, Alice Ealker, Pinkie Gord on Lane~and . an) she is among t he few good / lack poets who now volunta rily live in the South. He r first book, Poems , was brou~ht out by Poets Press in 1963, the same year she received a National Council on the Arts grant . She i s substantially represented in R. Baird Shuman ' s Nine Black Poe t s (1968 ~ and her Ea s t of ~1oonlight was published in 1973 . Sh e also wr ites short s t ories and pl ays . Iler ma i n poetic subjects a r e r ac ism, death , l ov e, vio l ence and history . " The Gener ations " come and g<:,, and in between t he r e ar e "The wars ." And i n between them are the sea s ons, f l owers, "lavende r skies," dm•ms , " Sombre sea s, " a nd the " embr yoni c calm ." ,, 0- "A}\rdva rk" has achieved " fame " since "Malcolm die ~ and the poe t muses : .ip; Looks like }1alc olm he l ped Br i ng a t tention to a l o t of t h ings We neve r th ought a bout befo r e. She a ga i n salut es t his mart yr i n " Fo r Malcolm X" whose " eyes we re mirrors of J our a gony ." In " No Ti me fo r Poe tr'l" t he r eade r i s a dvised t ha t midnight is �p,t not A.time to be s eec 1 one ' s muse : too 1:iuch ' calm." " t he "spirit" is "too la gging" and the r e i s Bu t t he mo rning is idea ~ since it carries "vibrations of laughter" and ha s no "oran~e-whi te mi s t s ." "broken-hinged doo;;'' ,o 4A...a As a "woma~' listening,)~ e ar the man talk of war ("I Heard/ the narrator "somehow planned on livin;; ." Young }fan Saying"), And the "bris ht g lare of the neon worl d" s ends " ~as-words bursting f r e e " in "Hadness One :Monday Ev en ing . " ul i Murray a nd Sarah Wright a re ..:~ f ~ H, oets ~ also writeA.other Pau li Murr ay pursued training f or l aw while s he won academi c awards and fellowsh i ps for her wri t i ng . A r;{..vi1::/ights pi oneer, she publi s hed one 0.. volume of v e rse (Dar k Te stAn ent, 1969 ) and a fam i ly hi s t or y (Proud Shoes, 1956). In "Wi t ho ut :~ame ," s h e is revea l ed a s a fo rmal but excel lent craftsman . There a r e no names fo r true f e e l ing :caa, l et t he " f l e s h sing an t hems t o its a r r ival." ..__,,,, Sarah ilrigh t, known as a novelist (This Ch i ld ' s Gonna Live ), co~ ut hored Give ~1e,,£ childj in 1955) with Lucy Smith . Abo ut/ lack wr i ter s s he s a id(~ 196 1).J "~'.y mott o is tell it li (e it damn sure is ." "black outlines in l ivinG fl esh . " a nd tra ffic lights. In "Wind ow Pictures" she sees · -the e 1 at1ons11p · 1 · b etween d rivers . " Ur genc y" viewsAr " God" i s "t hank ed " tha t t he ca r stops s o t he passenge r can " glory" a while in t he " time-bit ten punctua tion}"?f t he "pause." Vivian Ayer s , t he daugh ter of a blacks mith , att ended Ba r ber-Scotia 7l,,7JC !..t • .-,C,. College (Conc or 1 ) and Denne tt Colleg e (Greens bo r o1 where h er major int erests we re dr ama, music and dance. She published a vo l ume of poems (S pice of Dawns) g::;J~ and an a l legor i ca l dr ama of f r eedom and the s pac e a ge (Hawk) pe r formed at the Unive rsit y of Houston' s Educati onal Television St a tion. Currentl yt s he lives in Housto1J whe r e she ed i t s a quarterly journal, Adept. '' I ns t an taneous " features a man being "s tunned" by t he bolt of "cross-firing energi e s" and grab be d u p in u blaze f) resonan t as a mi l lion ha lle lujas-l 0 ~ ;v\ 4 57 �ilt10 /AQ. r.1an i nhab it s ano t her man who , dy i ng , ~;asp s faintl y : - -- - - - - ~~ 1== '{y ' t • • r, ¾9 II • rty r, o <l -·-t ,1is i s fl' jom-s➔a.!aJ Virginia i \ , O ~ • ••• II 'In MO OO. diffe r ent/\.i s Naon i Lon3 :iadgett, who moved t o Detroit from 1946 to teach at a high schoo l. from Wa yne 3 tate University . She holds a/ aster ' s de gree Associa t ed wi th the De troit group of poets , Songs to a Phantom Nightingale (1941), she has published f our volumes : '- One in the ?funy (1956) , Star by St ar (1965 , 1970), and Pink Ladies in t he Afternoon (197 2) . Currently she teaches English at [ as t ern : Iichigan Univer s ity an <l runs t he newly established Lotus Press . projects was Deep Rivers : A<. Por t folio : One of its first 20 Contemporary Black American Poets . .__,- , - - - - - - - ~ -N-:-~---iM ,. . ,. .o--..dJ.~-=-a, ~. - (197 4), which i nclude s a teachers' guide prepared by lil I p ~ Editors for Deen Ri vers inc l ude Leonard P. Andrews , Eunice L . Howard, and Gladys _..,"t ludd. C;;--. ..l.kiat... Roge rs . Tie ~ ~ :-1. poets K r e Pa ulette Childress White, Jill Witherspoon, ...- l!llliam Shelley , G'f . Oden, tfaomi . !a dgett , ratterson, La Crone, Pamela Cobb, Pi nk ie Gordon Lane, Et he rid::;e l'night, Randall, Hayden, Thompson , :Margaret Wa l ke r, June J or da n, Ge r a l d W. Ba rr a x, Audre Lorde, Red1'1ond, 11 Har ri er a nd 1:a ufman . Ma01'1 i :1a<lge tt ' s " Sir:J.ple" ("For Lang ston Hughe7f is r ealistica lly humorous . Si n pl e si ts i n a bar , wan t ing to talk to someone , when 1e i s app r oached by a hand- s.,u-t- .:1'C e ke r who needs to change h is clothes " bu t ..iy ~ t he ba r ~ I ( B11t wJthing, l ad y-.\-, bo l ted t he doo r: ." AJ oy ce 1{,ill ta) "irapatiently " anJ leave 1 i n p l e wonderin -; uha t "h e wan ted to say ." In lea r n t ha t of " a l l t he dea t hs " this one is t he " sur es t." 11 11ortality" we Some d ea t hs are merely " pea ce " but vu l t ures " r ec ogn ize" t he "sin:~ le ::iort al thi n::;" t ha t ,~. old s on to l i f 7 and t :1ey wa i t :mn:;-r il _ for the time When ho pe starts staggering . ~ an mus t come t o grips wit 1 t he t hings of t his world, we are told in - �"The Reckoning": y And ,. h y and ho ·l and wh a t, and some time s ev en if . Po ems from Tr i ni t v : / Dr eaM Scnuence c onv ey uncert a i n ties a nd fe ars of '-'' woMen a nd humans. On e chara ct e r ha s been bes~ed by " dream and dream a gain" ("4") a nd a naked day "corrodes the silver dream" but the music will not ----(" 13"). " cease t o shiver" J "Af t e r" is a lament a tio n fo r "mortals " withou t "win3s " to fly away f ror.1 t he " purple sadne ss " of ni ght . And "Poor Renaldo " is " aead and gone Hhereve r people go" ,-, hen t hey " never l oved a s ong . " even "hell" r:iust have "rausic of a so rt." "7'l M ~ " But Final \ y s culpted, lik e t he ot hers, the poem tur ns to more sorrow near t he end . Re naldo , t ho ugh dead , i s " st ill unrestinr; . " qre~i e~rl'( Au--:re Lorde ' s /\•.-10 ,. k r ef c ct s ~ kill anci control. In t he early six ties s:.e wrot e : \ I am a ,.,. ~ ::e6 r o ,:on a n an<l a poet f all t hree thin;;s stand outside my rea lm of c~oice . :~ eye s have a part in ray see ing , my b reath in by breat'1ing , all that I am in wlio I am. love a r e of my people . Al l who I was no t born on a fa r m o r i n a f o rest , but in t he c en t re o f the lar gest c ity in t he wor ld~ a :--:iember 0 £ t :1.e 1 u;1an race :1er.m1e<l in by s t one , away fro m e ar t h a nd s un l i 3l1t. ,}u t uha t is in 1ay blood and s ki n of richne s s , coraes the roundabout journey from Af rica t hrough sun islands to a stony coast , and t ~ese are t he gifts t h rough vh ich I sing , t h r oug~ whic h I see . This is the knowled ge of the sun , and of hm: to love even wher e t he r e is no sunlight . This is t he knowl edge a nd t he ric hness I shall :::; ive my chi .:.J ren proudly , as a s tren~t h a~a ins t t he less obvious forms of narrm-mess ~ d ni gh t. (Lett~ r o.cw,npo.ny ;"j poems $ubm';1ted To ~i'tes pnd reven.s} �,...---..._ t hu s gives a balanc ed a cc ount of he\._3elf a s dirnenr.io'r "' And all these a ml po et . 1\--- ,! i-1oman, [3 lack she handles quite well in her poetry,~' Sh e ha s publi shed three volumes: The First Ci ties \,., (1968) , Cables to Ra ge (1970) and From a Land whe re othe r People Live (1973) , - _;;, which was nomina ted f or a :fational Book Award . In her early poetry she r e flects on " Oaxac a " (in l·1exico) where the " land moves slowly" under the 1 " carving dra g of wood ." The drud ging field work goes on while the hills are " Lr ewinr, t hunde;" a nd on e can observe All a man ' s strength in his sons ' young arms Q ... 'J " To a Girl who knew wha t s i de Her Bread was Bu t tered on" describes the gi rl as a "ca tch of b r ight thunder" apparently guarded by (a nd guardian of) bone s. Ordered to leave the bones, she watches as they ris e like " an ocean of straw" lid: an d trar.1 1 cl(, l-Je.-. ovel"seev• 11 ~ ,J I FB 1.nto th e eart h • II ..L1 ~ II • " forth in the raoonpit of a virgin ." ✓uHor r~ The " N_ymph " is brou;sht In " How can I Love You" the , . <l '' 1 ~l;kctd - · f·icent Ph oenix · 1· 1.·e ohF t e magni "comes like a thin b 1.r -- I later to become " ~;r eat a s h." 42 i M d ts,:1! ~ ~C.ot-ned 'o wonder , the s peaker confirms, (\, / The " I that you r s un went dm-m . " ~~u\"-e$ :roon- n"nded t he Sunf •. Kczcee that T 1e li<:> ht tl1at !'la ~es us f ertile shall ma ke us sane . And we hear t hat t he " year i,as fallen " in "Father , the Year<9 •• . work cuts sharp paths of '.'5?,••'l,lil a:1<l C.on.f\,~; 0 V'I ;.1i ii.-.-,- !!!t_light across the Audre Lorde's i gnorance ~ I~ sit in Judgment " "-examine s love, Fall shall J df'his i'5Trve of 1 around her • t(' An-: c onclud ing that " in al l seasons" it is false , but the same . _., whom A much- ne~lec t ed poet is May Hi ller, of Washington, D. C., aai Gwendolyn Brooks acknowl e<l iied as " excel l ent and long-celeb rated" (Introduction? - -- - - -- - - - -- - - - - - �The ~o r try pf f:)ocl · O·"e tjc ij). :.ma @Las se ll Into the Clearing (1959) J J• 0,. »Poems jp Hi ll If :tU 3!1 li&Ult& ABE l 'g Her work can be found in three volunes : (1962), and she is one of three poets represented i n Lyrics of Three Women (196 4) . Currently a memb e r of the Commission t;°n the Arts of the Dist r ict of Co lumb ia, s h e has been a tea cher , /:t-1 { lecturer, Adramatist and has published her poetry i n a number of magazines : - Comnon Ground, The Antioch Review, The Cri s i s , Phylon ~ a n d The Nat ion . "Calvary Way" shows a Christian influence wi th a t wist of i r ony a nd gore·. Mary is as ed how she felt, " womb - heavy wi th Chr ist Child, " as she tasted Re c all i n g the crucifix i on, the poem t h e "dust" of an "unc e rt a in journer . " " "Her e you af r a i d? " finally a s k s "Mar The "roac he s a r e winn in";" i n " The "st hrehouse" wher e h umans seek to " abne gate survival l aws " a n d k i l l 1 .) roaches unti l t h ey a r e " saturated with t h eir de crease . " 11 The characters in T11e wron3 siJe of :-:o r ning" we re shaken f rom a "nig:1t mare o f -1ings" a nd assembles ",:-,u,;:irooTJs of h u ge <lea th 11 as t1,e: roet power ful ly a He:~ inages and layered ~1eanin ~s. " Pro cess ion" cr.1;')loys the ramatic t e c hnique (made famous by ll rown a nd o t he r s) of i n t er l a cinz t i,e fo rmal Eng lish of t h e poem \Jith it alicized : I •iiik exp letive s a nd refrains s u ch as " Ring , hammer , ring!,; It is t h e p roces sion of C.1ris S but t i1e reader easily unJerstands ~ noting - · i- a t • • aL ro/ ' 1 ack. p ro c ession · . .,r t 1,1e pfl ac k 1.· d ioms , t.1 Lt 1.s~a t h roug h t h e 1 a b yr1.ntn" s of r ~ slavery and r a c isn . The r e is a s erie s o )' juxtaposed contradictions ~ ttV' "Time is to day , ye s t e r day , anc t i :'1e to come," " moving and rJotionless," and ''infinite take s f ami li.:ir fo r n , " :.:;a while 11 " we seek conv ic t io n. Christian mytholo r,y pervades ! lay . tiller ' s work (though she j lack=-bases it)0 In "Tally" the subjects "lay there drained of time" and empty like the ) " bul ge u f h our 8las s 11 while "Lucifer streaked to reality . " �- The deaths of Dunas an<l Rivers left voiJs an<l created still more anxieties , c oming as t hey diJ (1963 ) in the ~idst of racial turbul enc e . Howev er , by the mid-sixties both poets had written a g r eat and a great deal about themselves . wha t has been called an "impulsi 2 Rivers died an unnecessary death in 11 act . whit e policeman in a New York su u ay . other . eal of poetry Dumas was shot to dea t h by a w;i\n,n Both dea t hs occu{ ed/' EJ.onths of eac Ri vers was born in Atlantic City , schools in Pennsylvania , Georgia and Ohio . Iew Jersey , and attended public His college days were spent a t Wilber fo r ce University , Chicar; o State Teac!1ers College and Indiana Uni versity . I n high s chool (19 51 ) he won the Savannah St a t e poetry prize . Rivers was greatly influenced by I Ut;hes , 1v'right and his uncle Ray Hc i ver . His five books, tuo of them published posthumously, ar ~ Perchance to Dream, Othello (1959), These Black Do<lies and This Sunburnt Face (1962), Dusk at Selma (1%5 ), T!1e Still Voice of }:arlem (1 963 \ • and The .'rfoh t Poems (1972, ...__,, with an Introduction by friend -novelis t Ronal<l Fair ). Ohio Po etry Review, Kenyon Review, and An tioch Ileview were only a few nagazines in which his wo r k appeared . r Responding to a request (1962) to comment on himself as ack man a nd poet, Rivers said , auo ng other things : V I write about the Negro because I am a Negro , and I am not at peace with myself or t1e world . I canno t divorce my though t s f rom t he abs olut e CJ injustice of 1ate . I canno t !'eckon wi t h ny colo r. ---------- -- I am ob s e s sed by t he ludicrous ( and psychologi c a l ,:J behavior of hated men . - And I shall con tinue to wri te abou t r ace- Lin spi t e M LJ - -- - - of 1:i.any warnings~ �until I discover nyself , 1t1y f uture , my real r a ce . I do not wish to cap i talize on race, nor do I wi sh [J to begin a Crimean \far : I am only interested in recording the truth squeezed from my observations and experiences . I am tired of being misr ep resented . Adding to the statement, Rive rs saicl.> "beauty and joy, which was in the world I\ before and has been buried so long , has got to come back ." ,~•rr-Ot1~h eye. But River s saw l i ttle " beauty and joy" • ~his own mi nd ' s His po e ti c l a nds c ap e is o f t en b leak and f i ll ed wi t h deep psyc 1i c yearnings and wanderings t h rough the ambiva lences of / lack- \ hite re l a t ion s . a .,Jt- ...;i,.s also torment nnd brooding . Th e r e ~, In th'N> , _ he b e ars sane k i ns h i p to Duma s . '-../ for both d elve de epl y into ps y cholo ~;•l ut a re a t t he same t ime a cc e ssi , ivers spent much time researc1i 3 his ast and reading from t h e great volumes of world literature . e. During the mid1 sixties in Chicago he partii,, cipa t e d in d iscussion ~roup s J in·o lving Fair, David Llorens a nd Gerald lcWorter~ outt ,hich i:t• ' grew t he now wel l-known Or ga n iza t ion of Black --------- G\. .,...-- vehj/,t t or ~ l C11] 10 ~prominent • [ tr :ill 1 ~ ack L\me r ican Culture ( OBAC :J l it_:,, t . )(r ts pro ~rpa mst •s n,c fr __ poe!!ls. 05 '!J:, P.i'ip.. t:lk hs a ~out hhis ownb deathb1.· ~shev<le ~al The is a poem tot 11c:T s ou 1 ct not ave een pu 1 is e . narra t or says he was " living ancl in Harlem . And , t oy ing wit h h is dy ing and dreaming " all at the same time .--the. of Wright ' s "sudd en <lea t h , " own fa te 1.n~-1ake he recalls the elder writer ' s " p roph ecy" ~ t hat he too "soon would be dead ." The theme o f death can be found i~ eces 1ffe often moral , spiritual or physical/ as in aayde i "T 1e Death of a ,·egro Poet, " " Prelude for Dixie," (\ "Four Sheets to t l1e i ind , " "T'!1r ce Sons ," " Asylum " and all of The \1right Poems. I t - - - - - - - -- - �I n "Watt s ," iµtth ~ d1i e.s~ he ,z«!IS . of fea r , h orro r, hist o r y and a n gui s i ~enera t ions J~ epig r amma tic fury ~ f, a de c ep tively a pp arent e ase: .Iust I shoot t l1e .:,/ whit e man dead to free t he nigger ~ i n h i s head ? ~ l ~~-,eal~ ass e ssne nt of P.ive rs 't poetry , Haki )1a dhubuti (Lee) said tl1is :,oer.i. " asks a rev olut iona r y question" (Dynamit e Voices , Vo l. I) . . -w, Su ch a II ,son e l ~ 11 question , .__ of cou r se , t,f o n tin ~ turns or revolves . own semanti c s aside , t he corunent is blind to ~ i vers ' •~ co. vs;<! \"(l.C.I~ fears and sores/{¥@ L I by America ' SA_,"1i gh tmare . ~LApg-r::;· woula na '<e answe r s ~nDt4 verbal · t ut , ~1tl.e w1th Q &111 · At he I -ff1~1 I- e kn ew . <leep nei1ht "' , .-J\5imp1e~r"l'\.1n::,ed these h ur ts disappe ar . AF, · , suc h criticisn violates the poer.i. , robbin~ t he poe t of his many - l aye r ed conce rns and analytical po ve r s . River~ is not a l l sombe r antJ b l eak , h owev e r; in ro ic e of llarlem 1 1 he annou ces : 1 " The Sti l l ~ I o.m t he hope a nd t omo r r ow of you r unbo r n . t:ven a1:1icl M -., t h e contradictions and unce rt a i n ti e s of r a cia l/ p olitical p ing-pan~ ( " I n De f ens e of Bl a c k Poets") ! q A b lac· p oe t mu s t r eMember the horrors . Especially since Some black kid is bound to read you. ~~1 " Note on Black \ omen" asks (\t: liey teach the poet "honor ," "humor ," and " how to die, " p resumably t he r ebo rning death . s 1ee t . ( The Wright Poems is an cle~ " To Ilichard :{ri gh t " excla i r;,. s/ alnost with defeat ; -ttrn1:- c �P To . e born unno tic ed is t o be born b lack , and l e ft out of the gr and adventure. A n o t h e r " ~ Wri2;ht " ~ refers to t he novelist as f young J esus of the black noun and verb . Other poems find the poet wandering or searching through the "spirits" or " bones " of Yvright . In "A Hourning Letter from Parisj ' Rivers recalls knowing and feeli n 5 ~eve~o.L O ( . h,,. g1--aeu,~ui~u~eu~L;sl.-.ct pl"iti~d ,~~" ~•pTe,.,b•"' ,,1s~_,-1sse1~ l1lockhl!I • .. Of.r.,_, sinilar in feelin g ancl the~• ~t,ialmost neve r in voice and £,. · I\ f-let111f se 1 "Harlem's hone~ed voice." y'l,L~ r: roe... , f orm, is t11e work o f ~ ur:ia ~ whoA 11 ·, e,.,r tude ranges acro ss ti::rre and space ." "Oum~ &mer mui fe rn in Sweet T!onc , .\rkansas ,1'.move<l t o ~iew Yo r k when he was @ year s ~ old and completed publi c schools in that city . He attende~ ity College of New York and Rutgers between stints in the Air Force and other activities . Active on the little'=' maga z i n e circui t , he won a number of m,ards and helped establish several publications. At the time of is death, he was teaching at Southern Illinois Unive rsit y ' s Experiment in Hi gher Educa tion in East St . Louis . In 1970, SI ' Press pub l i shed two pos t humous l y collected volur:ies: Poetry for My Pe ople and Chatfield and Redmond. II eiti"~t\ ~ the nev ,rt; ± . (.ot1ctrt'\S l @ uistic :L....c~~ --~----t:::- fr "t· I I ·· qr Play Ebony Play Ivory ,' Though there hav e c:::'\<> <> <> -r• - t . > - • 3'5ttWB!e ) and Wr i ght ' s Introduction is retained in -H1AA i~c.nTI t',es ir\the Wri ght, hi111self a major poet of '-t era , ; 31\ and ca musical range of Dumas : of history. - - - - - - - -- -- -- - - - - - It is indicative In "Emoyeni, Place of the Winds," ~ <> - - poet r y, Jay Wright and Baraka f None of this is perverse, intellectual play . of Duma r; ~ ~ lledmond. •o ~ been no full-length critical studies of Dumas 'i assess ed him in the SIU • "'°"ts h,"7~tltt. ,-elitt r'~ 1fltd Random House ref} ssuectN1•A o·t 1 l · .!¥'4 "'""" •: ( Ark of Bon ' 1 and Other Stories, edited ~ Hale �he writes "I sec wi th n skin and hear with my tonf, uc." . . . The line , I sug~e st, as s e rt s some elementary truth about 1 ' 1 an d not a 1 one Dumas ~ ' Dumas A!. is grounded in that line . · . poetic tee h n1ques . Th 1s . b oo ~( . • What Dumas means i ~ t hat t here are racial and social determinants of per cept ion, ideas that he was j us t be ginning t o develop . The mind a rticula tes wha t the senses have selec ted from t he field, and t his articu- tion is, in part, determined by wha t the perceiver has learnc (?: f a I l. Id &S 68ilfa§ to did , Cii&E IE &JS& I 11 s In ' lI] hea r with my to ngue," Dumas asserts t ha t t he language you sp eak i s a way of defi ning your s e lf within a ::;roup . The language of the Blad· community , as uith that of any ~roup , t akes i t s fo r m, it s image r y , its vocabula r y , bec ause Black people wan t t:1em tha t .-1ay . Language can prot e ct, exclude, expr e s s va ue , as we ll as asse rt i den t i t y . is why Dumas ' language is the way it is. Tha t In t he r hy t hm of it, is t he act , the unique manner of perc ep tion of a Blact JI L1~n. ~}I.<_ rr- iJritinz with the r emoved passion of t he friend t ha t he was , Wright makes vital statements not only abou t Dumas but about t he~ • of f 1a c k creativity , perception and s tance in the wo r ld . Indeed Dumas jutted al l t hese a ntennae r from his poe t r ~ which he wrote to ma intain "oul\ precious tradition . " guistically , Dumas i Lin base is formal English, a blend of / lack African languages, Arabic , and Gullah from the islands off the Carolinas and Georgia . His cosmos �is shape<l by th e ric h t extures o[/ lacl· religious and spiritual life , expecially ol<l ": tir.1e church services a1~::V= ot. Hri g.1t notes : and gospel music, part icular ly , wer e his lif e breath . "The blues Only Langs ton Hughes knew more , ~ rat least as much , about gospel and gospel singers ..•. fi usic seemed to Dumas to be able to carry the burden of d irect participation in t he act of l iving , as no poem, t ha t was not musically structured, could • •.. " And o "Dumas was searching for an anal, gous structure fo r poetry . " ~ s a poet , \,\, iama8 combines t he past, pres ent and future , often ins epar ab l y , as in "Play Ebony Play I vory": (t, fo r t he songless , the dead who rot t he earth all these dea<l whose sour uted tongues speak broken chords, all t hese aging people poison t he heart of earci1 . Curses and curdles , mys ticism, bles sings and warnings -....,_---:.-------- (_t_, aboun~(,?;te'_?: / Vodu ) r een clinchi ng h is wais t , obi purple ringing his neck, Shango , God of the sp iri t s , whispering in his ear, thunderlight s t abbing the islan,1 of blood ris i ng f rom h is skull . ~ Later in t h is s ame poem r~ ~,~ , ~~ c.$,, precedenf over al l; what nust the wo rrf -"- ake s come , mus t come: .... �~ u No power can stay the mo j o when the obi is pur ple and the vodu is green and Shango is whi sper in~ , Tiathe me i n bloo d . I am not clean. l&\\C.~ " ·~ His int e rcontinental, int r gal~ ~exp lor es command . •~ JIIJi!ll,,a. plw" ny ,,,soa1k5 a and all devices at his t h e dens e rhythms ( " of per cef t i on" ) as in " Ngoma; ' he compares the belly of a pregnan t woman to t he d r um head . NV-... JJ;,I A hvJ/;x,. ruJ/ Thel\••Os r /" listens t o the baby ' s heart; the drummer lis tens to the v oi ce~~-t the ancestors :~r>t'IJ aiwa a iwa it is the ch est-sound same t hat booms my ches t a s tron g sound runnine l i ke fee t of gazelle I the 3oa t - s k in sin~s the boom- s ound l oude r _/ 0 louder sings t he goa t - s k in l ouder ~ t he ~oa t-skin sings the -boom- s ound l oude r (J s ings the goat-skin loude r l oude r l ouder boom the goa t-sk i n b:,om-s ound louder Ll louder louder ;f.,uc:"t!NIC ~ Th e rich, cxpe ri~c nt a iwJ.anguage , couched i n severa l " tradi tion s , " i s seen �e TQ-C"H lere in this r1a_io r voi. e ( " from Jackhm;meJ""): The j nck_' ack ,ackin;-\ back .::md s t ad:in~ stone city- stone i to crac1:ed hydraulic echoes of dust0 ()c (" P,oot Son~"): r Once lhen I was tr ee flesh c ame and worsh p e d at my root s . Son<:; of Flesh ") love) ~ naddened :!!~➔ h and need : Uhen I awoke) I took the s l e e p inG Mountains of your breasts t e n de rly tenderly hctrve e:-t m' ~uive r i ~ ips and I nuillotiaed the stallion s, drm-me d the ea ~les , anJ r ove t . e t i ge r f is h back into the sea o f our h eart . There are also "-.1cmy" ? Oets in Dumas . \Ja l ke r , coupled with t h e best of t h e rir'ling p oets of the s i x t ies) ~ pr oduces - - sanguine and hul:lorous / 1.:ick tr u t h ( " I Laugh Talk Joke " ): @) i lau ~h taF: joke s;;ioke <lope sk i p r op e, r;1ay tak e a coke jum? up and down , ua l k around dr i:1L nash and t a ;z tras 1 't)OY \Jith a bricl: tno c k a no-le~~e<l man to 11is ben<le<l knees _ _ _____________ - ..._ - -- - -ri.,~ �cause I ' ~ a movinl [ool nev 3r teen to school ~oJ raiseJ □e an tie devil pra i se<l 1i1e ( catch a :ireac her in a hoat anu slit his t;1roat pass a c:1urc , but 1 on ' t fuck wi th me c a use I uon ' t p l ay6 T, e r e are e;,ic poens r I ,. ~ "::osaic Earlem" and " r.enesis on an Endless !-!osaic ," a b~ues se ries, experi;1ents in African forms (us ins s pontaneity and ri t ual) , (•.,; anJ ,. ys ti cal/ explorator:· rioer.1s ~ 1 1./ .i i0v '') <lnd J ,, ~------ - - - - j) hou?"hts/Ima c; es ;' D:!_, '1 -:efs and Sab . MV$1C4.L po,,,. ~:-tw" ,s on'.) " '.:;aba"tfuma s u se _, bizarre iuage r yA to render ~hard to des cribe : s trc.:i;:is st r i::ins .:tor t a I 1vi., raphones sx vein i n~s I :nyr iads of fl a ~ella flu c .· sin~ r it e 0 Duma s possessed a ~ und less love fo r tr,e a coustic al lea p a n d the <l r ama ti c " i:nplo s ion" ( as :1e i_mt it ) of ideas in poe t r y . have on f.t ack poe t ry r e~a i ns t o he seen . 01 · ~ •"f.~,,~,..~ J.l/;.'lis uo r k , ~ lu - - - ---- \· 1at inf l u e nc e h i s i dea\ wi l l \ll.f,5~,I/Pk1~!eu!li;ft;;J $';'", ""'f A iJ- r.1uc'.1 0f it writ t en in t ~ie e arly and , i d t i x ti es , hacl K' ee n �o.. ,.;-. i"ct\a.L ..&...,,r i7T77iiil7J\of ~ ,,., Li the/e; ,- lack available inAcollcct ~ - wh e n the ~ ~:, C:,(.LV~r e(i -~ / oetryl\crs ];gjpg xws;rt The America n t e mperament (disfavoring tellin g their truths) kept Duma s and Rivers running . f lack writers Dumas sought his p eace in t ,1e deep well of his own fo l k culture and in occ a sio n a l e xcursions into r:1ysticism , Africa~ an<l Vo odoo . Ri v ers buried himsel f in the "identity" '-" i ssues and b ro oded ove r his plig1t as a b rilliant Black in a country where Ja -&it...., /i) ,:A~ess,,..,,..,. of buwn'f'~ OIM•y t he t wo adjectives to ge ther are ne ithe r b elievab l + or leg itimate both left~ e na cies .fo~ ..c.c,, .....,. QAl.4-~•·,,, (l,.. ad.it'.,.,;;~ ._ C1¥~eU.,lo"1 ''lffN-r l)u...S: 1.e,aoi .~.. 1..., ~ siK9e.-"tiJl<l.lA#~ 1 B. ' Griefs of Joy~ (t, The Poetr of Win° s & The Black Arts Hovement ® P • ~ No1 not":lin~ remains the same . And my spirit reach es out to y ou ny love without apol o g ies ui t ho ut embarra ssment uith only t he t h oueh t t h at this is ri:--,ht for us t~at novin 0 towar d s you is lik e touch ing leav e s i n a utumti ..... .... o ur minds and spirits Lnterlocked like death . I - ~ - ~ nkie Gord on Lane , " g riefs of joy" ) - One major difference between t he cultural /p ol i tical upsurg es of t h e twe n t i es and the six ties/ seventies wa s location : ._ the / enaissance was alwa y s e eog raphically , in Harlem; but its ..UN~ ~ . . , . f.e-.o.J.; ~ ~ p p 1 I~~ ti; �recent successors can be found in every North American community with a substantial ;(l a ck population Another difference was in degree of artistic-political consciousnes. To be sure, the cultural and po litical arms of the _)(enaissance were, on occasion, interlocke. But such marriages never reached the current state of "wholeness" and "continui t-kfJflr.n the "stars" of the / ewr i vi ties "outside" early days of this period there were (are) ack / oetry1' but the glitter often attended ac '!!!!' the poetry@ Or, put differently, the stars some time s put "outside" topical stimu li 11 inside 11 what is no longer defensi.,l ble a "poetr ." This oft en meant that the star poets h a d no connecti on whatever with a/ lack l i t erary or folk poetry ~radit i on as such Int stead, theirs was a "tradition" of i Jm11e* ~ ~ca l urgency , and n ewspaper headlines , combined with high-school type punch-linin ~ it is " This ed. is not to say good '- poetry (ef eda:te:,t; e,.e'!l."f\defin:.i;ier) was (is) not being written or that charlatans were al ways t ~n the take~ " There i s much evi dence to suppo r t the beli ef that do zen s of these soothsayers were sincere and honest itand had chosen what appea red to be the "simplest " and "fas t est" vehicle for expressing t h ough.ts about i evolution~ and j 1ack f ogethe:r_:: ness" or raising the 11 / ollecti ve J nsciousnes 0 • " Such a situation was not helped by t he learned poet-activists who sometimes advised young writers to give up "Western" influenees and a "white" languag e. These advis f rs usually stopped short of suggesting ways in which young poets and write rs mi ght assimi late another language into their work. Yet this need to identify and institute an alternative language is a pressing one. In the meantime, impressive contributions toward such a realization have ~ been made by SillaP beacons .-t(ames Weldon Johnson, Melvin Tolson, Mart garet Walker, Henry Duma s, Ishmael Reed, Jayne Cortez and others. However, the insincere versifiers usually fell by the wayside in a short t ime, paving the way, like th e Phoenix bird, for still more so ap ~ '--' box_moun..ters At tha same. t.imeJ !:l numb e ,.. o f' poets ~ <-f-7Z )IOSG. w-\ t s and er fts w -re �not about the1:1 in t'.ie ea rly p iase~ ~<l t o become much better handlers of t'.1e word . a'/;f;:n;;;;t. h vio l ence ." 1 this o ccurred, La rry ~ea l notes , a~ainst In e::, by over ..\1,re-ris a had been tu r ned U?v::ide of t he_l1acy Charles oen , the late six tie s,, f lack conuaunities a ll own by po lic e and spokesmen/suppo rters ~~ evo lut ion . " ~ung ;hock troopers " " Carmichael , ,.µr own, on Karenga , Huey Newton , and El 1.-f Cleaver had already )t1.~ forced t. e " ol :: time" Jrrack leadership to ta e a s a t. ~· Jiow , wit ~ father estroyed son ( n lliams , Baldwin) , the poe ts were free to decl a im , ...J er4.. l, tradi tion,~ 'T is t rend a lone ~ s'1oc ~ theJ p oetic p ocla.:i!:J.. .an-<l ....___.,,,, ., /{. having a.en since it cr eated a flood of polemicists and pamphl e teers who c ou ld / wo u l d ;n not discuss p oetry int,l_listorical cont ext s. It caused fu rt her s ho ck b y abelin:--- itse f "f lack" a c rene ~otiating its own " roo t s ." h s a pear ed th rou l':hout the his tor i was not use<l as Ilene ~ much of t he categorical ye .; p ack oet r ('fhe wo r d '1 lack" of f lack poe t ry, but before the sixties "-*tf.nc.e1o ( ■ poet r y written by Afro - Ar:lericans.) h as been vie ,ed as non- poe try or anti-po et ry d11~ (in a t radit i o na l lite r a r _ context ~ u ecaus ~ araon g other things , i t tiftttf.not d epend prir:larily on sub t le t y a !ld recond ~te r e fer e nces . ~t r eNains to be ~A~uLl)rieJu.-e t1 f' seen wha t impact this i!l :.f ro-A':!erica . Rt · • ..___..,, 2 is~ ..__,. ~ (o.-La~~ ac:~ poetry will have on t 11e lite r a~ rencls Jackson (~lac ~ Poe try in A!'1erica), for example , begins his o·m <l iscusslon of t l1e/ ew _/lack / oet r by bui lcli g a convincing -Nie. riew an<1lo;;y be t ueen t he rise in / lac · lit e racy and the popularit y of"-poetry . 1 Hen erson (lJn<lerstant.l i nr; t he ~~ew Black Poet ry) .::issures his reade rs that f .::ic k rec1de rs o r liste.ers clearly " unde rst a nd" what t he ir poets a re sayinz and are rnrticipatin~ r.!ore and more .:is judges of qualities in the poe try and t he poe ts ' deliv e ries. ~ ~ ~ aes t he t ic* t while t '.1is cha pte r will conclut.l e with a f ew broad cri tical observa t ions , t he i;;unediate aim is to �ca r::::=--... c1ue the sketcl1 of th e poetry ' s devel opment, interpolating : ro.i time to - t i::-. .: -..__-- -pertinent critica and illuninat i ng data . 1 here a r e dozens of ways t o a pproach t hy ewr fo r ~ a ck_/oet ry . ~xample , exanine its theme , s tructure and saturat ion (Henderson), or it s - - - - several t ypes (Carolyn Podgers; see biblio gr aphy) . i mp~ Starting with rt ant nar:es is another \.Ja y ; the / lack -jesth etic (Gayle, Fuller ) approach is - _ .:mot· er \Jay . .,..-----....., 1• One coulJ , e a ;:::.:_____...l , Dumas) . 4!SIP','\usic is a l s o a favorite 0.f p_t-00..l ~ ( !t!2!-J---- Crouch , &ei1&21 One c ould go on and o > but the poetry has been Har ~ e r, Jayne Cortez) . wr~ ten and one place to start is wi t h its emer gence . - j New York certainly pl ayed a key role in the new movement, but it did n ae-;:::::::::-,. ,tJ.,tY"e said earlier, p lay t h e k ey or only role, Ar eas of the Eas t _ _....:..;."':.ohia, Bos to<:, Baltimore , ; a s\d ng ton , D.C.) enhanced .....the boo,;-, ce~ Ree:lJ Then there is t he mag ic of } lack ~oe try ( araJr.j, Taunt (Phil'lt, ,!idwes t .cers were Cleveland , Chicago , Detroit, East St . Louis-St . Louis.__/ , and Rela ted events also took place in the South1 to name some . wh~ ~ re t, ere was anothe r "rising" in Atlan t a, }!ashville , Jackson, Baton ~cC-_ __-_. ~ ~e, Tuske~ee , :ou stonl a n! Toogaloo. The Hest added richl>; from Los ;i.,, :.~ -= · e les, San Francisco Bay a rea ~ amento • and Seatt::_::..:) ~ -t t 1nc.hJie -·--=.,;;,~ ,-- - - -~ e.. (connected ...:~ ,elopments r elated to~poe t r y ..-ie~numerous f1 ack / rts activities settlement houses, conn:iun ity t ______... cultural or nat i onalist programs) fo r the dissemination of ideolo gies, anti- poverty ~ - - - c2n t ers, nuseums, centers . . . i ns titutions . - -- - p ~oj ects, and educational Svr,v.or"t:lfcl~i]O.L~o\ fn #re /:oi,, wJo la l '-.: lack-oriented plethora o ~t,.,.. :: lyers, pos ters, books, p::imphlets t and re cords . '--" c:,e ne~ ~ L d journals, ~f great ---importance were lack books tores , Af rican curio shops , i-, alls of "respect (Cl eveland, :.kron, Chicago, St . Louis , :ilcw York, Newarl9 ) . . . . art exhibits, weekly ....___.., f es tivals and jubilees, 1 1 ri t e rs ' con ferences, writing workshops, the flood �'1V of liber a ti o n fl ag s (blac k- g r een - r e d ) ,/ .l a ck-orien t ed tal k and va ri ety O "c vl1v"6..L;r,boi.~ /,1/tliy . ~ shows, and oth er phys ical,\1p(:rnn:>---o .gneftaitai handshakes_!,-eer-~u&a i ~African (:pt.C.;tll.... clothes , h aird o s and j ewelry) . New York was an imp o r tant showj place for the It had t h e r esid u e of t he pos1 fenaissance years ( the new consc iousness . t omburg Library and . fic heaux ' s Bo okstore ) in Har lem as well as numerous 1fL~d<- s u rround i ~ ltommun i ti es . r1 ew · o r ganizations "the. s uch a s ta-. Barb ara Ann Teer ' s Na tional Black Theater , f\New Lafayette Theater, V"-""'w'shew ~ :lro..tec.T5 a n d .a.rNiarlem fultural-1; l · 1 f l owered i n t h e amazed light of~ older insti y a t u t ions ttke Freedomwa y s ma azine (Clarke and ::::,St - Kaiser )) which has published many of the n ew poets : J a u r e ._ ( Sne lling s ); Hadhubuti (Lee), Henderson, {n. Wrig ht, Clarence Reed, ~lel ton Smith, Llp yd T . Delaney, W fa r i Evans and oth e rs. Joanne Gonzales, Freedomwa rs a l so offers liv ely revi ews and commentaries on poetry , lit e rature and the/ l a c k j r t s scene . From t he variegated atmos ph e r e of New York g ushed forth a tid e of l a c k poe t s, s ome z!r / (1 937 ' 1n olnero.\"'eO.S hwi'nei JI 11'rr!a d e t . e i r T:Jarl~ earlie, r Henderson , Larry - ) , Peed, Pa t te r son, Su~t Ra , • • • June Jo r dan (193 6~ ) , S ·\C. Ande r son (19L,Jf ( 193 6J ), Jo.mes Ay-Uri5ron :to r1e s Lennox Ra phael (19404 _ _.,...___ K~li Cla renc e ' :ajor ( 1 J6l ~ - ) Ray Johns , ("J Odaro (Ilarbara Ronald Ston~.). ) Ba r bara Simno s, ) , Spell . a n , Edward Spr i j \)out,4h»'Y ) ',\Lorenzo Thomas (19441. 1 ) (1934/4, ), LOY'(} (I Cf4 .7 ), ) ,~fi chard Thomas ) , Teel Uils~ ~"floyd Addison ( 1931,6 Q'Ufi' ) r( ~ G.-csverio~6ct'1oN ':> ) , Jay Wr i ght (1935~ r:attic :!. Cumb~ Pritchard (1939,¢ ~ ) , Clarenc e I'. e e , f(us ef Rahman Le f t y Sin s , Helt on ~-nit h ( 1940 (19J 9L i'dH. 3bf Q-f · Hand{Yusef I na / sho..,,~n"&r;;Jri Jone s, 1 '.J .'.;. 6/2 Ai , Lebert Bethune (1 93717 ) '/\John A. iJillia Bobb Hamilt { , ), ) , Albe rt Haynes (fl.u ren ce A~ln~ ( 1Q47 ) ," Howa r d Jones (r94 ~ ) , Hernton , Ouint in llil _ (19 50} Ba r a k a , Aud r e Lor e , John .fajo r (19 ~ 1 eal I • anes Arlin;;ton J ones (193 47 O"lt1-5f ) ), ) , Jayne Cortez (via Watt s?J o.- _ _ , . . . - - ~ I::1anu e l, Ca lvin Fo r be j, Alexis Deve,tux (195 ~ , ) , Ni <ki Giovanni �Djangatolum (Lloyll ~l. Corb i n) Q.9lf9~ (19 40 1 Julius Lester (19 39 ~ ), ~q44 ') Simmons~ (194 7/; .@!!Ill ), Ron We lburn (1 944 ) , Tom \ eatherly (1942~ (via Fisk , 1943,f / elipe Luciano (19 47~ ) , Rhonda K.rl. Pr e stwid" ) , Ha e Jackson (1946;] Lof t i n (1950~7 ) , Elo'tt,s Gy lr.un ~<l r( ) , At:harles· Lynch (1943 <l'fro~ ;1i ll~, ~od i ·81tO.VOfl , ?.'- w 1 ) ' ), Joe Johnson ), Judy ), L-V· Hack arry Thompson (1950,J ) , I' The New Yor k pack/ rts scene (poe tr y specifically) was a 11f a- whir with the excitement of pub lishing and reading poet r y a loud at the infinite number of ~a t herings . olde r , often revived, ones . his death in 196 7 . ~ poetry1 which ;,as i1{!!!;1-T/ Joini n8 these younger uri t ers were Hugh es over saw much of t he proceeding s until .And there were ol<l , a s wel l as new , out lets fo r t 1e beint.'b:~,i ~!~~/~ollo , Carnegie Hall, .;ew Lafayette Theater , Sl u ~ a s t , ,\'"a" t : .acia Polok, a nd in count l ess c omraun it y cent er s and churches . Host of these poe t s were no t native even were not pcrpllll ew Yo r ker s ; and a great numb e r 1 lly t he re during t he height of the Bl ack Arts .tovement /~ o~ i~.,✓e ------1 in · \ out 1 yi· ng area.sf\ b ut u ~ R,r i· age ' port , (Yout h, Il,ri. d s e ) Ya 1 e , F c e d onia . , 1 Brockport , Rutgers, Brooklyn , Bost on (El ma Lewis's Center for Afro- American Alll Blc,,(. KAc.o.demy of ~~T.i o.nd Le.'ttei,-.s Culture;f !.., e d 30:,_t'errs• 3 1 csam,::; But while they had s epar a te / iack / rts programs, mos t loo ed t o t he movement in New Yo r k . Wo r kshop ther e were In addition to t he Umbra /µ_ Harlem Hriters Guild (Clarke , 'illens) , Frederick (\ Douglass Creative Arts Center♦ Poetry Workshop , the Af ro-Hispanic Workshop, Workshop for Young 1/rit e rs , the Columbia Writinr,,;o gram (Killens );:frack Qv~·-t..ttbLe to-ffie poet~ Arts Repertory and Thea tre /School (Baraka , Snell twe Amo ng the new journals/\ Umbra (1 963) , Soulb ook (1964) , Bl ack Dialo½ue (1965), Journal of Bla ck Poetry (196 6) (iron ic ally , the last three we r e begun on the f e st ~oast), Prid~ Black Theitre (1969), Cric·et (1969), Bla ck Crea tion (1969), Af r oAme rican : - -- - -- - - - �/ T:1lrd ~·h.Jr } ._ : LiLerar:,' J ou r na l (1 9 73 , Sy rncuse ), BOP (Bla cks on Paper, Brown L'nive r s it y , 19'rj4 ), Con tinu ities : !ords f r om t he ConlI'l.unities of Pa n - Afr i ca j ( Cit y Colle?,e ~~ew York, l9 7 l~, I mpressions (197l•), Cosmic Co lon,1 ~l.,tf~ ' ~ /\ -~ bS I'dl @ ' -/\( •r e doni a , 1975). urin g a spee c h a t Howa rd Univers it y ' s Fir st Tational Conf erence of fr o ~ e rican .Jriters (November + 19 74), Tour /, recountinb the tumu l tuo us y ears a n<l developments, sai d those res ponsible for t .1e :fl ack a rts a nd a e s th e ti c mo v ement " ,,ere " a ctivists as well as artists ." It seemed \...e~' :!ones so, f or this partic ula r patt e r n wa s mos t obvious a s 11:ai tthlf,\ returned to Newark (r e nal"lin ~ it ff, 11 1 e r.; • r k " ) and c h ange d h is name l i mamu Amiri Barak't , reflect i n g "n h il'Yl .1. _ - . ~ olor ," he UJeAT"n L JJl to t h e g r eat inf l uence of the Na t ion of I slaliY\and MSl{'h~S~ in Af rican ovn~1v l3Lo.d:. A-,_-fl eepe►tory-!t,eaf;e ct~ felt"°"'/.. cultur e . Hav i ng AL '/\'to re - edu cate the near l y ha lf a million Harlem 1:e:; roe s t o f ind a ( ~ewark ) ~ and ~~ .me s.,...... Free Sc~10ol (with i t s t(awai<la a Un ified :;ewar k , ar. ventio ns . ~:e ,-,a establish Sp irit House Spi rit liouse Playe r s and ~-lover s , the Af rican oc t"!'.'ine) , J ihad Publications , Committee fo r to ;ielp l a unch several na tio nal / a LOun,ler (1?7')) of lack political c ori, the~c.er,1}K.g, stri fe -r i J. <len Cong ress of African Peo p l es . Du r ln~ t he 1;G7 riots (insurre ctions) in Newark , na rak a was arr es t ed uith severa l cor:1:),.nions nev e r " ; 11 u:-ic. ch.:ir,;eci wit h p ossession o f two handguns and :1e owes you a nyt:i.in~ . o u ~,ant , e ven h i s life"; " Up against the wall n o t berfuc '. ;cr t:iis is :.i s tick up ! ·•; " Snas 1 the win<low at ni3ht 11 ; " Le t ' s ge t t ogether a nu kill ',iin r.1y n an": I • ·" �r) ... 8t 1 s z et t o ~e t ~e r t he f ruit of th e sun , l e t ' s make award we want b l ack f l c!1iLl r e n t ~row 311d l earn in do no t l e t your chil ·ren when t hey g row look f J i n yo ur face and curse yo u by p ity inz your tarnish ways . 1r k C4.U It was the k ind of,.__. . . . . ar~ . a ge tha t ch_aracterized Bara a I s ve....se.. ( p oets ')" lso..v-t11.\~o.. wo.s l4fi-' ~<jwT!d, bv1' 1; .- betwee n 1965Al969 . ~,imig tl:is pui~,"-.@h;c:clJIJ ! £2 t dev e lo pment~ occur red. wkom h.e me-t 1(.hile tea chin;; ~ tr»nll. . aui,\ other / 1ack· 7l / I a number of /\ett-Go ~o.T~ I mp res s ed by the Up, ~{~~~i , ~o f Ron Karenga ~-.i g at San Francis c o St ate Coll ege in 196 7 ) , l!! 1a ~~ ~ t).J --------- returned t o ;lewark and organ i zed t he Bl a c k Conununit y Devel o pment a nd De f e nse Organiz.:ition ( BCD) . /1-ac ~ !iis e ffo rts e ventu a ll y a i de d in t he e lection of a c\evelo pm ~ f:S nay o r { Kenneth r:ibson) . Ti1ese 'ii11i: 20 " sl\.were hav ing z r ea t i mpa c t on r e?, ional and natio na1/1a c;c po l::.tica l/ poetry scenes . Bar aka ' s p icture•pasfei,,. f (wit h bandages from t h ~ 196 7 s cuffle with Newark po l i c e) bega n app earing o n ~ al l s of cultural centers, do r i t o rie s and homes . ~~::Uy ob servers were sonew'1at ~ : ::-:· o " ~arakq , '.1nving seen h i m go t :1rou~:1 the " ch ang es" k!tl!:::::::__1_·_t___ f r o11 / e a t poe t ·__03ssz _r: to Ha rlem and / lack / rts , into Newark an<l p olitic a l u ork , l( f o r ~reat insight into all t h is, see Theodore Huds o n ' s F rom Le Roi Jones t o .-1.rrriri Tia raka , 1973~ ♦ in most c en t ers o f t he /ew)'(lac ·/ . ~ Ye t Daraka ' s influenc e, ~ fe lt -.....,/ oe try -and even in p laces wher e h i s poetry had no t ac tual l y been read; or, if r ea<l, no t fully unde r stood a nd d i ges t ed . It was ·not unusual to b.ear a f lack y outh quo te a few lines from a poster \ poem or from a l i ve re a d ing , bu t who , when questioned ab ou t Ba r a .·a ' s works , di d not know the name of a sing l e on e . - - - -- - - - - - - - Af ter The Dead Lecturer, Bar aka (also p laywright) published Black ,. [agic : -- -- - - - �Poetrv ,19Glk l967 (1 ;69 ), In ~ur Ter ribleness (1970), Sp irit, Reach (1 972) , . j as well as nu171e rous e_,says an sto ries . Hitli Hea l :1e codJdi te<l Blac'- Fi re (1 963 )) which , along wit ~1 Hajor's The -;-rew I', lack Poetry (1969) show!,cased the new poetry). In the Fo ~ rd to Black Fire , Baraka called ~ founding Fathers and ~-lathers , of our nation . ack artists "the lJe rise , as we rise (agin) the power of our beliefs , by the purity and s_t;rengt 1 0 f our actions . 11 ~~-t.. htw ~V'\Cl.lYI ma ~ a.ind s11n i~, he. v ,•e......,e.d in, poCI. o.n6 w,.iti~s: o.s :. J ~ . The black artist . The black man . The holy man. The nan you seek. ma ker of peace . you seek . speal~er. T~1e °lover . Look in. --- Find yr self . ..----------, Is you . on . Us1n_g his The We ar e t he y whom Find t he being , t he } 1over in yo ur soft Is the c reator. or r.1inus , you ve1icle ! co The wa w or . The voice , t he back d_~ eyec losings . selv e s. The climber t he striver. By Is no t i ng . Ue a r e presen t ing . Plus Your va rious We ar-e presenting , from God , a t one , yo ur own . Now . Ee t hus s e t • t he "tone"~ for poet..:,/philosophers , r e iterating at the same time ._,,. I ~ ~ b~n~ ouc· of what b Ii ' 11 ■■ iC \ J · ) -- ~ in other writings ao·O~!i the nD--u.60 • [Ieal, a percep tive cr i tic and balanced the or e t i cian, volunes: ..... ~ published t wo nlack Boogaloo: ...,,.:ate s on Black Libera tion (1969 , Journal of Black )V.I' Poe try Press , Fo nMJ rd by Jones) and Hootloo Hollerin' BeBop Ghosts (1975) . 1 Eis Afterwo r d t o Bl ack Fire is tantamo, nt to Hughes 'sfamou~\\ieclaration ~ £ t he twentie s . P esenting " artistic and ;-iolitical work" =A~~~ be "called a radical pe rspectiv,;' Black Fire s ho uld be read "as if it were a critical re-examination of He stern po lit ica l, social and artistic values ." and exhorting other writers, Neal continued: fr:re have been, for t he most par t, talking about contemporary Challenging �r eal iti es . {e have no t been t a l king about a re t ur n t o some glorious Af r ican pas t . t o tal past . , Bu t we recognize t he pas t --the ~1any of us r efu se t o acc ep t a trunc a t ed 1 'egro his t ory which cuts us off comp letely f rom our Afr ican "' ance s t!,ry. To do so is to acce pt t l1e very r a cist assump tions which we abhor . Rather , we wan t to comp r ehend h i s tory t otall y , a nd unders t and t he mani folc.l ways i n which cont,, L.::_emporary pr oblems a r e a ff e cted by i t. Speak ing aga i ns t t he hindsi~h t of ps ycho l ogy an<l turb u l enc e , ~cal added : / Ther e i s a t ens i on within Bl a ck Ame r ic a . its r oots i n t he gener al his t or y of rac e . And it has The manner in which we see th is h istory <le t ermines ;1ow ~,re act . shoul d we see t is h istory ? \ / it? How tfua t s hould we Eeel a out T is i s important to lrnm1 , b ecause t , e sense of how tha t his t or y s hould b e f e lt i s wha t e it!er unit es C separ a t e s us . Finally , he sums up wli.at can be cal le / lack/aet r y and t he I -:;1e B ;ick A~ts the cre<lo o r modus ooer anc.li of t i1yfew /V\,vement : artist and the po l itical a ½tiv ist a re one . both shapers of t ~e f uture r eality . They a r e Both unde r s tand and nanipula t e the co ll e c t iv e my t hs of t he race . war r i or s , pri ests , l ove r s and dest roye rs . Both a r e For the first v i o lenc e wil l be i nt ernal - the de st r uct i on of a weak ' sp ir i t ua l se lf fo r a more perfect sel f . be a ne ces s a r y vio l ence . nut i t will I t is the only t i ng that will de stroy the doub le- conscious ness/\'\ t he t en sion t ha t l2;;!. in t he souls of black fol k . - - - -- - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - �It w~s the ind of cha llen r; e t 1at sent man· a n ewly f ac~ened poet or a ctiv ist ·nto th e l on?; ni ~ht of the soul t o :rmr !;e h i 111s elf o f rea l or ima i; ined enemies of his peo p le . Poetically s peaking , however , it was Baraka 's " Black Art " tha t set much of the pace, form and violent tone in the/ ew J1- ack/ oetry ! Poems are bul lshit unless they are t ee th or trees o r lemons piled on a step . Or black l adies dying of me n leaving nic k e l h earts ea t in~ t hem dam . a nc.l t hey arc useful c ome at -·ou , Fuck poe1s w_v t h e y shoo t love what you are , rea t 11e li e wr estlers , or s m<lder s tr::m::;ely after pis sing . \.J e want live •o rd s or t he hip worlc.l live flesh & co urs i:1, , loocl . ::ea rts ~ r a ins So ul s sp 1 · nt e ri n;; like ~is t s be:itin ire . "' 0 ':.'e wan t 9oe as ni"•.:,v ·•e r s o ut o f J-to ' ck s o r cia:;:;e r poen s i:1 t h e sli my bell.:.es of o,mer- j ews . J l a c k poems t o sracar o n ~ir lena~_a nula tto bitches ,~ o s e br a ins a re red jelly stuck b etween ' lizabeth t a ylor ' s toes . \:-hares ! S tink ing \{ e want " ? oems t.1at k il l ." Assassin po~as, Poems tha t shoot Luns . Poems t ha t wr estle cops into a lleys - - -- - -- - - - - -- - -- - - �anc, ta1:/ . h ir \,eapo,1s leavh.;-: tlwm Jead 0 wit!1 t i ~ pulled ou t nnJ sen t t o IrclnnJ . l'.noc::off poems fo r Jap e s el l i n~ \vop s or slic -: l1.:1lfwh i te politicians Air p lane poems) rrrr r rrrrr r rrrrr ' rr rrr rrrrrrrrrr •.. t uhtuh t uh tuh t uh tuh tuhtuh t u 1 • •• rrrrrrr r rr r rrrr t · · · Se t t i ni fir e s and dea t h to wh i ties a s s . . .. He wan t a black po er:1 . / ,\ nd r. l a c .~ ~Jorld. et t!1e uorld . e a D acl~ Poem And let All Blac . Peep e Speak This Peen Silent y ~ --- o r LO 11 7) 0 . _ ~nack Art " · m s often cited as t . e sanguine embodi1:1ent o / est. e tic n d a rejection o f w1 ite cul ture and life( st y l e . t he J1 acl~ oems , llaraka s t at es , mus t not onl~ , a ve ~u t s am, ea rt h i ness (lil e Blac k s )) bu t t!1ey mus t a lso be we apo n s a nd shield s ag ains t raci s m, pol ice , me r c han t s , 1ustlers , . ,,.... croo k e d poli t icia ns a nd s t a t us - c i nb inr f l a c k bou r g e o~ ~ - )Ove a ll , they s houl d e xal1/1- a c knes s ( " sons ," " l o ver s , " " warr iors ," " po e t s , " a nd " a ll the loveline s s he r e in t h i s world ." ) The s ej then/ are t he domi nant t h e mes in much ....., o f t he_}(e~ et r y and t he ph ilosoph i e s stat e d (with radical d ivergenc• e s) -~ f r om coa s t t o co ast . >a raka ' s pu r :;e e xt e nds t h r o u gh/\ poems ~ tft- v " Poem for Ha l fl lhite Co ll ege Stu dent s ," " T1 e Ra cis t ," "L i t tl e Brown J u ~" ( " T,TE ARE GODS" ) , 11 1 .1. W. " (a t ta ck on wi3-wea rin; /Omen ), " CIVIL RI GHTS POE~l" ( " Ro ywi lkins i s an e t erna l fa ggo t " ), " Ka ' Ba ," and f i nal l y , in " l e r oy , " h i s l as t wi ll a nd test ament : �t~1en I di e , t he consciousness I ca rry I will t o bla c people . Nay t hey pick me apart and t ake t he useful part s , the s wee t meat of my feelings. And leave th e bitter bullshit r ott en ~ ite parts alone . But there ar e also sensitive love poems in t!1e lat er pe riod , poems caught up in tl1e stressed life of / lackness ("Sterling Street Sep tembe r"): "the beautiful black man, and you, girl, child nigh tlove, ••• : \.....,, We are s t range in a wa y because we know who we are . Black beings passing thr oug:1 a to rtur ed passa e of flesh . ,-.rd' In h is Fo~ r d to Black Boo~aloo , Baraka says of the world: €/h""if1 /]11 ~o..~Q W4S p11obo..GLy rt~ ;"e.,,~,ni n, -hil,,,set I..)~ poets will change i(f,"A What " t he so l die r Teal ' s volume c iange d has not ye t been ascertained but it c e rta inly contains ambitious a nd successful poetrv. - His debt t o t ,1e ~~ /4 older generatio n of poets, artist s am.I thinke rsi can be seen in" po ems Mle~ ✓ " ueen .. la t her ' s e rmon, " " The ~1id le assahe and After ," " Love Song in t he lliddle Passage," " Garvey ' s Ghost,"" ady Day, " " Harl em Gall e r y : J rom t he ~ Inside,i" ,( "~!alc ol m x- '-//.n Au tobio gr aphy .". P.aking u s e of my sticism, chan t and musicographic int er polations >J .. eal ( Dumas) i s ef fe ct i v e~ moving ,r ens i n~\ and feelin g : f Olorum Olorum Olorum. . . . a,,v,{ The horror of "The ! idJle Passagel\Af t e r " is seen in the " Decked, stac ked , pillaged" slave s . "Lung Song in }!iddle Passage " views th e t ' Red ~l ow of sea-death mornings. �Other poems ( " on~ , " " Ji had , " " Kunt u," " Or i s h a s") r ev e a l t eal ' s in t e r e s ts i n su pernaturalism , Af r i c an philoso phy a n d t h i n th e " word ." allusiv e, my sti cal powe r s i nh e r en t He seeks p oe ti cally t o i mp l ement t he i dea s he s t ated in Black Fir e and a s pecial.,J1ack i s sue of .111E- (~ D..t.™,. Revi e,,1) in s unne r of 196 8 . The issue , e dit e d by J:,12.B.'s c on t r ib ut i n g e ditor ul i ns, comp ile d i de as and p l ay s roo t ed in wha t wa s then c al l e d t he "new" consciousnessj a l s o featur ed -.N'0-4. work by Sonia Sanche z a n d Adam Dav id liiller . f was a b luifprin t for/ nlack fi re , 1::. c k/ :c a l ' s 11 Tl1 e ::3lacl: :.rt s : :overaen t " rt s a :1c po l itic a . change . l·:c ho i n 6 s t a t e:::ients i n 1e a r :;uec: .:?.i;a i nst " any c or~cep t o f the art i s t t ia t ali e na t es h i :i1 fron his c om;;J.uni ty ," and note<l: f ii1ac k t Art is the aesthetic and spi ritual sister of the Dlac k Po ,1e r concept . : s suc;1, it envisions an art tb.at speaks directl y to the needs and asryira t io s of Blac~ fuae rica. In orc.ler t o pe rfori'l this task, the Bl ack Art s . ~veme n t p r o?o ses a radical reorJerin1 of t h e ves t e r n cultu r a l acsth e t ·c . It pro;:,oses a sepa ~a te s_ . b olis n , v n y t h olo 3y , cr itiqu e , anc.l icono l o r,y . The Bl c '· .\ r t s a nd Bl a c k Pm-, er c oncept both relate b roadly t o the Af r o~ Ame rica n' s d esi r e fo r self - J ete m ina t ion a n d na t ionhood . Bo t h conc ep ts arc na t ·onalis ti c . On e i s co n c e r n ed with t ic r elation b et~een ar t and poli ti cs ; t he o t ~e r with L:-h c a rt of poli t ics . Bu t his i<le a of a " s epar ate" aesthe t i c , as no t emb raced by a ll J lack poe t s , ar t i st s , or in te llectuals . - :'eit h er ,.a s there • c omplet e a'.3r eement (o r unJ erstan<l i n3 ) amon:~ i t s own p ro pone n ts . Fo r e xamp le , Spr iE ~S , a versa t il e �artist and thin !~e r, led a 'uoyco tt of Hajor ' s The ::ew f,lack n oetrv on the gro unJs that i t ~as beinG b rou~ tout by a white publishe r (International Publishers) . Dut Spriggs had not objecteJ earlie) to use of h is wo rk in 1 1Hack Fir , also published by whites (~·torrow) . appea r ed in The Journal of Black Poetry ( Fall '.'.is po sition statement 196 3) : in t he hell are the black publ i shers ever going to ~e t into it if no t by the assistance of the writer, ! } ow 0 are distributors 1ip s ever 2;oing to mature with the publis 1ers if the highly 1-:ia r ·etable works of wm kelly , j . killens , j a \-ms , 1 1eal , e bullins , leroi j , o r t he lik e never come s t h e i r way? does t he conc ep t o f black powe r and b lack a rts _ , e x tend t hat fa r? _, i say yea , i s a y yea , . ea . rt Sp ri ggs joi e<l a lar 6 e n umb 2r o f crit i c s and pract ~oners of the / 1;ick f u U,,e.r- ) Le~ > / 1 y(- :, eal , Crouch , "-uuilins , f\Gon~ves~ i n the co n t roversy over / ' lack ~ / wr i t e r s ' roles and re sponsibiliti e s. Desp it e t he c on trov e rsy , however, Majo r ' s a n tho log: aprear d as a k.ileic.oscopic offerin:; of t he/ e11J'-lad/ ~ aj o r i n cluded a pe rc eptive and fitting In tr oduc tion : GI[ L,:r:R crisis of J l .:tc ~'- r e ality i s of t e n studded in these poems by the swift , vividl y crucial fac t s of social reality; which consist s in pa rt , anyway , of a 1 the i mp lications and forces of mass media , the social patterns , t~ bureaucratic and oechanical med iums of huma n p ercep tio n s , even of the qu i ckl y evolving natur e of the :1unan p s y c h e in t his hiihl y homogenized culture , in all o f its elec tric p r o c e sses and specia list fra gmentation . Dl ac1~ rea ity , i n othe r words , is l i ke a ny q other r eality p r ofo undly t! ffec t e d by tech n o l o;3y . The oetry. �c ri s i s a n <l d r a ma o f t he l a t e 1 96 0s ove r whelms an<l t h r eatens eve r y c r evice of ;1Uman life on earth . T'1es e poe:ns are bo rn l...::::!..t of t his t ens ion . /.l.v rve:f !. In his own poet ry , }1a j or, t t1cs s r 10e Vi e tr,am, a l i eno tion , impendi n~ wo rl d destruction ,j dreams . l a ck h is t ory , mu s ic, nytholo gy , a nd per son a l exc urs i ons into He published The Dictionarv of Afro - Ame ric an Sl an ('; ( 19 70) , Swallo ·T the La ~e (197 0 ), Symptoms and I!adnes s ( 197 1 ), Priva t e Linc (1 9 71 ), Th e Cotton Club ( 19 72 ) a n d The Svn cona t ed Cakewal!· (197 4 ) , as we ll a s novels a nd essays . He h as a l so d i rec t e d t he Ha r l em Writ e r s 1ork s h op . In t he ackno rl I" ledg~ .., cnt s to Poetry, ~!ajo r indebts th e a ntholo ~y to Many i nflu e n c s: Lowenfels, r.\ I-.!__J: Nat Hen,i5o ff, Recd, Raphael, . rt Ber g e r, J£.!!!s; Tt:::::Y Sr.ii th, Randall, D ec:bl At ins, Breme n, ~ ~ Ful ler, 'oun ~ , and David Hende r son . Ha j or's " Down Wind Aga i n st t 'he Hi ghest Peaks" i s typical of J ~ ( his style: { shd a ;i"\ angledJ twisted langua3e, spacings that r e pla ce unctua t i on , tidbit s of wo r ld knowl ed__, e a pp lied to t . e racial s t a tcMent (sa t ire or ex:1orl ta t i on) , and ex peri::1e'1t a l t y?o ~r.:1 1):1y . II ~ecalling hi s " p as s a i:: ) ' he s ees 'o nt o Sm'lJ O '.d ll..:. ~ •u 10 tin~ t ::.1 t e•, e n ~1exicof " a n a SSi(. ss i n3 na ti un" M "'lOW ;1as t he " s upe r-b l on d e " o n it s " ,; il l boa r ds." In t~ e mi ds t o f all t h es e events , t ~e poet s vi go rou s l y promoted ~ e x t e n ded t hei r c onc ep ts a n u v.:.sions . p r oz r a□~ Sp ri 6 g s and ;Jmed .\l~a .. i si ,.e r e c o r respondin3 ed ito r s of t he Journal ; Da ra k n , :·;aj o r , !'-;azzam Al Sudan (now El : ~haji r) a nd ~e al became con t r i b uting ed itors . was late r joined b y Tou r ~ Ed itor- a t - lar ge Bullins In t h e seventiesJ Er nie Hkalimoto wa s .:1dde d as a con t ributin g e dito ) witl1 :.ajo r ' s n a:ne c i.sappear ing . Sp ri ~g s , Dullins , 3a r aka , a nd ~lha□ i s i !!aj ar , Rand all , ~;eal , h ave a l l s e r v ed as 3 uest specia l e ditors . An importan t influ enc e o n ( .:in d o ut le t f or) t:1c n ew po e t r y , t he J ourn al was ,1) 0 �" in many ways born of Soulbook and Dia orue " (Co~ editor) . lvcs , now Dingane , Journal The magaz ine continues to prin t t he ne~~~c poe tr y , zeroin~ in on ~ other areas ~ ~ the West Indies ( umr.1er} 1973) , announcemen ts+ as well as revi ews and criticism . .pri ~i. ng live l y news and 1 It: ~pringl 19631 issue , for examp l e , was dedicated to Joseph T. Johnson, Los Angel es poet who had @1 recently been killed. and Co~ Abdul Karim editeJ Dlad: Dialoc ue with Spriggs , To~ lves serving as associate ed it ors . , Re l oca ting in :N'ew York in the l ate sixties , Di alogue ' s new editorial board was represented by Spriggs , Ni kk i Giovanni , J a ci Early, Ela i n e J ones, S .f . And er son a nd J ames l!inton . I Alhamisi / and Ca rolyn Rodger s became .{i dwest ed itors; Spelldan, Julia Fi e l ds and Akinshiju became ed it or s for the Sou t h ; and Joans and Kg os it si le took over a s Afric a and a t-la r ge editors . ff} Soul oo~ ' s ed itorial boar d now includ es \ Hamil t on , Alhamisi, Carol Hornes , Baba Lamumba , Zolili, Shango Umoja . gqond i ~1asimini and A.~ ons t he admi nistra tive staff is Dona ld St one (Rahman ~ whose work aup ears i n Black Fire ancl a l l t.1e journals . f u ong with Sp rig:;s , To ur9 and Larry : li l ler ( 'atibu), Rahnan ai eJ '>ar.::i ·a at Spirit Ho us e . /4 His "Tr ansc e: ~ Bl ues," full o f c '1ant / song a nd line1 e x perimen t a tion , fuses the wor ld of / f lac · ;___/ music (a nd musicians) with t he " s trife r-:· ddl e d c onc r e te bottoms o f sky s cr aper seas ." ahman ' s influences, obvious in 1is name , are seen in his statement I that a " rif f " so high and grand "Could be llah ." Finall)j. winding the poemf L into a tri~ute to the J'l-ack woman ("Bitter bit her b i tternes s humming" ), he rejects Chr i stians and whites and warns that d {f) ffThe Islam Hy s pears shall rain •..• influence is also seen in ot her poe ts of t he period : v Sp ri ggs , Tou r¥, Ila r aka, Iman, ~leal, Al ha mis i, Dumas, Harvin :·~, Sonia Sanchez, who ,.,_ro.e~~t"'""-·· poets . Ost ,.·-- • along with Ni kki Giovanni emer ged a s one of the m ) of the �era . I Th ese uor:1cn ;, octs a n<l oth er sM .'\u<l r e Larde, J une Jordan, Ka tt i e ~f. Cunbo , Jayn e Cort e z, .\le x is Deve a ux , ~ ~ Jones) l j S - vi eo.lt \ty slor M }I\Of a c tive 8 (U;f.. h e y, ---._ "- worn f exci t ement , ~etry b Adding to this ~ cJ/;I i!t.!!!!!0 a ma e o.zines ~ ~ . kIn · c· ■~ n womt.r)ipoetr II t A. s r 1. 1.ovann1.· , ~ int e rest are ~ new )'l a c k p rofound thinker and p rovocative s peake r J>.'(~tld \ f'l to ~ heL(>Cd Th e mo st f amous "' an d l-:§§©Dkl~· Loftin , Odc1ro (Barbara ■■11--lilili;. cr ea tet, a new wa a bout the poss ibilities and potentials ii Iae Jacks on, poet r y . ,>G ,t4;th:.~~l~ills Encore a and insights d o not Her rout e to New York was b y way of Tenne s see a nd Fi s k Un i v e r sitv wher e s h e wa s a member o f Ki l len s ' Writ e r s Horksho p . -J Fa me came i n t he lat e six tie) aft e r she pe n ned a se ri es o f v o l atile p r ose-like s t at ements WA~~ ~ ere star tlingj ~ eve n mo r e s o , c omin g f r om a woma n . t½e s i x t i e ' s he p r iva te ly p ub l i s hed B oa <ls ide ~ress and In e r p oe try a nd was l ater brough t out by a r ~e r . u lishe rs . He r v olumes inc lude Black Feelin 0 , Bl a c k Ta l · , Blac1: J 1<l,e ent (19 70), Ile- Creation ljpcai .iii:'- (1970), Hy House l/ (1972) \a nd a booi< of po ens fo r c h ilJren , Spin a Soft Bl a c k So ng ( 19 71 ) . I:er an t ho l oey of/ 1~ lace ,,;on c n noe t s , 1H r:h t Coues So ftl v , wa s ~~tUeJ. ,f"M i J I in / and s h e l o.s r ecor~ e d alhu~s , wri t t e n an a u t ob i og r aphy , and p ubl i shed a se ries o f "co!lve r sa ti ons " with :1ar '-'a r e t Walke r . ~ G\. nvmew,os t h e new po ets, s :1e h a s been a cc o r ded /\accolades : sub.Te(:toP Ei ghly controv e r sial among - - •"wo1aan o f the ~ o.n<.(S ice l "lta Ebony t and 1.:. ssen c e; appea r . .A on t he 'iea r J ,m r d ; #\f ea tur eS in Jisg · andMi~ Do~w a.mvc.h ~ ✓, J o:m ny C<.1 .:so~ fi lim* a sought - af ter ~ speake r on t he college ,;4-ec.lv,- (!? _ A.ec_i p ,'en t b f Qt'\ ..,,--- f.-oM v circuit; Hrx ad J •·'/\honorary do ct orate ~ - ~ lilbe rf orce University and ' =•A l abe l ed _,jf t }1 c " rincess o f 1Hack Poe try 11 by ~ Ida Lewis , Encore editor . enounc e <l as a n "individualist" by :!adhubuti (Lee) and praised by Ha r garct lfDHalker o.nd Ad dison Ga y le , ho.s re.Jeired :-:ikki Gio:1anni 1,J si il +.±£§di"'~ ';,(evolut ionary . " ~ '1°' H8££ ii a it st d ' ,.., , · 1 Iler s ing ing of " God Illess America" on e , as related reading, Andrea Benton Rushing , s "Images of Black Women i n Afro-American Poet ry" ~Black World, September £ff! 1975}. �! natio nal t el.ev ision , :if te r r ecciv ini; t he ~ llor.1an of the Yea r .,/4-1ar<l , pror.1p t ed .Som e So.w tol\i n"dlwons '1nih'£' µ., om dl\ w ho1 l e tt e r s t o Jrtacl: publ ica t ions q ues t ioni n 0 her s i n c er it y . A 7furin3 t ;1e sixt ie) ~ wr o t e " Of Libera tion" : ~ Dykes o f t he wo r ld are un i t ed Fa ggots go t t h eir t hing t o get h er (Eve r yone is o r g anized ) Blac k people ci1ese ar e f ac t s Whe r e ' s your power .. • . Honk ies r u le t he wo r ld fMllt The mos t vi tal co1'11!lo dity in faerica Is Blac· people Ask any circul"lcized hankie ... • The final s tanza o f thi 4~"po em'f varns: rur choice now is iar or dea th Our op tion is survival Listen to you r own Black h e a rt s 0 "Concerni ng gne I~es ponsible :~egro :::zith too guch Power'' echoes ot h er t.1emes i :1 h e_/ew_/1.a c~/ oe try . Th e " r e s pon:i ble""' neg;~ " a r e " sca r ed" a nd on t he run . t e lls t her.1 t'.a t (? your t on ;:; u e mu s t be r er.iove d s i nc e yo u have no b r a in t o k e ep i t i n c hec~ In " Ref l e ctions on April 4, 1968 , " she c a ll s Dr . Ki ng ' s assas s i na t ion " an a ct Th e pa nt s �'.(i'tf.) ~orat<>' of " Beautiful Bl a c.· ;tery'~'h ug! wha t i like t o hu~ . " The re is the chara cterist i c ....-. True r epetition an<l er.1o tion-freigh te d lan gua gJ as in " ·~ Import of t he Pr e~~en t Dialogue , Dl a c k v s J e gro": f ~igger Ca n you kill Can yo u kill Can a nigger kill Can a nigg er kill a 10n zie Ca n a nigger k ill t he ~Ian ... Can you s tab-a- jew •.. e Can you run a pro t es t ant down with your ' 68 I:l do r ado • •• Can you p is s on a bl ond h ead . .. . Th e poem continues , reciting name s o µ., the " enemy" and catalo gi ng crimes and wrong-doing s vis ited on Tilacks , finally a s· ing : (~ " Lear n to kill ni;:;ger s Le arn to be Bl ack ne1t9 4/4uch of wha t .. .. • l i • ,1 11(1( 1 Gi ova nni wa s s a • ·in"l , in the sixties mov ed...,.iiack youthM it was not ahmys sa fe o r c 1ic to disa '3 ree even if you wan ted to ~ an<l some of it was admi r able . But t1ese t hings do no t nake her uo r k defensible as poetry . "Hy Poem" ,: md "Poem for Aretha" are ce rt a inly worthy, even noble, subjects i--. 91t:1Kd -._,I fa 1 le i s ur e l y <lown t he pa ge, ani:;ling he re and the re but revealing nothin:; o f the insight i nto hur.ian be i nc s or poe ti \--\e\-- po,e.T~J(tld~.$)'piGIS.m <.\l'\d imo.<j t~ 4nd he power that one finds in a poem by ..-n....omesshow he .. AS~ vka.-.,o Hel ene J oim son , ~-!ar ga ret Walker , Gwendo l yn Brooks , or Jayne Cortez . /\" Nikki- Ro at) ft'I. C. t. otr6 f\ fo -H, ~ V'V f,e her 11os t oft en quo t Qd poem from t :ie ea rly e riod, is I( hi !ifa p Lr at ·• • I l1f :e nira: I t has a believ:::b le_, ~iiu .:.l'i_:!.hx: conversa ti n-like lan;;ua ge (cha racteristic o f �l t.s hone.sliv 1at) . her poetry ~ and -.Nletail ~ ~ the inner reach e s of the col ec tiv e jiackf a pe ri enc~ as she unfolds t e story of fa::iily un a nd r.iisfo rtu e : 't,) your bio:;r aphe rs neve r und erstand your fa t her ' s pain a s he sells hi s stock and a nother drean goes And t h ough you ' r e poo r it isn ' t poverty t ha t conce rns y oug .•• ~fy House is a n ewe r ••t ~ f Giovanni . The venom h as l e ssened, tho u ~h so . e of t h e r ampage i s e v i den t i n a..:..!,6 e::r li!ss: " On Se e ing Back Jour nal and Ha tchin1; Nine Ne g ro Leaders ' cave Ai ~-11P1°h.ere 41'-,J'echn"b~ and Comfort to the Ene!11.y 1 to . .· " 1mp._~"em.et1T wn sty l f £) ~ Qrig..,o.&e ~ l~t')O.iSWf'.i~,~.. . a ttf! l'! IH@ uot e Ri c hard ,rixon • ., The poems deal wit h love, t h e c i t y , chi l dhoo d (alway s her rite s o f woman-passage), Africa and Af ro-Anerican culturc .Yf.,r p r onise and ?Otential c an be glimpsed in 11 .'\frica I": on t he bit e of a kola nut i wa s s o hig h t!1 e c l ouds blanket in::; CJ O a fric a in t ;;.e n i , orniE::; f ; ~;ht , 'ere pushe d m..my in a n an:.; r, A fl lc :er of the sun ' s tongue . . .. ,., .,inlsce3 Fr>O.rloel '1(:akki Giovanni's i1,1 por t anc eJl\,ies 1-1....,e,.'J_, in her personal influence (especially her great drama on al u1us and i n pub lic).> wh ich ha s inspired many youn3 /-:;,k women to write about t:ienselves ano their world. Jack so:7 who won Blnck Uorld s Conrad n ut some of the m, e nt Rivers Award, ~ : Iae ave ye t to show t he Mu $Cl~tsor,~ "stuff " of poe t ry in the ir writing s . 1969 by Bl nck Dfalo~ue :!:ub lis:i.crs . Can I poe t wit :1 You ,ms pub lis hed in " -:::;; :al·.ki Giova mi wrote the I n tro d uct io ~ a n d �lla e J a ckso n, i n turn , l.! e ic:i t e<l tl.c book to lie r . ro e t is f ul l of t!lll " c or.1p l aint s " t hat quickl y becar,e n onotonous in t 1, c oc t r y o f t ~1e s i x ti es . In themes an<l usa ~es , tlw poems r ese1a8le ::i ·l:i Gi ovaQn i ' s worL "To React ionary , " " To the lle g ro I nt e llec tu al , " \rl t heAcon Som ei,'mQ.S fused are fam ilia r • aml rl istur oe<l anna l s o: the new po etry . Sonia Sa nche z, c lo s e l y i · enti fied uith t he new poe tr y a nJ t he new cons ciousness , a lte r na t es be t we en t e r s e , exp l i c it ver se a nd t he spr m1l i n3 , - pr osaic meande rings t hat often serv e f t he auditory denands of t he new auJi en ces . Fornerly marr ied t o te poet EtheriJ~e Znight , she has ac t iv ely wa r ted a s - ~ ler playwright , poet ancl teac:1er. People (1 970) , It ' s a ~fou Day: V - ooks are Homeco~ing ( .6 9), \Ca Iladdddd Poems for Youn 0 Brothas and Sistus (1971), Love Poems (19 73) and an a ntho lo3y from her £ oun; Writers 1fork shop a t the Count ee Cullen Librar • i n 1~ew •or ~, T 1ree Hundred and Si x t v De~rees of Blackness Cominl at You (19 72) . G "Ha lcolm" is a lament and a night - filled memory fo r Yet t his n t h is dre u1.e r, t h i ck- li p,e~ with uo r ds will neve r s peak a ga i n a nJ i n each w~t e r when the col<l air cracks u i th frost, I ' ll br eathe his br eath and mourn my ~un- f i lle d ni ~ht s . He r " f or unborn ma lcolms ," howev e ~ is ano t her app ro a ch . Constric ting words i ~ structure , anJ -.,: t emp ting to achiev e aj iack str e e t sp e ech, she t ells Bl acks �to " ~it the word out" to t!w " man/boy " ~urdcrc. r , ho is tal:in•; a " 1oliday ." IHacks are " hip to his shit " and \·: hen " blk/princes• cie a8ain white " fc1 6 gots" oeuUtn 1'ttue " will die t oo ." , n experimentalist, Son · a Sanchez ad<leu he r ~voice to the derisive langua ge in the new vers e. (" d~: ition for flood of angry , c yn ical an blk/children"): 0 ~ a po lic eman L, is a pig in \a z oo 1aninals . and until he s t ops killing blk/peo le c r ackin~ open their heads re enber . l t~1e ~ pol iceman is a pi • (oink/ [ ... oi k . ) She also joined the poe tr, of~ ac~~ l o•;e and man- woman unity , seeking throu ::;h her part icular s t yle a nd voice to hea l wounds of doubt, ~ i s tru s t and loneliness . In "to all sister 7" she says " :1urt" is ot t he "bag"f~!"en " shd be i n ." a re advised to love t.1e / l a c k man who ma. e s them "tu rn in/ side out." journey ha·s carr i ed her fro;;i t.he ~ 11:ed dtclo.m<A.i'ihls ..,,.id£ t h e They Her revolutionary to the be~vTv ' I\ -----quie t.ti••l'{Urbulenc e ~of Love Poems -b eing , maybe, amon '.; the fi rst of the new poets to fu\!fill Ran all 's pr ediction tha t / 1act poet r y would " move from t 11e - - - - - -- - -- - -- - - - -- - - �declama t or v t o t he sub j e ctive mod e ." P· June Jordan ;>ublished Hho Lo ok a t :ie (1969), Some Chan~e s (1971) , -trrr a n tholo gy Soulscr i p t (1970), and a volume of poetry b y stud en ts in h e r Br oo;~1:.£reativ e wr iting workshop , The Voices of the Children (19 70) . ,4,,le.ol\ l>oe~ ~ !.f ~~ ~ ~e'Mi.t.'l H e r ~ volume of poetry i s ~~ w Day$~ 1974 ). Concise, analy tical , and ~ based, her poetry is ~ a f r ee: verse / tyl e characteristic of p ractically all t h e recent / l a c k ~ t r y . " Un c l e Bul l - of a nan whose eye s " were rink with a lcohol." .~H Jn y" re la t es t h e Jea th l:u,nq Tl'fe"-b rot her (uncle) ren i n i s c cs , t h e mann e r of / l ad~ men , abou t their s na r ing of s tr ee t l t al;: , e xp e nsive ~ s h o es , and a l cohol . ; n<l finally : deacl fron d rin!~in 6 drank to c lear h is t h ink i n g s aw the roach insi<le the riddle . Soon t h e bubbles from his g l ass we r e t he onl y b its of c h arm whic ov e rcame his foldc<l arns . udr e Lo r e' s "f'..i t es of Pas sag e" ( fo r ,, t Liz Jr ) e u log iz e s Dr . Kin~ : J ; ~1 ow rock t he boa t to f a r e- t ~ e l l. r er:1er2b e r s lii~1 t h is way : Quick c h ild r en k is s us we a r e g rowin::; through dr ean . Huch of Au d r e Lorde ' s recent wor k conc e rns young peop l e; even t h e title o f h er latest book , 1 ::-on a L~ 1Jher e -~ ther People Live (1973) , carrie s the a we and d r eam of t h e c h ild ' s world . !:{ S:1e writes now about teachers , mj n-wom n ,... relations, seaso ns, ,l rea:as : "As I Grow llP A6 ain,.'._' anJ ._ ---"=-- - - -- - - - - - 11 :S lad~ l!other Womar;; ' �who t hinks of her mm mo t he r' s s t ren g t h when '' s t ranger s cone t o cooplir.1ent " he r : I l earned f rom you to deny r.1ys el f t hrough yo ur denials . Among t he yo unge r New Yor k women poet s , J udy Sir.mans , Alex is Deveaux and Elo~ 1 ~ of tin sing ou t. Jud ith ' s Bl ues (Br oadside ) was p,: li s hed in 19 7J . The poe!!ls s ubmerge themsel ves i n t he t r oub l ed hunan psyc hE! ("S chi zophr cni ~ i a nd explore the "Youth Cult ," "Hon en , " and " Daff odils "i althou ~h the titles do no t reveal t he poet ' s pi t hy sea rchings . Reflecting J udy Si mmons ' s t udy of psycholo gy , t h e poe try yiel ds i t s meaning a s t he multiple layers of tensions a nd ins ights a r e uncovered . In "Schizophrenia " the "animal squat 5 ' next to the " piano " in a " co r n e s" with an abno rma l number of l egs , arms , and a mou t h t hat stre tc.1es from " or ehead to abdomen ." ... ~ei,15 But the poet ~ssu~ ~,_.,., he rsel f that i f she does no t l ose control it uon ' t come back inside of me(;) ';- a,J-~~ Lof tin ' s poe try (J umb ish , 1972 , n e r so~ Hal ~ -the eo.se o i ma ge r y , indica t ive per haps o ff,...t hese new t echnic.:.ans ha s yout h fu l , zes t y K.th~tt9Cl4~ 8 t. " Ra i n Sp r ead " informs : ~ f Las t night t hrew her leg s open to me .. • . --the, She has the new woman s ens i bili ty , a good knowledge o f /\so c ial land scape , and the cynicis m of t en fo und among t oday ' s young , gift ed and / lack . " z ett in .:::. ca ugh t" dis plays he r humor and wi t: - - -- - - - - { i f t h ~y ca tc h you �uith you r p:m t s down f~ yo ur cuar <l o r peeing f or fr e e i f t hey catch you do i ng s omething c razy with quotes a round it and t ry to mate you feel like yo u been catched you raust be <laing sone # Spirits int e Street s (197J) ls A e:~is Deveaux ' s s t ran~e but fas cinating e prose- poetry accoun t of 3rowi ng up in Harlem. • A We st I ndian mot her , dj s paid ~- ov e r a hus band ' s mi s use of h i s wife and ch i l dr en, compla i ns : / l . lor<l uhy he bea t that ~mr.,an s o? and them c;.1i ldren r, od only l:now wha t ' s gonna happen t o t.1em. . e a t i n po ison . jesus hav e mercy . c:iildrcn . has l _ e . ea t you up inside you can ' t be too car eful with you :::;ot t o wa tch t hem every sec ond . T ic world is s o ev il ho ney you know wha t i 11ean? ne rcif u l jesus s hane t hem wi th t he l ast word . T es e e~ ~amples rep r e s ent only a fract ion of the new poetry be i ng wri t t en by youn~e r (and olJe r) new York=area poets . P~illip oloDon , Ca y l e ~)• Ot her s are Cathe rine Cue stas , Joner ~:le,w~ ~wartler,~e~:~l~w.ff ~M.\~i;~· - �!.OM e_ an<l Glen Th oTI 1 son , t o :1; ~ r.ie I' !'lrlmdfal. oc ts we."~ L11.1.11,<..h e d Wl!OA•z ti . in "'--' the earl ie r pe ri od a l s o pub lished n ew it er.i.s . ~ ha) Hende rs on ' s Fe lix of th e Sile nt , For e st (1967) was introduced by Jonesfi... Jlill n ffn e o p:raphcd The Poetry o ~ Soul Jie also pub lished De Haye r of Ha rlem in 1970, t he s ame year bea rs no date . he •® tnv•ctd m11 t:a~to Berkeley . r:s sentially a Harlem poe t , Hen e rson sur v e ys every thing fron the " Harlem Rebellion, Summer 1964" to "Ha rl em Anthropolo g · ." 1(;.he t ransitions a nd outreac hing s of these poe ts are also evid ent in ., r,oet I . ~ Tour~ who in 1968 went t o t e ach ..)"'fa c kfa udie s at San rrancisco Sta t e Co llege . l.• . wor.~s are Juj u (1 9 70 , Th i rd Wor ld Press ) a n d Songha i ! ( ,11.s the l atter puJl i she<l b · Songhai Press and intro uc 2J by (illens . " Soul-bifts" are anpl' sp ic ed ui t :1 ph ilos ophy , / 1 c:. h istory ,j (1972) , ~ Tour l ' s lc:.c'.z :-1usic, Islaraic influ ences , anc: " Juju; ' w',.ic:1 says Coltra,e ' s ho rn is "cas cad i:1;; fountains of l oad and bone s . " Son" ha . a n[:;es fro r.1 satir e ' o f Di a na :'.oss ...__,, Pp..fTiqql,m_$oF .;,rnionne Uarwi d:. 1:d"/'--i n!hnc e re a ctiv is ts j _!~e ;-1.igica l powe r o f wor e.ls .---...i- • s tructurf J dea l _J'J. a c.: socie t y . :P"!.,::.,~ tS V!.€crtb Tour ¥ ' s ~l ist of inf luenc e s (see ' sm;;e of . t~1e / ✓ ' l, acl: poetry er.1anc2 t in~ f r om t 1e ,' ew York area : __;;eal , Dur.1:1s , Tiaraka , r;o 9a l ves , Coltrane, ?;,aro~ h. Sanders , Ce c il ,.., ~ :1cBeeM a ll ~ ~\,~• s.,.,.;r-:•roets _,e l a te of ::1 ::ation- i - Fo rma t ion ." deve l op::1e n t s o f t he ~-lew Yo r k n ovenent c a n J e s een i n suc;1 projects as t~1e r'~J.:'!' ,g ' r., + ( Sol Write rs in liarle:n ; T;;,1-~ra , 3 B~ tt le ) an t~1olo._;y o f the 1.'o r- k s hop fo r Youn;; net) Bo s ton- ased. journal devo t ed to the exam~ nation " o f e vents , t h e arts, i deas " ; Betch A.i:i ' t (1974 ) , Celes Tisd.'..l l e ' s anthology ~ o f " I'oems from Attica"; a new an t ho l o:3y o f " Oun,-; poets , He Be oe tin ' (1974) ,' 1 i sd ale; and T!r iters 1·:orkshop Antho l ogy . /\ L;o unifyin3 thread runs through t he wor.· of ~Icw York.::: area poets.!-,exce.p t that of a relentless accept a nce an<l pu r s uit of -the ir j 1~1ckness . - - - - - - - -- - - - -- -- - - - -- - --- - One notes, howeve r, �t llnt L.;s t i c i sm , e :~::rni n.:i t i on of t: ic o c c u t, cosmi c - mus i c;i l f o r ms an<l s u bjec t s , o.nJ t he inf l uen ce of I s lo.11 ;ir e ~ i ,ore ~vi<l e nt 4lilllae t h a n i n the poe try of o t he r ~ Du t t hes e a r e , of co ur se , gen e r a lit·i e s rc~i o n s . await mor e h i n<ls i 3h t a n d r es earc h befo r e t hey c an ~e f i n nli z ed a nd p r es e nted a s sign i f i c a n t phe nonena in the l a r g e r t ape s t r y oi' t)1e po etry . Fina l ly , fo r the Hew Yo r k a r ea , . ~,r y ( <l rurnt h e f i r e of th e oral t r .:td it io n uas i :3nite d lJY t h e d r a mati. <:; 1.ncant;{? a c companied ) <l e c l ana t ions of " t he Las t Poets " a n d " the Or i g i na l Las t Poe ts." ack masse s ~ Along with Gi l Sc o tt- lleron , t h eir ir.1pa c t o n t h e "triem h~s ~lHIS I NJ e e n Aobo .:. . ~u.-+ w;11,11t~ exceflliirt ot 6, l· Scoff-lltro1t(IAll.o h~, '" J0111y-t••~lt\,tse. "'•..,•-..;oti• h"'-vt ;f'em-,;oro.ry s1i.. ••~- ScotF-He,,.01t C,.omb1r,!S 1:>t·cr~iJ"°J3 And ft't-•~reonue,,.1«71~ ,'7~ 4 "' ,!,,2;.:i1':':&6~,,ei~~¾;,;c Uf!z~,,~of ;~dt;~c~dlt•~,:~;.}r~':22 ill ,iilJ f Hf s r , § il B L l @ ff i i t ] p- 11 i. ~ &Etdti J IHtU 4 p L Ii iii I I g@§LCf b§§ Llj§ I iii r ~II :ms L SL&) 3 SC 7 1 lQ?!: ast 9 lti± ! CL 5-2 }, 2d El .&?E t 1 t§E pt6 0 £5 s l g hi &125![J!l!C, 15 & El.!H&dslplt!lmti JI I Qi: ti l Lk ts b f dd 21!!1 ts srd ts nl q . u ~se , th d 1 llfllll!i 1111 111!11!1 g. :.JUrin g t h e New York r es urg enc e a n un b er of t n i ng s we r e ga in;; we l l lo 0 ac1 / o etry in Pennsy lvsnia . Linc oln f ~ ~ c, .,.ovp o P .'r.iv,~r si'" ~ , hi c h p r od uce d T Jl on~ Il u8h e s ~ j.~ delivcr e d a not he rN1 iver se -ef. p e ts dur i n-.; t h is p e r iod : '----" , ndcrs o n , ~ on<l othe r s . H Ca rl Gre e n e , :fa r y- Lo uis e Ho r ton , Eve r e tt Hoa 6 land , Benjamin, C:il '.:: c o f Hcro n , lle r n a dinc Tinne r, r,it a '\lhit ehead \ ~l a n d i s a Br o ad s i de ry o e t ( Bl a ck Velve t, 19 70 ~ a nd Scott- Her o n ( Pr e e ~ ill, Pi e c es of a !~n , e tc . ) i s a r e co r d ing poe t- s in g er . ', o i n _, li::e t he ~luntu / 1:ick a r~i s :: :-: r o u ? ~ foun de <l b :'l e al, Conve r g ing at c.\H. Pul l e r , t he oi reti cian Ji;;lr.ly St e ua r t{ and ~·ar be ll e ~fo ore AI\Philadel phia poe ts fo und various Co.~ I Ot h e r Philadc l ph i~ p oets are,.c r eene (1945F ), Lucy ~r• Ma. t--k TI--o. 11\oh Smit h fr on t'~ c o l ,l.::r schoo l, -;Br ya n; I\ (1943J ) , ~ l a r ence Ma l one y (1940J kinds o f n ss i s tance . ·lT. -J ), �Pat For ( /' , Joseph Bevans Busl\_, . , net _!. Brool:s , i& t,.rtd ·'=' Carol Je:iifer /\ Don ~!iz l ell. (]@( J I ) 1-.o r 1-:s b y s me of these y outhful poets are in \;/ Black Poets I rit e On : A,n ntholo 5y of Black Phi l adelphia Poets (197 0), published by t 1e Black History '1useum Committee. Har o l d Franklin ' s Intro~ duct ion states : 11 " A BLi\CK rOET IND OF WA~ OR - Lthus linkin g Philadelphia M ~<lvltv.,Cl.f t..QnT?ii'oJ s ent iment s to those in ~Tew Yo r -: and Bo ston . The Black Butter fly, Inc . ,"-was o ne of the several cross} oads for various cultural / pol i tical ac tivities in Ph ilad e l phi a . 1]2.r nin~ Its foun d er wa s : :aloney (now Chaka Ta)., who se Di mensions of s published in 1964 h ~ celebrates a " sul try brown Girl1' l na , Spain . 1-7:10 " Good Fri ay: "s eems a s uperio r a nina l. " "sepia siren" also holcls t:.e '';:;e:·1t:en' of a "vi vid passion ." poe ts explore c ity l i f i .\frica, and exal tf a ck n ess . 2 '.::::· " T' is P:1i ladel?hia There is, too , the rage and vehemence often f ound in New Yo r k a nd Chica2;0 poetry . 111-••••J1 12• •• "Co o 1 ~·~"' ~lat chfdd o.9Q •~ <iraylow also captures '1f blacl: ~-: i ;;:1ts " driving street rhy t hms an<l~'hy..es: Cool b l acl: cl· oes an t hem fine -lookin~ 0 fine - walkin~ fl --ie- t all:in; \ fine-lovi:1g them fine soul siste rs .. .. 1 wll.S ~In Pit ts burgh t here ~bor:1 die s:1ort - lived Black Lines : .•j (. Journal of iHack S tu J L!s (197 0 ) . ~ It publishe<ll'P ittsburgh::: area poets J ~ EJ l~ob rson , August �~ a)J?,o_~I\, 8,u10tl1 l~ilsont\ Inan "s d.J'/ t 22 / \ s ,,d l .J3/\ poets fro m th e ~-'. i<lwcs t ~ .\l Crover Armstrong and l{cdr.1ond . Tile University of Pittsliur:-; :1 Press o p ened u p t o p..ack poets t hat s.:.1.r:ie yea r, pub li shinli • Coltrane, 1970; Song : /\ ~ .. ~Wi ,,11,:___ ( Dear John , Dear Can I get a ·, it ness , 19 73) , I;.obcrson (,Then Thy I:in3 '5 V ____y_, 197 'C3 l·lar:1 er and Gc rnld Barrax (Another ~ind of Rain , 1970) . m~es. 11,e o~ -t-ed.~1%ue.s poetry ~ / \the gamut of spacinr.;s and slashes . I Roberson ' s - ¥ 1\and st y les ~ fror.i ne.:it Jr.:1m.:1 t o slant ed In " :nayday " t her e is an "underside of :waven" ,:rnd t he warning from one misunderstood t hat he is " armed" to fi, h1: the final kindlin g of you r dreaning . " Ot hello Jones Dresses fo r Dinner" is a satirical look at the "Guess L"ho ' s f Oming t o Dinner " t ~1eme . -= After datin;; a whi t e wcm.:1n , t he n arra t o r ass ur es her paren t s that he is " well 1::~nne r ed . " group of Pit t sbur g poe ts E Ro erson adds his voice to a 3 rowing includes Kirk Hall (194!~ hM'l~w(>,.;'~ be~ 'fe,th~~utlt · • ~ i r ed .\.n t ' p l in Poe t ic talent •• ). L'ashing ton, ~Ly ~even1ies Sterling Brown continued to teach into the 1('5te iaiut ~ u . . C.> uhere I!oua r d , by nm.; leading all/ lack unive rsities i:1 t;1e neu consciousness, was the scene of a number of significant distu r banc es ~ •!'! . r()'l~t\e toward Aile new~Ii ~'· ] - ,\-h GA ,,._nud ged t he school Hhile Howa r d ' s poe t ic history can b e traced thro u~:1 t h e early days of S terlin:; Brown (and in t o t 1e Eo m r d / oe ts) , the school has produced a nuraber of youn~er writ e rs : ..,Clay Goss , Ethelbert 1!i lle r ,ichard i!esley , r: . (Androniec'i1, 197 1+) , and Paula C:i dings . 1m0-.,"l. ~ / ( . • Jntibew was deep ened and b ro adened b y the appoin t men ts o f the r.u i anese poe t D.:.u:ia s a nd tephen lientlerson (Cnzlish _,P1airman at Morehouse ~ who heads the I n stitute for t ~e Arts and Humanit ies . was~Z1t..o ,., ra t However i ward dram.:i against a series of <levelopnents in t he surro und i ng communiti e s : Federal City College ( Scott- Heron) , Center for Black Education (Garrett) , 500 �School of \fro-,\Jrlcrican Thou::,ht (Gaston ::cal), - --~"' ~ ~ni anJ Press) A.. t.1c D. C. IHac · :lepertcry ~ Drum & Spear ::'.oak.store ._,,, In add ition to Da:nas and Henderson, t h e / nstitut c has a<lc.:eJ . '.::.J: ubuti (Lee ) , Kil lens , Goss, Grown, • rt rnr P . Davis and .\ mos t,e progra:a ' s service to poe ts has been invaluable . have f ton . Ctl\..l Selected for#\nonori11111 een Baraka, G·.-,enclolyn Brooks , Joans , and Dotlson . .Zn tf.te~ Al rea<l :/ ~ A nun er of -..;, poe ts were a l so featured i n t hel\.t i rst . nnual Synposiu~.1 : .... Lucille Cl fton, I Goss, Sco tt-H e r on, /1.desanya lakoye, Hiller• ,_, Johnston a nd Kgo sit s ile were gu es ts for a ~ ltural__,,Yr e s et ce in t 11e A-.,ericas . . read and be recorded or t : e and llar Evans . Toure, r o;:;raM e:rnminin;:; th " ,- fricnn Several po e ts have b e e n ' nv it ed t o ermanen t audio/video librar y : J aye Cort ez , Crouch, Davis, Sa r nh Web s ter Fabio, Harper, Jeffers, Joans, Redmond, Sonia Sanchez, Scot t-Heron, Br u c e St . J ohn , }!ar gar e t 1·,a l ~~er , a nd J2.y ': ri gh t. L 1 963 Ga s t on :·cal s.:iit: .1is " 11hilo so phy" was " to pur ge myself of t 1e whiteness wit hin n e a n ' l in\, c r-::1 l :2 t ely t:it h ~ay / t o d e stroy t '.!2 e,,e:-1.1 anJ r :::'Ju il .:i jl , lC 1K / a~ _r o t h er s in t . 2 str1gJle .2 t.1on ." • a t tl1a t tas c fo r a \::1::.lc ue:o r e t':2 Af r o- __cric a :i s cho o' clos c J. . o. " ; r ,_.,~ 1:1inglcd" In " TmLty " w't 1i. . 1 e :; w.u , . c,1 , 1,1au, •oe • an cl h e 1_:i:'l.ente cl t'.1e Jun;; en JI (/) I r <le f ~ouerell b:· no.pal . ... • 't{;;_a rl Cart er , anotl1e r D. C. poet , appears in l.:r1( er : -, ncl-inG the Xew '.Hae:~ oe try. lie evokes the s, irits of t 11e " :ier ocs' ' of Orangeb ur g , Jackson , }1e□phis, :lew Yo r k , anJ ~7ashville , r e c alling t h:.it Jurin;; a riot in ::.ishvil e he \:as f) lUJ. in:3 s0':ler.:l~ere in uy n ind •.1i th ElJ ridge Cleaver ... • 5 D/ - - - - - -- -- -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - \ �" noo t s " i s an u :1succ..:ssful at - e.1 , i t lnngua::;e wit h a fonaa l En:::lis 1 o f\l SC the d r ama of coll oquial ,J'i- ack narra tive about his grandmothe r. #ot!1cr poe t s liv ing o r pub li shin~ i n tl e D. C. a rea during the sixti e s anJ seve nti e s ,,.~ Atlcl Ccu-· ..-·, e o l'ld l<a erTA. tfo ir'\ ~ were Bernadet t e Go lden (1 949J ) , le! len Quigless (1945,ij )"ca Beatrice Ifarphy (19C8j of p ) , w10 ov e r t he years has contributed greatly to t1e g rowt h hA) ~..edit ed ack poe tr~ thr ee i m ortant anthologies: Ebony Rhy t hn (194 7) a nJ Today ' s r:eg ro Voices (197 0 ) . He r o,m volu1aes o f poetry ar e Love i s a Ter r i b l e Tl i n1_3 (1945) and , with I~an1 Crv Out (F~ D~oad s id ~ . in the new phaset with tensions caused by ove r emph a s izing " white " a nd '/ l ack, " anJ war . te~perament. h r to g ~ someo n e i\rnez, The Rocks Ee r own p oe try has moved from a trad itional meter to a t r a ditio n a l free vers 7 d ealinei a nd s i x c1.1ilcl r en . r1e~ r o Voic es (193 0 ), She is currently Even her ti t l e s sug:;es t something about lie r spirit and In t he swamp o f d e p r e ss i on an<l b i eakness, it is indeed warming ,rJ.o "\& 11,os p r oclaim Go o ci ;-:ews ! ~ " Eld rid ge"A.i s compared to a mea t " cleaver" will not " r ust o r b r e a k ." And the r e ~ ur.10 r , irony and truth in �,~ " a tel~" I ~ h e;.Q. t l1c " always c!run.·" de ivery nan says : , {)) ~ 11 I ' m 25 years olt! and a ll t he whit e boys are younger t 1an ne . ~~ t II hile some sine good tir.1es in the kitchen, t:ie r e a r e a l s o o t her acknow{ led iiraents : " falcolm," " Eldrid-~ e , " " Bobby Seale ," and -•,. s t udent1par ticipan ts\in dernol\ ~4tt'- V\S /\f t Jac,,su n and Kent / tates . t er.i.porary set tinl~ to f Good :1e\ s i lie al st ories . bout the I:arth ::;i ves a } lack ~ d -t~e ve;.x womo.»Lf on ~ . 'Y Mo st arc unique, l ike f\ Mar y ": t his kiss qS !\.s of t a s cotton ve r . y bre ast all sh · ny ri i:; t so et i s is in this g t o e Lor .1avc ,. ere' on i f ee a c;a r c.en in my out bet .;reen my l eg s i see a tree . n Or dinary .Joman is consciou s l y mma1:; and t'he ,roeTTls , like those in o t her vol ume s, dea l with eve r day ¥7■4fl- "or ,aJ-ta. ,Hf~ become more of the r.1 _ (' l p LutiLle cL\ for1 _inar y~ I\ hin" s . Howeve r, .,._,:,,'1as sti~ , usin~ surreal an d al uso r y ima ge r y, a s i n " Ka li," t,ho.L';Y, -th ere ,s " The Coming of TZali, " " Her Love Poem~ ' a nd " Sa l t ."A'Cod 's Hood " : • �(() .:e is tire j o [ cone , 1• V it breaks . lle is tire<l of eve ' s fan cy an<l a<lam ' s whining ways . ,. ill\i <@ntr OCl Cornish is a poe t , teac 1er and editor . / (~ A,..dt,...._J (19 63 ) , -=-=..:;.__,al!ll~...=-:-..:;.:.;=-l~ ~ 9 70)~ th ..t.r.ie Wi bo oks inclu rf:\ 'en ~ r a tions ·d th i·i . Lucian , he edited Chicory: ....,,Younc Voices ,9!) which developed into a series still be in::; pub l i shed by the Enoch Pratt Fre e Library (Community Action Program) . ed it or o f Ch i corv i s :•:elvi n E· wa r d Br own . Current Co rn i sh ha s n uch s t y listi c ar.n:11{, nit ion and is a preci se navigator of l an~ uage . Ee tells 'n u~:-'. CLASS G I'..LS F I T I Cl.I PPLEu FL~GEl!S ,;AITD,G FO~ , IT: TO LI GHT TffCIR C GXR •,'l'iS " \ yo ur finger s '--' fol ed in your lap con tr ol the serpent i n your eye s your face never s tarin;; with a ST'lile in yo ur ruffled your eyes po:,ulate the 1ric.· wi t h re s t less s tares . The influen ce of Cornish and othe rs c an be seen in Zxpress You rsel ~(l973), an 11 antholo gy of student writin g s 11 from ~Qmondson Hi gh ~choo ~ and I Speak (1973), poems by students at Copp i n ~tate Colleae-'-" the c OPPin Poets . F, "" II �~ (1Iew Orleans ), t~w Ex - Umbra poets C- ortl1 Carolina Central University)., c_norih Carc,Linct ~~re Vtvi'~tTy) Gates Wile s College , Alabar.ia ), Gera l d Barrax (1933J aY\o Powell), Leo J . . :ason (_\tlanta) I\. .o .. en zo T e tty ) , Ladele X (Leslie , . T~onas . The 're,tnl ~ receive ,$ an<l s give1 new blood to po etry t irou ~ . Co~ltr'\ U 8A!l ,•: c, : Sor.1e we J ef f e r teachers co and frorc. the So uth . ~known o ] <ler n a::1es arc , ohns o~1':(James ), Bra i thwa it e , To l so n , Jla7dc:i, a 1 cse ,. ---'••vt~...,.a.t 1·,pt(t.11 yu,.s. ,;, #te _A~;..4 ~ ~un ~er p oe ts ~ ou t a re 1 udr e Lor e (T Ot!al oo ), Redmo nd (Southern ) , ~fr i ;"ht (Tooga o o a n d Ta llad e ,,a), Spe /i , an (' lo r e house) , and K~ ositsi l e (. or th Ca r o l ina ~ • ment . 1iJ: --~ 1 EL IA.cl r anat ic C an" e & T). s a re s ult , bols are everywher e : 0 ti, {3- ac, w nsc ou ness T 1e Free Souther et and t~e Das iki theat e rs '--" in Jew Orleans, SUDAN Sou th /Hes t poetry-rausic theater g ro 11p i n i.i.ous ton, t he Theater of .\f r o- Arts i . !iar1i, a;;c. .\l an.ta ' s i",. a c ": Im.1"e . o r ;;ani z e·: t h e Cen t e r fo r l, ac:.: .·.r:/ f1ic' In At l an t d., SpcJ/i a n pub l ishes ~:w t :.": (1 9 70) . S t one bcr...11 e e<l it o r, :J.,0n (S ize:-1on 1 e 1: 1a rlos ~~i·-::'.ce::1 i ) poe try e d it o -::- and Spellman e J it o r of e ssays a '.1d f 2atures . The s-1:~:1e r to fional cl L . Gra:10.r.1 (l l;/, 'i ,... ( l S: 71; issue 7".... , :'net-th eore tici un ~-;.10 succccdeJ l~ille:1s us Ji r cctor of tl e 1::ri.ters Worl-.slwp a t risl~ . ~wcl ~mb l · 3.1e t:1rce coo <.s : Grah:m , who was a lso o. nusician, B ::.c\ Son~ , Soul .._,; ro tion w and Soul ,!otion I I ....., Rhytim sai<l he '\.,as runnin'._', o:ie of t~e b:idclest ,10 r kshops in t'.1e Sou t h " and " te':ch ing a t t he Revolutionary Peop le ' s coller; e in ,:o.s. vill e ." 11,~ ,..-.fu.,enT,o.l :t"sm\)te ,f 'the ~o..~~ World, AL.so In "-\L~Vl\O... \~ - :1ar :3aret .Ja lker , a lo, z.;.:- tine teache r a t J:.ickson Sta te Colle~e ia :iis sis si?P i, '.10s t eJ i.n 19 73 tlle b it c c nt ennfal cele r a tion of th e pu lication ~ - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - �. .(. of Phf l lis l. .1e.:1tley ' s PoeP1s . He r m:n r,oetry , :1mjev0.r , h.1.s ch.::in 6 c,J sm:i.e~,ha ~ T'ro :)hets f ron t he stanc e s;,c too:z i n for ~'.y Peo 1)l2 . an<l Octob e r Jo urne~ (197 3 ) a r e tl i f:icu lt t o ju<l:;e a ~ j11e st her o t :1er ,.rn r lj ~ turned to t l1e n ov e l in t he fi ft i e s a nd sb;tie s ~ were p ub l i shed i n jou rnals iJetween 193 0 and 19 60 . t he / ivil,,f-ght s {ovement , about 11 c:::::'..' s eve ral poens i n Oc t ober Al I D !!!" She .-rit e s Birr:1in8han, 11 " Street De mo ns t ra tio n, 11 " J a e s on , :-tissis s i ppi , 11 hibL,.c.o.L on Ha s h ing ton , and t he ~ J}u-f/!,Ji,w~ rophet s ~ • Prouhe t s i s a ch roni cle of ~ ant: IJC lid for a ':e\-; Day (197') ) ro phe t s : v " J e r er.i i nh ," " I sa i ah ," " A..-:1 os; 11 ~ the ;Iarc:1 and " Joe . " ( :alcolcr , :ledgar Ever s , Andy Goodman , Michael Schwcrne,J) - J a mes Chane).) . - . __, ought " opp r ession" in Louisiana, l:iss issi::,pi a nd Ceor;;ia . ,(AA Oc t ober isAa quieter noo<l , e~ployi~~ a v ar iet y of verse forns inclu<lin 6 the ,\;\. bal lad in " Harrie t Tu .>uan ." I 1 "1'r9tl v-e. t wd Li<• ... s J I 1- !\own uni9ue , ·' sonnet · is IJ,,d. Hc Leod Ile t hune" and " :or Paul Lm-Jrenc e Dun bar ." seen in " For ;-:ary ,('ne ear l i e r p o e t i s su g.; sted i n " I want t o Hrite" ! · (i,, I m mt t o u r i te s on '.i s o_ All· ce nI', a l : e r , nave i' s~ t a11 • poetuni st'tarl !Jlltll e , ~ wit h n ::ir'."; o.ret Hal k er . and Revolutiona r v C:::.S, a re Once (1968) / ~ J ~ - - - a pun . Her poems ,11c.LvJe A'mjf(\her ovt~own g eneral e x J criences, and f\.some sa tire. Once relates t he stor y of the you n e / beach in AlabamaA\ in the " nuJe ." "' st a te of '-.' 1.' ss1·c::s1. · pp1.· ( :JAc · ,:,.,.,·,) ~ e tunias (1973) t '!-le ti tl e of wh ich, judg i n~ from ot her riz hts a ctivitie ~ to Pe tunias: ~ d i e r volumes s t a temen ts she has .na de , is p rob ·1b v civi people . 1:iy l ac <. A peen in man who wanted to i ntegrate a wh it e She announc es 1er deb ts in the dedication Ge o Y." ~e Jackson, " heroes and heroines, and f ri end s of early S~JCC," B~b Moses, an<l Fanni e Lou Hame r . These poems (written in p ersonal t o nes) deal �fol:<l with historY; ~ 11 r ona n ce " t h at " s tr en;; t h a nc t he stuff thej -a ck South is made of : 0 ssome<l " in pc, s a t fune ral s ; wo:::en wi t 1 fi sts t 1'1t 11 " b a tt e r ed" doo r c: ( ''S unda y Sc .1001, Ci rca 1950'')j a " ba ckwoods wo::1a n ,,1h o kill s her husband ' s n urd e r c r, t h en r emind s her exe cutor s to wa t e r t , e II pe t unias . And she also wr ites of a different kin ij of a ,.,e " : The sil ence b e tween y ou r wor ds rams i n to n e like a sword . f Yet an~the r Hi ssissif,,1-an and poe t is Julius Eri c TOompson, a histor y te ache r at Too ga l oo . Hop e s t ied u p in Pr om i s e s was p u lished in 197 0 and aims a t :;.. l i ft i n g t he new c onsciousnes s above me r e " hopes . bei n g a p " Black 11 nck I!lan . in Hiss is si?P i, "Delta C. il r en , ower . 11 Th ere i s also a ser ie I n Lo uisiana., nuch n e ' ? oe t r ha s neiadui p oets ali.:_e ._ re s s, in ow (\in er. eWe 1 i dd e r, San Fra . cis c ~ a T, ompson i1rit es about 11 .1artin Luther Kin:3 .._, ; nnd of poems on Af r'c a . een flTfl,1~ from the pens o you ; a nd «,LL . C. , /\edits Hoodoo ma ~a zine throu~h Ener ~: le forner 1.y c o edit e d T ; e .eva, "ew Ye r . Cr> 1) V ok i e/ h n s ed in l oodoo I, dedica ted t o t wo f l ack st uden ts killed b y po licemen on t h e campus of Southern u nivers i t y i n November of E',2 , co nr: a i ne<l uor.. b:r Lorenz o · 1on.:1 s, ~·ay ::ille r, P inki ~ Lane , . 1 amu Ya S a 1 nam, J e rr, " arJ, an-,➔ ot.,e ' ,,-.. .ba se <l poe t s . '-a r sout.h @oli@..__,; - 1[00<100 2 & ::i, ~ a doub l e is sue :>ublis r,ed in 1975 , con t a i ns u orl~ of r.iore s out hern poe t s : Ar t:1enia Bate s ,~il lican , ,\li c e 1!aU~er , a n d Charl e s Rowe l l , as well as s e l e c tionS frora t he b r ander worl d of;'1-.:ic l. wr i tin~ . Ener g Bl a c k South Press wi ll a lso pub lish A l i .,ger e d M,e n , Zu-Jo_ t on ' s first vo l ume o f poeras .1 /~nder t he guidanc e v11ive rsi'v of t he la t e [ ng lish c ha i rna n , !!elvin A. But le r , So uth ern1'est ab lshed the sho r t - lived Black [ xp e ri e ncc , t.1e f irs t iss u e o f which con taine d s everal �po c .1s edits b y ,\lvin Aul; ert, a Sout:1e r n al bsidian: 1, nus ,,ho now resides in ::eu York a nJ Black Literature in 1;.eview . Aubert ' s A'"' ainst t he l', lucs \,- (197 l) surveys blues , love an<l :1is Louisiana herita6c . i1inkic Lane, nt:!\, Englis h Departnent h ead at South ern , publi s 1ed lin<l Thoushts (1 9 72) a s well as severa( /r-::;;;;~d'!s: , Two Poems (1972) , Poems to , Cy father (1972), and Songs to t h e Dialysis Machine (1972), all lHou 6 ht out by South a nd '.lest, Inc . , of Ar,,ansas . South and Hest is also t ~1 e publisher of t l1e annual Poens b y Blacks (197 0 , 1971, 1972~ for which Pink ie Lane has beco1:1e p e r n anent ed itor. ilutl e r inau~u r a te<l t ~e annu al Bl acl Poe try Fes tiv a l in 197~. In t he pr og r am o f t h e fi r s t f e s t i v al, he stat e d : r The Black roe t r y Festival prov i des a rare opportuni t y t o b r ing t oge t h er p r ofe ss ional an apprent i ce poe t s in an effort to d e fine a n d le3 it imi:3e all for.i.s of rnac:: poetic talent as a ~relu<le emu pos t l ude to tlefining a~d lc iti~i2in~ t he reality of Dl ack people . 0 Eo?efu lly , t he r es u l t s of our effo rt s wi ll be a bet t er under¼-, s t anding a nd a ~ r cate r a~prec·a t ion of t~c lives , asp ira t i on s ~ d a chievenen ts o f Dlacl~ !1e o p l e . t<--~ inc.tvc!,hq -a..-1:he festivals ,fk A) !ta a ttracted a nur.:b er of poets/\ ::~ ~ ~ &.k'J ~ hy0f t~, ~ p,.i111 ~ Si,tcl."'J Sonia Sanchez , f\i-,andall, Re<l:uon<l (writer - in-residence , s umr.1er s , 197 l ~ 7 2) ' I\Zu-13ol ton, .lb.'i"'t Cotrt•JJ. M11tlf'll.tts1 1;eu,•J Knight , Aubert , ~Luc1.lle Cliftt i::i-:,r a l m:m Salaam, :;eal ,,/\u<lre 41.or<let a n .kLaurin . B proql'4IYISJ The ~ •• rl ll!t+- whic Irr.ia -..:.,, include d student poe t s and musicians , h ave i nspired a Poetry !fritinc \forrnhop under the supervision 0~ well , an English i n s tr uctor .</("The first~ ~oluri1es o f Poems by Blacks c o n t ain a rich l o de of southern poets : Leon E . ~:iles (Phi antler Smit1 ColleEe) , Elijah Saab (Litt e ~ ... /tff."Y (i;hso"Cfallo~ .. Cotte,a~ Roe;·) , Booker T . Jncl<.son (LittlcJ oc ~) ~t\y B~c«.C.l.e"'avnc Owt11 C0Uf9 (i'.Ier:iphis) , t(\ r thur Pf i ster 'J , A Eddie ~~,tA Wil.r(l~,_,,,-~) Scott Gfet:!phis) •A.O tis ,Toodar<l ,, (Tuskegee Ins t itu t e , Beer Cans Bu llets Things & iec e s, �L, nd4,. HtNind; 1972) ,/\.r!pto':l P earson ( ad:son, :'.ississip_ i), k T.:lcquel ,n ~ryn.n t benv,\ s H- o.. ~~tU.. ('fo.UMA~see); C'criJin. n , ~ oi.s 1t,.t. fe.dd___ Hi l ler ( Baton ~.ou ~e ), K ar ara Jean ;(ni3 .. t ("emphj s ):11\ ~2.ml 1:a t l l~ccn n.eed • voL:al ) (sJ.tdii~,\ ot edit th e fi rst two i.ssues of Poerr.s /\ ") ( Shrevepor t) . SC i s s .e a cteLl as advi_ s e. , r and 1 er own uorl: was sn stantially r ep r esented . . ee1i\. 1 a £i iftec~ wo r dl1:1anip ulnto ~ with ~onl unna t e skill a nd ~ assion . !orth of Ea ton "Q.ou;.> e/ in :·i ew Orleans, the fre e Sou t hern T' .e t ~r burned out 1t out o y th ~ l u t e sixties, it s .,orksho;.is c a111e n ~o. b oJ which Tom Dent, one of t he found e rs of car ri e s t e wor· of BLK, RTSOUTH writers . Some BLl-(Aln s ouT:l poe t s are 9al.o.arv1 t i on . FST, and tMl m •f\nou ~o i ntly ed it t h e publica / I (Bar bara ' ln..l c olri ), r\.ayr.1onJ ;'cnt , Saln..an , ?,e nalclo Fer nar e z, :·ayo n ov e'.cle n t a r c o fte n ex? r esseJ ih:: tt ~r outsi<l e or- ,__ ...:.._...,- ?oet r ·:::::_:::y ., ,....,.. Q L1 l_..,,J .., :ash in:; t on rv 1· ·1.ons . , . ,.,. ,0t t o ) . .J'✓ro'.:1 t.1e ,_., ✓ Afro - .\."'TI.e rican s alvati on . ,:e a dv i se s ula c l:s to spend l es s t i r.1e r appin;; drink.in~ a a<l nore tiI'le ,-;o r::in;; for S tat 1• lJecit /ul _'/ :1e c2.··se . ,.1.1u In " -:'-ay Ci1a rl es at :tissi..;sipµi s ay's : I bear pe ople wa it i..:; for t:. ·. rio t t o '.Jc,;i:.. in 0 • I.1ea rt s .• .. t .. eir /' Of " The P. lues ," . alaa1:1 says : --~ { , IP> ,\ ".' - . (/ ·-- - ~~b ·· · · I"', i t is not su mission . ~ .... ;~ut t:oe. nuch of his wa r :-. is speect t . 11 Sal.::ia::i h as also ,>uhlis:1e J Eofu ::i ·wenu : ~Iy Fear Is / or You (1'?73)') \-1h ich receive<l a 1-ri ixcd rcvi cu f r o:n n.owell in t h e , �is . ae of 01::?c:: '.·'orlJ . ~J~ h.:ls ~ an ~ Vtl Lvo.ble ::c,-1 J\ Gr cans - ascJ 1:ilac:.~ Colle',;; i.:r··.1) editor pubLt,Ji•n, ell ow ,LK.'\RTSOUT :e r ner iiayo urites a " edtir.:e S tory": ._an c:.;:ch::mGe betwe en r.1o ther and son about " revolution ." .\nswering t :1e son ' s question , "~hen we go nna have t he revolution? " the mother " But , says " ~ oon1 son . If The other poe t s cas t igate ~ hitey an' praise Blacks . ironicallY, they write very l itt l e abo ut southern life . Den t curr ently leads ") the Con~o Square lritin3 ~orkshop . Dillar an Julia ~1oonl i 9 T1ere are also writing workshops at ,~avicr _;{i1iversities . . cu~l\tr\ i~lds , ~ ~ i v1.ng in North Carolinn, brou 0 h t out East of tly 1t i n 1973 , u t one of h er mos t e loqu ent t est i non ies is " Hi gh on the I I o J" \ hich cs t ab i s h es .1er ri ::;: t 6 " r ut" or " 0 -11 . 11 to hav e "caviar " or " Sh rimp scuffle" over ~e nenus an po litical stances are over exoticizeJ by revolutionari es, she says, ,:1..<l she has " earned " t 1e ri ght to do w~rn t she li · es . "' c :c::s even hear :~as pai er due st clo.►t "· ;n tf) ·:.'.lus " sc rear1ing and " oma tici zing pa in . " and irn<l eno •~;h p ressures f r om 1e su t le~ ., le,e , Dut irect ~ ( s•,...e•• ~~im:n;shtw_.tll@ ~e"tt-r. Ai1.1i1Y" ~""1":'""""'s•f ...... ~l'Jll!fl!lli ht111Y".~.\.,L11: e=:Wts · aiill.:- 1e1) of Julia ot.1 sides of the color line . "h'~'lfo~..e F .. .,. iel s suggests ~ ca~~~~~ ~~v e r Ilut she Jna c k poetry. -- v.'- 1.· 1 e ns / • __1 ry st1MJ21. ct TT .. r 1.' t e rs /) f Conferences at Fi sk l' ive rsi ty, t 11e mos t ir.1portant one taking plac e ia p r ing I\ of 967 . Hayden, who had been a t Fisk since the fo rties) left in 1968 after a seri es of brus hes wi th pro ;-,onents of the .Jfiac <'. _}(es t h etic . fcrence (::,robabl_ b t.e s trm that soT'le ,:,.s a l'"!aj or · unctur c in t!-"le T;i_e 1967 co ttl, rake the came l ' s back for Hayden) is seen /ew/ lack writinG. Gwendolyn Broo ,s tall:ed .:lbou t it in h e r :1utob • t o 6 raphy , : :ar~are t i:alkcr dis cussed it wi t~ ilikki Gi ov a n ni i:1 their pub li s h ed " con ~r sa!:ions , " and Hoy t Full e r wrote ~lowing l y of i t in !Hae._ 1-:0 rl . l-!rit c r s ~ ttE.mlins t:1e conference ~vere David Llo ren s · ull~r , �Ron llilner, Cln r "-e, Bennett, Hargaret Danne r, t-: i kki Giova nni , Randal l , Lee, ar ga r et Walker, Sonia Sanc!1ez , Jones.,., and H.:ir 6 aret Burrou r;hs . ~ Probabl; held in the South fo r s ymb ol i c reasons, t~.e conference provided the first real n ationa l d r ama t i c arena fo r old and y oung wr i ter s . Gwendolyn Brook s (a " Ne g r o " t hen, she ha s said ) recalls b ein g " coldl y res pe ct ed " after just having flown t o Nas hville f r om " white white South Dako t a ." However, s he was among the f i rst (wi th Randall and Fuller) to take up the banner of t he j 'lack ./esthetic and the causes of t he y oung wr i ters . Such a c tion, of c our se, was dis p l e asin g t o a numb e r of white a n d _}(lac k poets, not the l eas t anong them Ilaydcry i,ho r efuses to a cknowled g e the existenc e o f a "s e parate" a est he tic for Blacks (Kale idoscop , ~ J anuary.., 1968 Bl a c k Wo rl<l po ll) . Alt h our,h the Fis k I -e~QMOLt ML fu k L ' has b een fo llowe d b y dozens o f r l a ck college s all over the South, Mi dwest a nd Ea st, ther e i s s ti l l n o mo n ol i t hic s tan d on • II b . rs 1,zeep tr •in;; • . di L a 1.re c t1.ono/ u t s ane ~- rite t o g • ve t 'nen a n yway . ~~d ~ ne in 'Y II ' . cation of t he heal t hy diversity anon~ / l a ck writers_ is the jour n al ~oa ts , published a t Te xa s Southern univer sity . I: itors arc Tor.my Guy , Jef free J,me s , Lot"tn301homa~ is tl.LS~ Assoc.lo.Ted wi't"i thE J>ubUc4,rt,n 7 urne r ~faorton , a nd r'.a:ice \.'il l ",:1. s . " Vo lume I , n mb e 1 ~~ con ta i ns e s says, a r t a nd t he works o f several poe t s , no st of t h en sou t hern e rs . ': The f poet r y , d e v oid ...., of monotonous theme or style, represen ts a broad range of interes t s in linl t ~uis tic s , subjects and f orn s . ~ gaz ed forever backwards." In ~ ' lo., n "a love suprem~ says1 "all my eyes 1' she ' 11 never kno~ " 7[ickey Leland writ es of vario us aspects of t he social and physical landscape, including the "Kink/ ) h ,:iire<l boys" who b ui ld "a rsenals of str.:iw . " Clarence \la rd notes in "Hanging • On" t hat t h e rent has gone u p, eviction i s ir:unt nen t, t he r e is no food fo r t h e baby , and (!!} a anging on aint easy ... . ,... r. �1 j. ahr.al j .' s tit l e " i'.a r ~l l'ea(: : 1a!,cs a Sof t Ass " i rap lie s the poer.1 s statc:ne11t . Tour.iy And fantasy eternaliz cs , " liLc - [1:e ·• k E t !1e T:1es of unity , self - es t eem , the : frican " raot:1e rland , " and i anger rer.1ain in t i1c n ew poetry as t. e :riJwest and ~.'est contr· i bute ~ ;nrilliance i mmensely to ~ and th e controve rsey . .i Ohio , for example , r ep re'-\-' sented a unique gat]1ering of diverse views on t he new cons c iousness , a ttr acting a number of poe ts to aid t :1e wa r. of ~;orman Jordan ( Kili:;o re ~ ( all f ~ Cleveland ) and Lern t on . ')JoJ ) , At\ins , Ja::1es ;Tow at Oberlin , Hernt on suc ~eeded Q,,-4 ~ P.eclrnonrl ~ . i , . & 6 uriter-in-residenc e there..... -cvv d@"el ,.,y Trou C began a resiclency c:t Oilio Unive rsit y . during lle rnton ' s leavetofjabs e nce . / Sara·-~-~~;:::J~~a~ also t a u; !1t : t Ob e rlin -:;..6./l,IJAy Howev e r , Cleve lan~ activity was s purr ed bllk~G.~J by a lon;:;; t r a ditio n o f, /l a c <. wri ter s i nclu i ng~ ~u ::; ies , t found er s of Ka r n u .:ouse) a nd At ~i :is . host o f y o u ze r ooc t s : . "' , n t hony 1esnutt (one o _ t:w T:1is c ont inuun n roduc cd Jord.:m a !1d ~ u<l g e , La rry Howar d , Larry \• ade , :\ ft ;; i xon, Clin t Nel son, !\obert F l enin"' (;,u \:a i s ma~azine) , Alan Bell , Ro land Fo rte, Ted l..ft\l~ Hayes, E 1\J uf o r d a nJ Di ~l Russ e ll o f t;w 'fontu acts . Ot her partici µatin:; "ritcri: ar tist s , ;er e Clyde S 1y, , -iee r ~ashid ancl Anett.:1 J e fferson . Suppo rt for poets and their activities c ace f rom va rious p laces : and Pos t, AL r o- Set lllac~ Arts p r oject , Vnited Blacz Ar tists , Free La.ce and ~ j.u ,iC:t- Karamu Ho us e whe L , un. . .:ia ' s p ays ',ere p roducecl ~ ~ ()I)~-~-~~ . writ es out of a stronr tradi tion of fl a ck hur.1anism nur t ured in r~fG~; relig i ous howes . His volu1~es arc :1,1.e Big uffalo and 0Sher fgem§ MiJnight Hast (19 70 ) a nd A Tirne of Black Devotion (1971 . ( 1969), The poerns cx_os c t c contradictions in Ame rica n ,/euo cracy and surv ey the " Hi gh Rise Dr eams " of ct I 119 Blacks caur;h t i n the urban:renewa l scrabble . Devotion, ded i i catcd to Co retta Sco tt Ki n/j , vibrates with conc e rn!,, for / 1.:ick studen t s , T}iirJ - - - - -- -- -- - - - - - - - - �\!or d survival, an<l a fo ci ati n with Fra;{.. Fanon .~ poet , Jo rdan is sorncti:::ies angr y , cynical and violen ~ and mys tical. He has r, ublished t h ree volumes : 1971), Above ?,aya (19 71)-f nn<l ,\·:ith :!arc. a Ga ge , different kin<l of o t her Destination : ti□e s .._, pr ophetic Ashes (196 7 , Two & &ts ( 19 7Li ). Ded icated to the " Cor.ununity , " Destination contains Jordan ' s best and nost memorable poems . In Cleveland he ener ged as a maj or fo r ce in the new. flack poe t r y, uniting the older tradition, symbolized by Free Lance, and the !·!un t u joets . Destination, first pub lished pr ivately by J or dan , was l a ter brought out by Third World Press (Chicago) with an Introduction by Lee , who sa i d he " l earned" t hat Hu;;hes had no need to " r e -writ e and revise! " ( ! ) Anyway , Destina tion chr onic les J or dan ' s ovm dev e lopment f r om t he per iod of civil ri 0 hts t hrough; (lac / ower. na r rative ma k~n;:,- amp l e use l "fe . ~ T:1e r e es s . r r anin ,. , f o r "I 11 alco b ve Jlis po e t ry is a ll free v e rse, f d ra1:1a ti s persona f r om ev e r y walk o0 -ack li s . , violence, poverty, een '11ira c le s . " and dancing , " but no"":, at Ci,- 'tltt t.Uey) onel i nes s and exal t ation of . c " de scr ibes t hose on r e lie f, hunr; r y a nd c ol d) 1\ e l i e Reed us ed t o be a ' i rl ab nu t town , "L;m ghing 6 s he is <lead and her zho st "trc .bl es'\_in a ~ _i:;i 3 J u · nc bo tt l e, 'need i ns · fix . " (~ usually~=~li!.\ ---- Jordan also spoo fs " Eiz:-i. Art and Al l t;a t Jazz ": ~ T'uck you an<l your <la·,m ver'"'s le t rne tell it li;~e i.t is ,..,. pas t fy ",:,2 Ji!1z - am~ fo;1key. t. e Lions '' (1966) is 111s r:J OSt an t holo gized poe The " a rmy" of brief -case-ca rr yin~ social ,,mrkers invade s / l a ck neighborhood s each no rnin:3 , pas!l out checks , raov~ quickly f r oP.1 one Joor to another, an<l , af t er f illing ,- ;,, �~ quot{ , leav i "before Jark . " The r e are ~ lso poems about r:rystici::;:1, reli3 i on , mytholo~y+ and ka r r.ia , incluJing drawings of eyes , trian:;lcs .:1.td c ircles~ all r eflectin~ the nwny influences on JorJan ' s work a nJ t he approachin _, ..., new Mood (Above Hava ). Du t De st ina tion, with it s short , e• pizrammatic ve r ses ...., and para bles , sees t hrough allusory , romantic " un ity" near the encl and n ount s an attack on revolutionary charlatans , backt liders of t he ri1ovement and t hose who view violence as t he only soluti on to racism. Yet " Cosnic ;.1i tchdoc t ors" reaf firms his faith in . flack writers work ing far into a " liquid nigh t' 1' the' prov ide the f ounda t io n U fo r t omo r row ' s l ibe r a t ion . Jor dan ' s b eli ef in t he r.iy st i cal , mag ical p mve rs of t h e wo r d c a n b e s een i n t he name Vi bra tion , a Clev e land na 0 a z i ne wit h wh ich '1e wa s closel y associ a t ed . It is " De d ica t ed t o t he Re s u rrect ion o f t h e .!e nt a l ly and Sp ir itually Dead . " . . Ohi o poe t s fou n d o u tl e t s fo r t h e i r wo r k i n Vi ra t ion a:1d o t '.1e r journ als ; Dlack As c en s i ons (Cuyaho ~a Co1rin un i t (Ohio Sta t e Cnive rsit y) ar.d Li. el ine : Co l l e g e ) , Pr oud Black I r:1a3es ~- 1en Ane r ic a . in z s Sh e Cr oaks C :Je r lin ) . Obe rlin s tuden t s a l s o pr oduc e d a sp ec i al f lac k issue o f t h e co ll ege ' s Ac t ivis t raaeazine; it c on t ainer! po ems b y b oth s t ud e nt s an d well: m own poe t s . Fudge , a staff member of Blac k Ascens ions, publis , ed Eig ration in 1972 . · .t;{Lmer 8v~on5, Jt11nOJ11 Clevel1nd poe t I\ D. , Fel ton (1934~ ) , brou~h t out Conclusions ) with an Iutroi duct::..on by Atkins) who praised the young poet for n ' t conscious ly engagin3 in the " d isfigur ement of percep tions" to pole1:1icize '' constricted kin d of ~ \If.Y'S~ ' relevance . ' " 1 j In " An Elegy to i~ ternit y ," Felton , a vibrant ~ oet , says : Tear- ducts s,ell , b ursting in a 0 ':i de ligh t of flood and fury . Garfield J ackson , a young prize- winning poet , is one of the editors of �Proud Blac k I mages . } any yo ung a nd older Oh i o poe t s are included among i ts pages: ~Forre st r.ay , Di anne Go uiJ , Jacki e Toone , Ibrahim Aslam (Chris J enkins ), I3a ttut a Lu.·amba :Oar ca , Linda Ca l lender, Beverly Cheeks , Antar Sudan Hberi, Le atrice Emeruwa, Roslyn Perry Ford , Ray riont gomery , Ki l gore , ()... Jordan ♦ ...., and other s • Alt hough t he journa l ' s ti tle s e t s ~,._conc e ptua l pace and places it in t he st ream of the new conscious ne s s , t he r e i s no un ify i ng t heme or idea in the po e try . John Hhittaker call s " Singe rs, Dancers " t he " doer s of initial deeds" and P1 1mp l emen t e r s of t he i nevit a ble Hla ck lif e . <;,\,- He rnto n , who a t tenclecl Ohi o sch oo s, became wri t er - i n- r e sidence a t Centra l State Unive r s i t yi Ee published Tl1e Co□ in~ of Ch rones to the i n the sixties . House of Nightson 0 in 196~ and ince then he .-!as writt en man. on i\merica ' s social/ se1:ua l !1an ups . in t1e first issue o shovs Hernton playfu 1 t h i ngs . t hi 0 e of lis mos t po verful poens appear ed on front a tion: (summer4 19 70)/ founr1er a d c<li e oaks and articl e s J ournal of Third ~or d Literature bv Troupe a t Ohio niversit, . " Street Scene" o ·n ~ at the identit _ question along wi th other When he '.!leets and s -r-eak s t o h i s " dr e an " on t l-ie " stree t, " he r ece i ve s an si:Jer: "Go t o hell, s onofabi tc ." Confrontation a l s o ublishes other Ohio poets; y eti its conce rns are broac_y as seen in the names of contributing e dit or s : v Damas , Ser gio Mondragon, Fernando Alegr {a, r•;ea l , Redmo ncl, Tam Fiori , David lend ers on, :.'·!el vi n E<luar ds 1 d Wi lfre d ALSI llaowe-1 ,~ictlll,i,,,,o,11,c n~C.IOOMS~ • Ca rt ey . ~0the r Oh i o conmuni l e sA: ci II · l(l t OST r '. Ci ncinaf t i ' s first s: . '" ";.J.' _ /lac~ t , 0s t ival was o r ganized by Nikki Giovanni i n 1 963 and ou t of t. is e ffo rt g re,.i The ~fow Thea ter . i;er ~e rt Martin (19JJJ ) , ~rew "ark t h e Nine ) '/ �::111 io:, u:i.J ( ther 'oc'''S (l)G'.?), 11:.1dc an i :11:1easurably valuab e contr ' but i vn to t:1c underst::m<lin~ cii j-ac:, puc try \Jh('.11 • c or'-'anizcd the P ul Laurence lJun ar Ccntennl.'.ll lu l':.)7 _ at t!1e l'niv2rsity of Day ton . Indiana heaved for t!1 precious words fror.i. Gar y , Indianapolis , PurJue , Terre Huute and otjer areas . ::ari Evans organized ar ts and c onsciousness pro~; r ams in In<li.:1;1.n )Olis and :Hooming -on . I An a Black Wor.i.an, ~ ontainL O poer.i.s written ove_ several years , unfortunately <lid not find a publisher until 1970. However , tie book deservedly received the Black Academy of Art s and Letters Second Annual Po e try , u arcl . Sh e has been closely identified with activities v'. in Chi c ag ~ where Thir J ~ o r ld Press publ i shes h er c 1i l<lren _"'s wri t L.-1gs t i tle po er.1 is :cnar:; .;:1 .1 spiritual , 11s, c 10 lo~ic.'.ll a n J his t orical j o ur ney of t !1e;{l a c k /' • s e " tri ,:;et ~-r c /J fincers " nou seek t'.1e softness of ny w rrior ' s ,\ 1aajor . o er.)1 • ~ ; ~~ . it co..1b i nc sv the ~~ -~~ -=s~ so s in::;ing or acl~ un it y an<l :\f r i ca . In bet of the ~od ernists a s t o ~ive the imp r es sio n of someo ne ~ar i _vnn s s c a n s other fie l d s iur.1.r.1ing .:1lon::; witl of ,,.Zl ac ~ life , ,;ri i ng auout eard .•. • J _:2,:'..::.!$h & techniques ,,it 1 a sw> :: s ~ Her one l y and JejecteJ wo::1en , sel f - pri de , v i olence, " T- _10 c.:m be Do rn Bl a ck " s 1e j o yousl; anJ Je fiant l y asks : can h:: Lorn and not e::ult ! - ~ -d Also closely associ.:1 t ed with the Chicago an<l De troit movements is r. t I\ 1. ge Knight (1933R ) , who ,J.:;.s serving u @:.year tcru i n Indiana State Prison when Poems fron Prison (1~68) _appeareu 1 -£2!!9 wit}\ @ a Preface by Gwend olyn .... �Brooks . She called h is poetry Vital. Vital. This poe try is a majo r announcement .•• • And t he re is blackness, inclusive, possess e<l and given; freed and terrible and beautiful. Her ovm version of t :-ie,)flacl:/esthetic was expressed in th e same stat ement: ''Since Etheridge : night is not your stifled artiste, t here is air in these po ems." Kni gh t roams the deep crevices of/ lack s piritual and psychic experi ence s a s he comb i nes the language of the pr ison subt culture with the He bounc e s or drives hard- a poet r y M of " har d bop" ~ looking at pr i s on life , love an<l ancestry. Exceptional pieces r hy thms of/ lack Americ.::i n street speech . a re the folks y " Hard Rock Re turns to Prison fror1 t he Hosp i tal for t he Crimin~l " Insane, " the 11 T:1e Idea of y s t i cal and m, t hica l "He Sees thr ough Stone, " t h e genei l ogica l 1. ncestr · , " the innov.::itiveAaiku sections, and " On U i v e r s a l i s~' . ~ lru.k.$' wh ich wa r ns against applying " unive r sal lai-, s" toA" pa ins " and "chains " in Ame r i c.::i . d, - ab i l ities a r e poi gnantly displayed in haiku "9": Hi s technica Hak ing j a zz S\:i ng in Sevent e en sy l a blc s AIN ' T ~!o s qua:-e :1oet ' s job . l~ni;;ht , w 10 was l .::i t e r r eleas e d f r om prison, also edited Black Voices / ram J Prison (1970) and i n 1973 Broadside Press published Belly Song and Other Poems . J He l oses his r each when he tri0s te- ove r --h ntellec tunl iz his poet ry. /{ ~~ ds \:» ~.01:' s'-'~Pt~ed, v IS Wi L )32& J ± 1 slips into polemics. & ~ p ;=-;-:-:---;;--. , , , • ·- C"@ri T:H?. ..,..,. boo '!!!'! B i1 e y s ong •3 t '1as some fine monentsJ but it sometimes However, Kni ght i s still stretching out as a poet, currently doing r esearch into oral lite r ature wi h the aid of a Curygenheim gr ant . 5.f? - - - - - -- - -- - -- - - -- - - - - -- - - - -- �Bell·, shows hi!!l pur s u in ~ tl1i s trad it ion in "Th e Bo n es of My Fathe5 " which smile a t the n o on i n " !issi ss i p] i from th e bottom !) of the Talla hatch i e. Fina l l y , a numb e r o f po e ts f r om t h is i ene ral r e g ion of the fidwest and South ar e include d in a s pec i a l ,Jl ac k j oet r y issue of Ner,ro American Lite ra tu r e 19 72) e di t ed by Redmo n d . For um (springj The Forum is published by Indiana St a t e Gniversity School of Educa ion and ed ited by John Bayliss , an Englishfilan . I t regul a rly reviews,/J-ack litera ture . Chicago is a ~Ii ,'west heart an · has a long tradition of/ lack/ rts, going bac k t o , and befo re , Coun t Bas i e ' s opening at t he Sunset Clu~ i n 1927 . l~wever, some of t he 1:1or e recen t forces h e l p i n g t o shape the new poetry movement there -theArm , da.b L.e a rel Sout h W or- K!,,lu, ta wtd . \ Bvrri v,J,J} 1 i d e Conraunitj1 Arts Cen t e r , ~J ohnson Publications , :<um3:: s~ JA.~•.,.~• Thea t er ( Franc· s antl V 1 Ha r d), the DuSable !!useum of Af rican Ame ric~ eu.c.(c. ~~ Cutlti~J , /i ns t i tut e of Po si t ive Edu c a t ion and ory,\) 0"'94tliJttic'M OC, Third 1-:'orld Press (Hadhubi ti~ Free . - - - .; 1alc ol::i. X ~ Sp eaks , Ell i s Books t o r es , Ens enbl e ) • Def end er g e , ~scar Brown, Jr . , Philip liJlan 1uhammad ( Artist ic Heritage 3 ;:uch of the new poetry scene g ene r at e s e Ful l er, Bl a c k Wo rl d mana g inc editor , is also advis6r ,OJto OBAC ' s Vriter' s 'Jorl(shop . I n " l9 69 (fall) issue o f :fommo , the wo r k shop ' s a n d Gwendolyn Br o o k s . jo urnal , Ful ler said : [l B ac k L, a ,my o f lookinz a t the world . The poets of OGAC, in revealin3 t ~eir vis i o n , celeb r a te t heir b lackness . I n t !1 i s r.1or:1ent in iis t o r y , what mi gh t under lif f erent circui I �stances be sinply a ssumed must necessarily be asserted . And the OBAC poets know-/4if others do not ~ that pale men out of the West do no t def ine for mankind the perime ters of a rt. This L.!!!.ey want all black people to know. In the /ournal ' s winter issue of the s ame year , Full er said OBAC mei'lbers were " seeking" to be "both sinple and profound." They display an "imag inat ive re4-, presentation of their e;~periences, " but they also seek "to be revolutionary . 11 In the first quote , Fu l ler ' s tone , carrying the ba ttl e - baiticg p1rase i f o t hers do not ," s eemed to cows , as Lee ave been a signal f or , anong others , Don L . . .own Lee ( 1 9421V ) , to cont inue ~is~t tacki on all fronts. s•e~it , " even o..w-t. There .......no s acred a nd since "others do not" know what t he youthf ul Ch i cago Blacks presuma bl y did know , Lee ' s a s signmen t was t o teach t hem . Gwendolyn Brooks concurr ed wi t h nos t of t his feel i ng , embrac ing a s it i;ere a "new" _)D-ackness and (un f ortunat el y) y> ::::::=- !_ enEag i ng in @ 1 I SJ? sel f - depreca tion: ''It f righ tens me to real iz e t ha t, if I had died befo r e the age of fi fty , I would have died a ' ~re1~ro ' f r a c t ion ." Lee/ f ollm, l n8 t he exar.1p l es of RanJ all and Baraka , be gan T, ird \· or l d Press,!a valuable vehicle fo r the new poets~and changed his name in t he early seventies to Haki R . ,'.adhubuti. He also e st abt lished the Institute fo r Positive · ducatioJ which publishes I3lac c. Boo .c.s o.w-e Other poets ,_,i ncluded in the editorial staf [fi Dulletin(<.with himself as j Sterling Plump p (19 40~ ), Johari Amini (Jewel Latimo re) (1935J ,..,.. ), Emanuel, r, Sarah Webs t er Fabio, the lateALlorens ( who launched Lee ' s national career in ~le,.. _, Ebony , Harch h 969) - and~Ran% 11 . OBAC was founded in 1967j ~ poets of varying t ~ ,t;; temperaments were a ttrac t ed to it and Gwendolyn Brook s '~ \workshops : 3 arolyn Rodge r s (1943 1 1 ) , Ualte r Bradford (1937J ) , Ca rl Clar~ (19324 ), �I ), Ronda Davis (1 940~ Cool: (193 ~.; ) ' ), ), Peggy Kenner (193 7; ) , :...../ Sigemonde Winberli (Ebon) Other Chicago= · rea /" Lucille Patterso, ) , Ruwa Chir /). - Th e wo rk of many Chica go ~a r e a p o e ts can be found in ommo, Black Expressions, BL c k Wo r l d, Blad~ Wr it e rs ' News , Huh ammad Speaks, and in the antholo gies A f. New Chicago An t h olo gy (1 971 ), both Broadsid e Tr easu p , (1971) and Jump Ba d: .J edited by (;wendolyn :C r ooks . T:1ey c an als o b e found in - nationall·,t .:istrilmted ant·10 o~ic s a:1d jo urna ls . 1_ as n c1::iG numerous other 1iil!.: Black h'orld , 0.. . n won b y c h i· cago- a rea artists . .. an-!. concept , was f'.concc. sio an d act ivists Ut1'11 l •,-t "11,,-t.•11. .tohnSOr1 Li~s'1~~~~ ,,,': _::;.:e<l aea~ s t ~:;~;;;;J\'<egro igestJ n e late six ies. Fuller , ~ gui<le,._ 111 11 c rgn a · ac s n e w i ma g e through the ~ - • • • ua ters of 1 ) c on t rove r s y a nd chans e, Eu t □any rea der s have been critical of ·11 Som e. _.. :Glac 1' ~:o r lJ ' .., - :_' :1rticulariz"2.J s tan 's , ~lac k of " open" forura on 4ts i ss ·es , .::m<l ~ t2:1uer jo· r na beeY\ c: to circ u::1scribe individuals and g roups . '- 'S ft1 n -f.n,fisp nsa!)lc a.i.c.! t o ~ NetJe.,r 11.eLeu I\,_. t he J lack poets and writers , pri. ting nu11be r o f accoL.1 <lcs anJ t l~c cor:r.1 erc i a l a ttentio n he and his poetry :1ave received . A sA~ pl i n3 of c ritics , poet s a nd scholars who feel he is one of the great est o f t he .e.: po e t ., u oul d h:.i ve to in clude Stephen Eenderson, Fuller, Gwendolyn Erook s/ ia r ga r e t h'a l ke r, Paul a Gidding s, Daraka , Ha ri Evans , Randall and Gay lL. �Gwendolyn Brooks he as s.:.1iJ :i& !11t1lL@j\ r ::-se~·-:nles Jesus Chris ~ .:mcl h e r Int ro i 1 <l ucti o n t o J ur.ip nae 1;:iils 1in a s " th e r.1os t sign ifican t, inventive , ar.J influent ial bla c k poet i n t :1e c o untry ." Ove r l o o k i ns , fo r t he nonent , the P\J.e. ~ qoi.sife,. ·be 1 !ila'.,·l\of r e a<ling " a ll " the poe try in t he "count ry" be f ore maki ng such P4rA.d-t1Y.1c ~ L J a statement , it ~ is . IIP • ~ln view of t 1e " collective" polic y ~ a::-id ?~$1l um,s, I · ~ t he an t i - ind iviclu al i s t w, 1; 1§£ ~ ~~ - .:illegedly forr.r'. t he cornerstone of 4 t he Chic ago po e try s c ene . 9 '~ ~ ~ 1~~1! ubl ished five volumes o f poetry : Pride (1 968), Don ' t Cr v , Screan (19 6 9), (197 0) , Directionscorc : (197 3) . 8 • tc :U 4 of t h~ Jlac:~ (1967) , Black fo '\ a l k the Way of t he :-iew World Selec ted a n d new Poems (1971) and The nook of Life Hi s Dynamit e Voices , Vol . I a study of @ Think IHack! (Broads i d e) , publ i shed i n 1971, is I -- - - - - -- ~ :t.:-r,---._ p o e t s of t 1e s i:<tie s ; b ut it r ev eals y like his other c,.a,t11IC I Sm) \~ tha t he1'a h a z y t ½i nl·e r ' t who l a c k s discr e tion a n ~ irm under stand i n g He spe nd s an entire p a g e , f o r e xamp l e , l a c k po e t r y t r a d itio n . illumi natin z and a pparen tl y a dvo catin 0 t he use o f t he wo r d " mothe r fuc(e r." And any boo k a bout ...,the s i x ti e s s hou ld no t cone of f t he press wit h out exami l ning t h e poe t r y o f LeRoi Jon e s / mamu Jara.~a . of the / few ,t'1 ac·~ )Oe t r y to th e .na n ' s po e tr y . .:tr k i ~fadh ubuti a ttr ibu t es t . e fa t hersh i p ut ~ : i@ it11 R ; ~ m ~ rscuss 11·_.._ There a r c oL e r , incredible flaws i n the boo: , for • ;1ich this y ounz p oet ' s ~...___.., nen t o r s ~ us t s ha r e some bla~e . As a c r itic, h e did not (could not ! ) cul t iv.:it c t!\e " d istance " of a J oh nson , Er e .• , Redding or I ,,---..., . I Henders on , a nd conseque ntly M a-1FetH1¥ la c king d i s cip l ine and tr ainin gM c ould not ____.., - r eal l y see the po et r y0 The boo.kl Is redeeming values, I such as t hey a re·; i-T.S . pos s i bly reside ~n~incidental ·i nfonnS:t :ion ·and tllll biblio graphy. @I �, . poL1i:r.:~ l 1 1-111a ~~c l"'~"'et'il i!l l'ill!'1MI il ••f•n• (Plura n, Cunnil ~lwm, Rod:;e rs , Gil )crt, etc . ) His t:-ie .es 11 ra n:;c fror.1 what 1 r t 1:m P . Davis has c a lled "The ~!ew Poe try of Bla c t Hate , t hr ou ;_;h l ove nnci jlac l-: p r ide, to t 1e he ~ ar_tl pontifica t ion s i n The Boo k o f ,: ,.,.,U .1i. rran ,e s sa: i n ~s a n d parable s stat ed b e tt e r by Aes o~, bush Life wheTrr he r e..y r f ric a ns, Plat o, ~ Daraka♦ and 'i:'o ls on . Li ke _ ik i Giova nni a nd othe r s , h i s -...;_; ea r l y work ret infor ced t h e s elf- love co11c ep t , c as t i::;a te . flac! ~ unity. ~hi t ey and enco ur aged \c\eQ~ wer~ :ros of hi s t ire a, IM!IIR"sur,nc<l up in the titles Thin~ I3lac · ! and nlack Pride; ~ :11s devices arc everyd ay conv ersation\t often not wellt '--" r ~n.r:,1'c.o.1ion 1 uroug1.1t bu t _,oi:1.e tir:ies quite s t.:irtl ins ~ .d rr{us i cal rhy t :ms ("T: e .:all" ) . T.1ese h e a<l justs in .:in often effec tive t yp oeraphy w·li c h raoves in parallel colur:ms v;rtically or ho rizo n t:illy on t ·1e pa~cs . Loo:~s an{~r:.ticaJ! 1 article ) ~:a :m'.mti ~ . , , , . . f \il.s wri t ersJ - as ,le oes .1:1 rmcn o · -..e poe try . "'1 Injntro<luctions to l is ivcs "directions" to / lac:t ~ .,.,.,r irst . _lr.p ressions . -~n Aa a~,1-ov-1~n~/ h ... c,l"IIC.iU <1.'1 Poe t's L-e:ith , '' . . .A le::;y for Co7.r.'.lt'. Ken t f.iv e r s ,,._ un- tall:ed- about 4£!£S3i oP caus l>vf r1uch 11 sex aml cirinl~, he sn:·s , ~ ,f!, 1' rer.1a t u r ~ i _a jl!!3 At:1e often ~otne fR4Jf d,e l a c k <leat:1s . Sr- sl:dwt Aof " t oo " I) oc t s who poe t' seldom die fron ove r e ;~pos ure . I,u t '.1e can unknowin 6 ly dabble ui t L "'lhe Self- ~iatred of ;.;on L . learns t o love t '.1e out er . 11 1 the most c omplex aspects o f / l a c k. l if :, a s 12e_;• w::ere , af t e r s tud y i n~ j-ackh i s t ory , inne_ 11 :JC r so . a ,1d 1,a tc (l1ith vehenenc e ) he �Certainly a profound ,H d tragic dilemma i s stated here$' since hating one 's color will not c hang e itt and since one has to live with it fo r the rest of one's life . It is a :soo<l poem for s tudyin g the so-called "solution" that ·, some Xlacl· writers claim to have "found" to the identity proble1:1 . r :· WI, ~CZ " ] , ' - 3 6£ CS!il&Zl of his l'ilOS t far.10us poems is " Doa' t Cry , Sc ream." 31 ]) ·: SHJ. 1/o One Praised highly by Stephen Henderson , t h e poem paraphrases t1e her { tical rantings of Ron Kar en8-, who encoura ged Blacks to renounce the~ues . . --------I ] ( 11, e..-.c~ yph\c...~ r) ,'i- ') A tribute to Coltrane, 1,._is largely Eraph ic j\;·Tid1 occasional areas of int elligi bility . t·1ere is this sa/J et>t e l f - c.isgu s t : ~s Then n i c ri ed fo r bil ly hol l iday. v t he blu es . we ain ' t blue ? How C.ovLd C.c,LTrllr\ ~~v -•evot.ved 11 w ithoo-r-#l,e bt..uel . t~e b l ues exh i b i ted i llusions o f manhood . r:ven t h e Ge :ma n Janheinz Ja1m ·new bett e r. (\ And cert a inly, toda y , ~-!a <lhubu ti r.ust fa c e t h e q uestion : _ i it " ? t. e b lues we re de struc tiv e, t h en b ow did !1e "make Ind eed, how d i d a n one " ,. ake it" ui t hout t he t o t em of survivalis n s n eces sar t o " c r o ss ov e r" ? Ha d h ubut i ' s i n f luence on t h e n ew p oetry has b een subs tantial , however , though in most instances the inf l uence has been in the area of politics rat 1er t'."la n poetry. r-.e ho.~ \\e lp e.d t~ \)GP" La. ,,i3c lJJ jth oiheY' ''. tfirJ''o P-tt,e)(rw)1Lo.ll'-folTt-YJ \-t, Carolyn Rodgers ' volumes are Paner Soul (19GB), Songs of a Blac kbird 1r (1969), 2 Love Raps ~ Got GYtl, (1975). o dside )~ (1969), Blues Gittin Up (1972) and How I 1:omanly and convincing , she .,rrites of young wor.1en, love , revolutio naries and music . In" hoen ix" s , e recalls traveling " with the wind" and hearing the many voices screaming blooc.ldrops of " Jazz " describes " t.ire e" at t he bar , 1 1 and the mur ur of t:lick nouths ..•• . �" .ebo l us!lina r ? :-:- '7,u, / e a s t u; ju li c 4/e t c . e tc . etc . " is a satir e o n " in i itan ts ." An ci s h e t el l s us tha t c? hits of r.1e s p i n ter e d irC_to a 1:i irror in " Look at :-1y Face a Co lla;; e. " T e se ideas an<l t hefiles , .: ind many others , can also b e found in th e poet r y o f Jo hari Amini, Plumppl: and Cunningham . Johari Amini ' s books include I mages in Black (1967), A Folk Fable (broadside) (1969), Let ' s r:o Sor:iewhere (1970), and She re ies heavil:1 u :,i on l ac" co lloq u i alisr.1s , usual y ach i e ving succe s s . s h e has other r an°e~ as can i9.9 / lack le , wh e re thev c a e seen in 11 Bro t ;1er " whic!1 ./ on g s for wo .. 1($ he " so il " o f fe e l t he sA or .. e a ble S 1 ( 1969 , Ha lf Bl acl:, Half Black.er (1 9 70 ) a nd t o Br eak t he (" r e e (1975) . fOU t her er wi t ha s stu~ • c a lled Bl a c k Ei >-q;lJ sA ( a s o writt e n a r,r ovo c ativ I But unive rs e shud e ~ ... \ J..,,' T'l u "'D' Hip Tale in De th Style (1972) . a 1~::. teps und in psycholo ::'~ , he C,,13) ) (!, His interests ~ l are seen ·n'\ tit le s -H:k:2 " Fr om , ~an l e ss Sis t c rs to Bi3 Bad Rappers," "B l ac :: ,essa~es" ( " elieve in · s " ), " Livin g, T uth " ( " olac\ ]1is t r ~ .. . a Lanne<l ep i c "), ,.,.l) L ,. ;::~,~- t eyr -I or ~J 1_ac~ u ~ \ _ __ '' II : ." .o t ,1e r 'noouJ , C''7c oF t.1c cios t pe r ce7tive , s:.<.i l lfu l ;::,.nJ i:mov a t ivc poets - l=lewevs;i;,.. is Cunningl1a1:i . Hi s one volu,:1e is T:1e Blue l~a rr :i t g_: _(1 974 ~ a nd h e h as b een p ubt ll.s'1ed ,..;i•..!elv i r:. :1eriod ic als . " ";'Le Clty I.i se s" 4s a ~c1<l s t iff \:oo•ien plac Et:)· .. } II .,t . • • I •...:~ic-n s J'_ve: • 11 $1abbecl 1 • .; " t '11e nar r ci t o r L n ,·:.i r • /' /../_Or _,n ,:~n~l.s urnss II ~ Gl5' • l '/On~• r r1.u11 :,r n i;~es t,1e senses; t he "' 11 II l .;y ,.,.,r;:i,1,:1s , an cl ,_1.., en +-..... 1cre l as a nan s tands won ue ring u 11 ows :; r e. c1 t oe t r y .• �11 wh? do~s t he riv e r fl oa t U? t o t h~ sky~ ··· \ -.A Tolsonian ~ t h r s t , " P-.app inL Alo n:; ,vith TI.o n<l a Davi s " is a de l ight ful comb i na tion of :foon beams & yams a n d shows Cunn in3h..;m ' s ab ility t o r lac e d i spa r a t e o r derin z s i n ;1 is poe t i c v i se. " A S t reet i n Ka u f::i.an - vil l e : _,.o r a n o te tlirm,,n t o c a r o l ::, fro:1 r oC.:;;e r s p l ace" i s a stu d _ of t h e " f r a gment s " of Bob Kau f man in who1:1 t he ,1oe t sees a madne s s unlH:e my m·-'!1$ ••• ~ 1f!.. _drr :1.· v :1.· n::., " "."·' r om the :~a rra t or ' s A r,r ·· :..., :.: Tr.:m ce ," \ a song thum.,Cl .: lmm a c r uise r f or a rid C:?J . .. Cunn i n; ian a l so ~.rites of o::.1e r poets a :i.d artists . t 1"1 com u c ti n:; hi s fasc i na t ing ex?eri ments ,,it h t he language , h e celeb r a t e s the wi de sp2n of t he hybr i d Afr o-.\ne ri can h erit.'.l::;2. ~ cert ainl:r, '1e re i s a ?Oe t t o be c lo sely wa t ch ed . ) Ar:long ot11e r C:1i ca:;o :,ac ts ~,~10 " Gi l e rt , :!v O\.m pub ~1ed v olut:les .'.l re ,,. P.a l lel u.ia s ( 9 7 ) : Ci1 ir.:. , ,\:1 c\:10Tvle'<l r- . ~1en t t o : r'l .\ fro - ,\.T'Je r ican Bro t her ~1968) ; Pe r k ins , r, a c, is Zeau ti ul ( 19 6 ) ; ~n:.1 er ~i ( r:b o n ) ~he tt o Sc e n e s ( 1 9 68 ) a n d ]{ev olution ( 96 8 ) ( " ::i ne:1 Dl a ck v o ice to a l a r m t h e es t ablis hment " ~ Perkins); rfar garet Burrou ;;hs , :1:1a t . al l I Te ll mv Chi l d ren 1;.11 10 are Il l a c:<. (1968); Green l e e, Blue s f or a n Afri c an Pr i n cess (19 71) ; Luci lle P a tt e rson , o.b• o. '"~ dN11tt114~ Hoon in Black (1 9 74) ; Steph a ny , ~-fo v in,, Deep (1970) ; Roy ster / 'AtheBl ack Door s (1971); Kgosit:i.le , Jp ir it s [ nch a ined (196 9) a r:c! For :'e lbn (197()); Butler , . " - Black Visions (19'"3 ); and ff ~ Je,f~~ To Pa int a Black Picture (1969). §) n o t a ll C:iicagoans , have been p ublished in Th ird ~fo rld Pr ess '.s ~ s erie s : ,.. An g ela J a c k s on , 1 oodoo/Lov e ~!a g ic (1974); Damali (De nise Bu rne tt), I J\.'11 t hat Ue l lav Be (1974) ; Fred llord, Aft e r ours (1974) and <f!l};> �Sandra Royster , _i~_o_n_ 1c_n__·a_l_k_· (1974). • wui"l Th e se y oung po e ts deal h'it .1 a ~ ari':.t y of \'\O. II"~ (1\llf j'\ subjects, th ou,;h u ith a n ll1 r, variet y c f forris; r: ostly , ho,·eve r, they ar c concerned with r evolut ion, self-pride, he tero sexua l relation s and/ l ack life in urban Ame rica. Gwendo lyn Brooks who, as we saw i n Chap t er V, 1 p 1as a vays -ee n solid in he r ackness and wonclerfully ma g ic in her poe try . The Brooks of In the Yecca (1968), Riot (1969), Family Picture s ( 1970) a nd Aloneness (1971) is not drastically dif fe r ent f r om h e r f o r me r s e lf . In Repo r t /ram Pa rt One (1 972), h e,;-a ut ob i o g r a ph: , she appa r e n t l y app r oved the use of a }{adhubu t i which t e lls more abou h is own r e adin 6 an,J writi a b out t h is g r e;, ~ woman ' s poetry . ~ Pefac e prob ems t~1an i t does Ma dhubuti c ol'lplains about 11er c omp l e ~ v e rs e; b u t her po etry h as never bee n " e asy " t o r e a d ( pr ob a b ly ev e r wi 11 ) 1 a nd rrio t c on t inue s tha t trad i t i on of tou gh ness , a poet r y v ' clds Meanin;; a ft e r man • reading s . She en ,l o: s nyt h ology , history , sarcasm and dramatic dial og u e t o r ev e a l wh i te middle - c la ss oomposi t y ev en in fa c e o 5n~ ".l a ter ~u'7-1~o~es 'the <l~of A V A• " a " Ri o t "j sv .. vey~ Rin~ Cr osby a d . !elv i n Van ree les, and a [ -~~ love. The "Black ph i l osopbe r" is t h e t hre ad t h at s p in e s t he section called @½d Se rmon on the 1.Jar p ~ . Th ere a r e t races o: her t en:; ~ ea r lie r s t yle, _.,; ? articul a rly 1er uni nu c wortl- sounJ pro g re s sions: - - -, ) a s "i1 er unde r fed haunches jerk jazz . An~ a w~ite liberal , obs ervin g a rio t, asks I, " :3ut \{'c-lY do T11ese .People offend t;1el:',selve s?" a J J in;~ t :1a t it is ti:-:ie t ";1elr . "~ a::lilv Pictures contains t he snapsi10ts of he r new youn~ heroes, t!1e people who helpeJ he r .) ecome " Bl a c k ." 11 ' ~ 1 ,el l-neaning t,....,,R..J.- 1 • ~ f~ radfo r d , and youn::; Af ric ans , t he r e :~.:E.: ~:;;J'~~e~';'/ is pe r fect , ~me she is ap p a r ent i y 2 5 sal ut es to ;',, osit ile , "' is a nonoton y of p r aise . --------- -- - - - -- - -- - - - -- Uut d es pite - - -- " _, 6 �struggling .:i.s lwrd with commitment .:i.s sh e is wi t'.1 the new poetry . In ~pe.edyfo 'the Jrog re~s - To~ i.> ln t t" "Speech to t he Young .'' dedica t ed to,-mm ch i ldren , t :1c sensitive mo ther- poet P Live not fo r The-End-of-t he- Son7, . Live in the along . c(J. vtioa-) Such 111B :t•i\come s at an i r.1p ortant juncturej when t]1e wo rl<l is nov ing ri ~h t . ; along , to use a cliche , and leav ing beh ind tho ~ " self-revelations" to look , listen and l earn . o mired in their mm ~ "one crowning salute to t his grea t l a dy of_)tl acl: letters was an i mp r essive antho l ogy of poe t r y and j( Tribu t e t o Gwendolyn Brooks (197 1) , t es t imonials , To r.wen u it h Love : a s sembled by Na<lhubut i and others . Chicago poets we r e only a skip from p 1 ac ,Hi 1 ~ Ga r y , Ind i a napolis, ~ \ a tl o~td I• De troit , ~ St. Louis , Cleveland~ Kans as City~/ anJ the closenessl\12 j int erchange s ,W■■li••~ on all levels . ~ ~o r i 11o tm-m ' s poet ry out 1:m t, like tha t of o t h er com.• ,mni ties , was _ . in t erwoven wit h rela te d symbols and exp r essions of t 1 / t h e Arts, Rev new cons ciousness : ~ •argaret Danner ' s Boone House for Cleag e ' s Sh rin e of t he Bla c :: ~'.adonna , ~·o town P.e cords , Broadside Pr ess , Vaughn ' s Bookstore, and a r ea/ 1a c 1<~s t udie s p r ojects . · The po etry hub for the late sixties anJ seventies, of course, is nandal l ' s Broadside Press . Randa ll has changed as a poet and perso n , he says , in way s t hat perhaps para llel the changes i n Gwendolyn Brooks . .\ " f a ther" figure among some n ew / flack poets , he publishes dozens of t h em (over ~ at this writing) , releas es new books of his own poetry, serves as distributor of Breman's Heritag e Series , and tra vel s widely as J l e cturer , t eacher , libra rian and tr an slato r of Russian ..;;,, po e try . A formalist b y training and temperament , Randa ll described his new p oetic stance in a statement in t'.o<le rn an,l Con temp orary Afro-American Poetry �(Dell, 1972): ,..-- \ }1y poetics is to try to write poe try as well .:is I c.:in. 1) l think I have sai<l elsewhere that t.w function of the poet is to write poetry . !~ earlier poetry was more formal . Now I am tryin g to write a looser , more irre gu lar, nore colloquial and more i<liom.:itic verse . C'Y I a hor logorrhea , an<l try to make poems as concentrated as possible . Ind eed+ Randall has tried to do just th.:it~ moving from a traditional to a loose, convers a t iona l ver s e . ,A and Aft e r the Kill i n3 (197 3) . 11 o lumes ~ Love You (1 970) Th i s he a tt emp t s i'~ 1n1en .andall is describ ing a g irl in an Afr i can village or t he " ~Ii rac le " of love , ~/ .e y 1ii5ii 'f senuine - and stro ng . r.ut [lt him -- a~'nrt Me'ltLe Afl/l hi s I\~ . po ens ~ "Gr een Ap les" and " Words hards fords " The s e and o t her pieces are n erel y vert ica pr ose, appe ar i ng as ,-_•• a)12d @<II.IP lette r s . to/ . Bu t he i s p ri;:1arily a li rar i an , pu _is her , an l ac k poe t s h as been anc rema i ns i p roduc io c1,c; r of Wit h C1 ' cagoa 1 or 1 , t i"1 ~c alua ble . r~e.Tihe.s A ~ ~ <:\ n cl e d i to r whose servi c _ his is s een n ot on l y in his __ a ya fr 1 rr ' cs ~ c has ed ited . " ar :;::iret Burr ou ~hs , he co edite, Hnl c olm: Poems on t!le Life~ and De a th of ' la co l m 'C ( % 7) , a fore si c,htful and command b c, ah!§ ~ a th L~ i3la ck P . ,-mr•,.~l\.'aJJJ . etr 1 (1%9) and T 1c Rlack Poets (1971) , the '\, atter""l:fflbalanced a nd apparently quickly thrown to gethe5 since it has practically contains no bio-bibliographical ma terial on the poets . In ad<litio.i to r~an<lall and Irar3aret Danner , other poet$ in t !"lis upper.:jidwest area arc James Randall (1933; ;---- ~-:.a Thomas (1930" T;1ylor Atlant ~ (T~ ••■ ) , Ja:;-ies ·~wnpson (193 ~ 1 ,,.. ) , Itichard ) , :; Lllimn T:1i~pen (194Sfi M 71) , iiaor.ii Ha<l ge tt, Hayden , P-ocky f"\1 o~~boni) (i'JL1 ~ , '.!al.:li:<a (,'N-" , ) - ) , Pearl Clea~e Lor.ia\ Wan~a r a (193 9~ ) , Ahmed (now livin::; in _l: ar,lisi (l<JlfO I ), A Ntc.~o~S(_~okcMP1tui ~01-nin~ etttt\,~1"f~ ~~P!!!'y~~l)/ �) ) , Carolyn Thom!Json (1..,4 17 I ) , La J;onn a To lbert (1956; Jill 1. ;i t h e rs poon ( 194 7.!.. N I ) , Darne 11 (195ON ) , Shirley t 'oo<lson (lC..,36/J ) , ;:elba :~oyd (19 50p <l Ba i ~ ' (190CJ Le~ ), ) , Stella Cre\ls ~ "r; a\-1i·in , . s (1 0, -, ,;'lb- , I ) and f renc/{ Hod8CS ( 94 q_j- Son,a orihQ \t" worik.s ) . A 'fl-✓- c an be fo und i n Ten , :\ Broad s ide Trea sury , The Bl ack Poets l and in t he small An 1'm por1' &.h"i lfolufl'le ~r,ol'Y'\ tl,-e. a.t-e o. is~e1= ed\l'o"" AL ho.m\si ~ 13 LAc.k. Ar1'~ A»tlioL 091 af'~'1t&e91'1S(wi#r indivi dual volu,'leS re:;ularly pul5lished b y Br oadside Press . /\For furtl1er del , 'NN ~6"'~~~ t ail s o n Detroit anJ other ~r oaJside oe t s s e e Broadside Authors and , rtists a d Ba i ley , 1974) . Ja::1es Ranclall has publi s11~ d Don ' t As k He Disas t er_/;j (197 3) . Eis poe tr l.,, 10 I Ara and Cities ,:md Other is ir.tc:-1s c , c onnancl in:; an<l dramatic. n " 1{et\:o r k r' ews " we a r e tol d : ~ For years 1e ' cl ~.1atc:1ed t ::e 6 rowing madness of r t.ic S t ate . t:~ T~ere i s irony un<l pa thosJ as in " t e e t Games;" ~ a boy is blacl~ a,., the a n cient cu r se o f A dif f e r en t <.ind of po e try i s written 1 fric ~ ... \ ; 0 o ~b on ~ u 10 intermin~les drum r .•y t hrns , inca~1tatory ne<li t a t ions an..l s l.a rp es tabli shment -d irec ted barbs in Drum So n 0 (1 969), / ·1tro<lu c ed ·y (>.-rendol y n Brooks . The poet is also a .-ft1''f'-i~i;.; who t e l l s us in " l:ntitled " t hat t:1e ni ;:;ht co n ta ins i ndi feren t st a r ~ ·· · / lay<len has been t ea ch i n g a t t since t he l at e s i x t i e s) wh c' 1:ourni 1·_ii me ( 9 70) a nti c I h; lin i v ersi t y of Hie 1i~an, his alma mater, he l eft f islc:!f- cs' er pr@ " Sllf9-. ::is Hords in the ---:..,_____-' s at L'!. t ~.e t:1ene o _ Jayne Cortez ' t overpower in~ \ " Fes tivals & Funer nls ." ir~ secl·s a p l a ce where man will no longer be called ni gger, ~ook , k.l t:.~ o r ,O'l ki e , bu t " nan ." There are fri gh tenin8 poems cmd terrif y i n g i ::-iages in T;o r ds a s Hay de n su rv eys the " Sphinx" (";ny joke and oe " ), " So l eda d" ( " cradleu by d rug s, by ja2z "), " l'odachror.1es of t he Island" �1 (" fin ge rless hands " ) and " El- Ha jj ::ali, El - Shabazz " ( " the ,'.:! .: in~ <lrear:1" ) . ~ € poet~ " Zeus over Rcdeye " r ef l ec t s on 1,.• visit to the Redst one ena l. It i s an intense d r ama , joining other great poens as a major sta ~_ment on ou r times . 4~d il'1~et-lE 0 , man ' s l\my t hic totem , h i s dep r a vit y , h is qu i xo t i c mov ements,ta -.. l,l&,~,v,1,t.,O t he h unan "loom" of tension- Lall a r e staged aga i n st t l1e . (\I' ot'tht backd ro p ~missile arsena ~ where deatht ma ch i nes b ear t he names of ancien t .., Grieco- Roman mytholo g i c a l fi gu r es . my t h olo g i es " t o "c or.:e t o bi r t h ." Such naming all ows " new L\r:io n g terms a s s o cia t e d wi t ;1 Hayden ' s ni ghtnarish wbrld of visible/invisible and antici;?ated violenc e a r e dra gon, hydra, basilisk, tulips, c oro llas, Zeus, Apollo , (a , e nnd Herc ul es . The missiles tower ("stasis") a sacred phallic :; rove!- ... t Appa rently t he g uides at th e a rs e n a l cannot sati s Dct o ril y an s 1e r qu es t ions about the missiles ' destinies an<l dan ge rs: Your partial answers r eassur e me les s t han t' 1e~· apilall . I f e el as t o u8h i nv i sib l e f u ses we r e b u r ning a l l a r ound us bu r ning a l l around us . Heat- quiverin g s t~:itc:i. / dange r ' s hyp e r sensitive s .dn . The v e r y s unli p,h t he r e seems f l af'll:1ab le . An d sha dows s ive us no r e lieving shad e . Dismal a nd fin a l , Ha yd e n's poem a dd s i ts own part i cular tone, style and la ng ua ge t o t he len3 the nin3 tot em of t h e/ ew f lack / oe try . Fo r , de s p it e .i s d is a o; r e eiTlents r,1i th the ) l ack / cs t heticians , t h ere i s no doubt tha t �" Zeus " r caffirns a b elief expr essed hy y un ~e r, s oI'letime s lo u de r , poets : _,t ha t the West e r n m r ld is doomed t o dest ruction a t · t s m-m hand s (will " off · tse l f, " t h eme of an approaching end is qui t e " American " in poe try, s t i ll b e ing preached e ~ b y wh it e poe t s a nd spokesmi.n: from ~obi t Dylan t o Lilly Gr aham . ?ic!1 con t ributions h a ve ..1lso Illinois .an· :'is sour i. diff erent states an ee :-: :nade by poets an<l artists in sout:1ern I::ast St . Lou· s and St. Louis , tho u gh separated by t:~e ; 1iss is si pp \ , have a mu tual history that The se / 1ac k c ommunities , a lt ernately warring a n d loving , uor zeJ clo sely to3 eth er ring the height of the o vement . Poets and ar tists u e r e cl r awn to s u pported by BAG ( Black 01 .\rtis t Group) , ifouse of rmoja , T e Blacl· s ml t h Shop o f BL ~ q/ in t wo goes bacl~ before t he days of the f amous Dr ed Scott / a se . B la ck ;\r ts v1~ -:1:-8-e@.e@@ R\v-&.- Libe r a t o r proj c t, t:1e House of Tru t :1, Imp a c"t House , t h Culture ,f\ Inack Expe r iment in Higher Education at SID , Soph i a House , :Zat e rine Dunham's Performing Ar t s Training Cen t er ( EllE- SIU ), Black River i· r iters , a n d t h e Southen d Ne i gh b orh ood Cen t e r. ~is r::(AJuttt) (1141/,- ) Some o f t: .c poe ts.' ~ area fa.r e Brue Rutli~J 1 1ea Sharl em G.!'r ant Sher man Q4~) Fowl e ~ ia Conley/\(w}10 la t e r joined OBAC) 'AArthur DoziE(S,,' llobb Q<t4J..L ) ) (who went to Lo s Ang eles ) , Fred llorto J ~ -~ °#..-.c llilso J enkinf) "- S,~p~ooLl'IS"'f ' ) ,, , ome ~in:; ;i ; tr • ltl liend~<r;..r l5:r t :::;rHe~,-:.~nn O, v~ f arl R e~~~; tN".n';:;:;.~Q C J~5ii )afke'k Vinaqn;JsrellA. Hayne Loftir/t) ")errick Hri~hrr Crc ~o r ..nt honl' 1'a therine Dunham, a nd oth er s . Wr it in gs b y t h ese poe t s a re incl <led in Si de s o f the r.i ver : / ~1ini-An t 1olo3y of Bla cl· Wr it in?S (~ Proud 1na ga z ine G :1i c ~ , Betty Lee ' s f fer s prizes))@.:J1i ll Cr e'3?> Intell igenc e r , a specia l i s sue o f Sou ' west e r (fallf ) ') A-Ahu Br(J(µf'~4.- , Ellio t ~, i ust ·, i3 lack (19 22'' (iq)i 1 Dwlgh, SaundWJ..Re.tJ'nal$/.!lf.t'f Sl-/r ~-e..V..'tt.\(s;J'e~ Z"'o~:,,\c,..),__ Red1.1ona~ 196G , se lect ed by>i.;t~dmond) , The Blac k Libe r a tor, Th e Cr ea t or ( 1969 ), Tambourine ( 1 9 6 6 , \ lite a n d Schwar t z ), Collec t ion (19 68 ), st. Louis Wr i t ers Wor~shop, guided by Shirley La Flore, includes Marci Howel l, Candalaria si1va, Patricia Williams, Wale '{!J,A new Amusa, Geraldine Col e and Debra Anderson . 53( J �Vo lume l o f Poer.1s J 1- bv B ac §, (1970) . / Dun as, u h o t a u ~ht fo r a year at [ a st - St . Lo is ( ~, 19 67~~ 63), ,.rn<l I~eJmon<l c ot s p onso rL~<l writ in~ prog r ans in the Rap-Hrite ~;ow 1;orkshops a n<l Black River Writers r;rou p . Collection was student-proJ.uce<l under Dumas ~\supervision , with Fowler and Linda Stennis serving as editors. Elliott writes , in " Tie Dream Time , 11 about the " spiroch ete womb " of r. ne mo th er of the univer s e, th e Phoeni:~ , and th e <lea th " fashioned at t h e end" of @ years . Great Phoenix t ha t s he was, t he mothe r o f the univ erse now l eav es t h e dreamer t i t , onl y h e r c r e at mur ky s e xua it~'@· . . \ <(,Elliott is a dreaner and jur r eal i s5 but Bla c is Th e Torna do in ;fy :~u t h (1966). ment wi t h the usi1ers in a d i fferent te. ..1peri He has t h e irreverenc e of ea t s , th e fun·iness a nd a rive of the har d boppers, and the sexuality of one in hot " Asexual Flight " says pursu i t . (V cl! to fh• lo&1.,n•·,,, to11a I fw,4 o # t'a"" i U bG"Ult Y.." le11t. "'l1h1ut • k,u .iLi~ , wm.oll'T'(o~ "..,,n', ,~st w'1ih . { in " P,azor llama Democrac -,.. / the t he lue h aze ~1Urts an<l nowt e hair is turning " int o an ach ing g rey. " g ladiator " i « 11 o.1'.L Coeva 'Yo~ 1':111« .,,~-~;no.y a ._.. of ~ c ~ ~ Druns fo r Lero ~" /\.-.... in the meant i!:1e • " the rine" ; " ov e r t he wlndo,,1 of my and finally " He r pouer in how ling wi nds " brin" s LY cov ers _ ead ar t e r ial insanity" ; " futil i ty L1 j a 0 ged crag s " ; " Kierkegaar d/Sa rtr e "; " li;~e d ri ppins A DI'-~: E T <;;,'-~...) Bl ac'.<. salutes "t .1e ror:. 1::::.01 . e i n...," ; I �OUR :;oc1 !" in " DAi' · r,- ,,.,,.. \C.ol"I OC.ltH m & run,y " is subtitl ed " a " Black is His "( a poen or ; 1ALCOL:! ~0 " ;e~·• •••-• is subtitlec! "the lib e r a t e s i-se • II .1 " Ca rry ing a Stick ," Fowler .'.:sks: f vho cares, t ha t I had yes t e rday ' s s tal e ,o,un for U breakfast? "Th inkin g " a llows various i raa r;e i trea:n and burst forth7 vomiti ,g ti ding s only t h e mind ca 1 h e ar . in t<at f:v..,-/' St udent - no ther ,o . ene t h a Va s h i n:;ton wr it e ~ ou t t . e p re s s u r e s on to y's \U~~ J1ac <. woman ,-_wat c 61 peo le f Scurry in; from sun t o sune , •• t Al s o pulled along, she s a y s I protest but still I r un . uses irony 11'> Loftin, a y oung po e t who wri t e s wit h e c onomy a n d s implicity, A?ummar iz"mg !r igh t · " R~e a 1 i· ty " : a n d I3 a 1 ll~l· n ,,,.... ._ in out o F t h e cott o n fie l d s CJ !-.J anJ burnin:3 suns to overcrowd ed cities 0 L; and shades of slu'.11%, necl::.ond an:.l Fowler founded wh ich ~r o u;;ht out Sid t!!J. Dlad~ River Writ ers pu blishi n3 company) of t~ e ~ iver . Currently under the sup e rvi sion of Cat h erine Younge, t h€.. ,1 ress has publ i s hed r..ed mon<l ' s volu1:1es Tof'ls (broa<lsiclet l A Tale o f Two \ 1963) , A Tale of Time & Toilet Tissue (pamphle1 f196 9 ), Sentry of t he Fo ur Golden Pillar s (1 970) , River of Eones and Flesh and n lood (1 9 71 ) , Son3s --------'-- - - - -- - - /r,m an ~ - - - -- - Afr o/ , hone (1 9 7~), In ;( Ti!:1e of I~a in t, Desire ( 1973) , I �,:rn,i ull L11 , !',loodlinl:s and S·1cr>2cl rL:ces (1973) . Thin,3 s u::ts published in 1973 by Cent~ o St di ~ l Con:.:;icler Loneliness ::is Tiwse Sc::i;-,, i Internazionali i::1 Italy . ) Redsond , a native of East St . Louis , strives f l:f) j lack fai:,ilyhood (inl>:iediate and e~:tended ) in his poetry1' though he a ttempts to do t h is wi t hout forced alleGiances , withou deed - shaping words J disfie;urenent 1 t 0 11 G lownaturally. hu:-:10rous folk port aits f) o~ ~ ~d by of perceptions, " ~ 1 -I · sts# 29 1Jr allowing the His poetry ranges from -----" Invasion of the ~~o s e": Hi s nos e was his rad ar , l:is eye s icy dart s that moved fa s t e r t 1an s peed- of- so und r jet s . e could r ap like a pneumat ic' dr i l Or croon l ike Smo(ey Jill when t he o cc a s i on a ros e to c onsiderations o f l ove un er st rain_, as in " Ins i e ; ry Perir.i.eter " : Inside my perimete r Of fea r s 1 uni t of z ueri las ~t r ikes a t t h 2 ba r Jed- wire Hov e l s t :ia t ~w nn: ou r love : That incarcerate ou r needs , ~ An i nsur 3ent arny Starns t:1e bastil_e of pride 1ells this f @ de of cus t o~ , 1(nells the collapse I Of t 1e straw :::en inside us M Accepts t he sun , Al lows the contorted face o f ~ �Stress to smile an-ain-'- "' N To ~low again! Allows Love to Live . Elsewhe re in the larger ar ea there \Jere/ are o t her go ings t on in poetry : Iowa , Ne ras ka and Kansas Cit ~ w ere Hilb ur Rutled~e (19lf0J • ) and others 1-~ • •t..&.~ (CM"'ttMtfN.•V Pla.ye~ o~ ~w c,Ty, assoc ia ted with the Af ro - Ame r ican Cultu r a l CenterAand the Blac k ~ iters Wo r kshop , t.1l.o4o~ r ec eived as i s tance an 11 ~ ~~ ~ exposure . a..u.trtvaa~...a;.,.y,o,he..kyWCA. Amo n g the~ ets are M ::;,;;;;, Spicer , lraylor , .-:ill e sse Hester and Jac kie Hashington . '\Jin Ant 1010 ° lished Wo rks 10 ~ • f b' Nvtb~J1~ are included (I' i zna, 1970~ andjfi!!!!hiRg@eR has pub4,- om.a I") :60~ a t the Universit y of Den v e r for t he year 1974J ,t} ....., 7~ where he whoTook. ) sub stituted fo r ~i:phahlel~ J uitts:;Aa leave o f absence, Kgosi{ile (1938J em1' odies Pan- •.fricani s n in fa.ct and s ynbo l. He was b orn in Johannesbu1;$, IA'~~ sumM•~_.nus:.K,os'i!fb~w•,..t1i 'lilu4hl¥hbe bl " ~~ daetJMiet-ii,Y o,. Dt,.t- f, fo.l,-o.1t1. ~ ~ · f t h Africa , ani1as been ex · led in t h e Unitet ->t.ates articles , poe!'ls and intervi ews h a ve been published ~le has tau gh t at s everal 11i.s · ---- ~ ~l!.it/1,~~~ .~eric an co lleg es and iversities . / Is oaks a lready mentioned, he has publis__h edited The Uonl is H~re: sinc e 1~ In add ition fri l,i (1971) and - Poe tr, f rom .· o<l e rn Africa (1973) . His own\oest etic stated in h is Introdu ction to the anthology : \Poe try , t he -1ord a t its no st e},r r essiv e , can be a praye r , a a npeal, condemna tion , enco ur a s emen t, affirmationl -the list o f endeavors is e nd l e ss . Andi it is aut hentic, t. as a :;thin :--, else expre ssive of a :,co p le ' s sp irit, it is Thi s c o ccpt he enbraces in his m-m p oems, espec ially in Africa l ~ in t he Int rodu ct io n , G~endol vn Broo s wr i t s t h a t h is r t i s l ife wo r ed wi t !:$ . .. ',# t st •One of the inventive an d Rut lin, has not ~t-\1ished wi dely. Ofa.mo.: Chi l clren of' t e s·u 971 w anted o · S3S- dwestern poets, B ee y original style on s: liver L e an J 1 ;;/ �His Afr o - Al"lerican brothe r s i nc o r :1o rate t:ie i\f ri can i s , s e comb ines h is own indi <; (ln i s:ns wi h a mast e r ed H'e a ssays t he who l e o f o u r t un u ltuou s tim e s (in Af r i ca and Ame r i c a ) , in te rmin ~l inz a n ac riu i r e d f lack st ree t lan g ua g e with a d er:1and i n g and strin~ent One Gf the most able cra fts1:1.c 1 , he Wl! ites excellent poems about childrer-,, form . uomen , violence , Mu sic , lra l col::; :: , Lu,.~un ba , Gwendoly - . Bi l ly llo t!idayi (1 oQJ: 1" "The Ni t ty 1,ritt Brooks, ,\fric.:1n J:::.nces, i n wh i ch the once furious songs are now l (, frozen· on ba ttereJ bl~c:'- lip SQ • ._. \ _ , ~ G>u,,t~ t\l't-otks 4-nd DwLey io.Nt•'<., Bl • t.f:tos,fi,t t ,s Wt-11'115 ~~IY ~ 9"rftl-'" - le. Po•1t-vW..~1iia!:' M_ .• • The poe t s of t:1e East , Sout h , J-:idwest and near \'es t are a bit more t,wn a hop , skip and j uJTtp fr om California , but n e ny of t her:i. were inspired by 'tf_ ap p e a r ances , national nagaz ine cove r a ge , a nd cross-country tours of the Watts po e t s . Born , as it were , between the Calif ornia sun and t he rebellion of l '.)65 , the Wa tts ~Jr ite r s ' ~:or :sho Sch u l er'; . was ini tia l y under t 1,e direction of ] udd La t er, as old e r writers lef t a nd n ewer ones c ane in, t 1e suner4, vis ion of t hO wor k shop was assumed b y lla r r y Dolafl and Herber t Simmons . ,s ,hie';# ~1ed of culture and influence included the Hat ts Happ en ing Coffee House , -,,-. h e s . a r t-l iv e d S.1rew magazine , t:1e ::a t t s /.! .ep ertory Tl1ea t e r, the Al qu t arian llo okstore, t he Sons of '.:at t s , the Lla c :" Pa nthe r s , 1:arenga ' s uS organiz.:ition, 1G am\ FreJericl~ ~\~~-r I tl et\:-i.::t t ts ,,1riters ,>rogran . Do u g lass Writ ers Lous s w:1ich .oused 61-MJ- groups were n ilton :'.cFarlant)_ J\nong those a s s ocia t e d wi t h t ~1is anJ o the r t\ wri t ing I ), Tr o u pe ( 1943 ~ Cl yd e !~ys (194 3! r ( cl .. !orel an ~1a y 1a J "i'..i vi J ) , Si nmo n ( 1930~ --~~a::IIIQ.- 0 jenke (Alvin Saxon , 194 7J ) , ...i'.ili ' Jimmy Sh en:1an (1944 .!. N Janes Th oPw. s Jackso n (192 7!.. '-ee se ~·[ooJy (1933~ Po em of Gratitidek l972) i ' ' ) ~ ) , Leu::nas S i rrah (l'JM3~ Cri. c Pries t ly (1%JlN ) / . .-- d y ( 947N1 ), Vall e jo Ry.:in I.enne K. Curti s Cleveland Si ms (1 9lfl;N ) , Fanit a (1943J ) , r!l'.mer:r Evans (1943} Pame la Donegan (19 4 3/ ) , Ro b er t ) , Stanle y Cro u ch (19 45~ ), John i e Sco t t (19481 ,.. ) ) ' ' ) , Er nest ) , Fannie Carol e Br own (19Li 2,6- ) ' ) , Jayne Cor t ez (19J3J Rutlin is~. a st . Louisan. ) ' �.. ~0.l\'\ClU °t• ~'no.m, ~Q. Blo s som Pm;c ( 19291[ ) ~0.M" 1CI.OtaJ - ---• onora :'.cKeller (1S'l l1J ar-- ~ ) , N arley Ni U.t'\C-.l.J;U,,-"""1 ,,ird2l l Chew (1913,7 nthologi e s : {fror.1t he Troup e (196 8 ) , ~ lh i an.a, a n 1 others . Their works a r e in ~ ), '..) t \:o As hes ( l96, ) 1'.· u mlberg~J and Hatts Poets and ~/riter s Other poems are scattered t hrough s uch per iodicals as Lo s . I -- 'fi. O'- pe s an1hol64)' 1 pu be.:~ he'1. by tht Ht>v1e. of- &spe,T, f\e Hec.T~d o.. Angeles Hagazine, Shr eu , Conf r o nt a tion , and \;est. /\ 1' • D.M en9 Wc:iTt.s u., ..·, Tb.SI /IU VL/lli ~ in lr>O(lpe t\.nci I\ dt,1en 0~ $0 0"1he1,,..s )'ot"M i11.9"the1r- owre ~~ovr. Seen as a movement, t he Wa tts group , in quality and quantity , emer;;es /\'\~Jo ... ~hA I<~- "P as one of t he mos t pouerfu l on t he /ew.)flacl:/oetry scene (roughly resembling the mag nificent Howar d gr ou p) . "-- or excellent, ther e i s Acourage For a lthough the poetry is not uniforml y good .,,..-- of wision j, style• an<l t heme• that one ~ 1+it. l ooks hard to find in NJ t her groups . '-' '-' This may be due in part t o the ::ni 0 r ;:i tory pa t terns of Illac s i:t t he Hest - ~most of these poe t s were not f./\ An°eles0 "-1.Land the r acial kale i do scope o f Californi a . h111atevc orn in Los he reas ons , ther e is a p:::- is:na tic ranbe i n the poetry that moves from the earth- won an ;.,.e, musicality o f J ayne Cor t e z , a cross t he allus ~ and often mystical excur sions of Lyle , to t he s i gni fy i ng blue s int erludes of Crouc~ ~10 some darin g and seni nal cri :::ic i sm in Dlack ~-orld and the oe try . Ai n ' t ~Jo A"'lhnlanc e s for has a l so written our nal of Bla ck o :-!i:,guhs To i ght (1972) is t he title of ~ == both h is book ar.cl,. Lp rcco r din 0 whic' . i :tclt des " rap " as well as poetry, wit:1 liner not e s by L:1 1 Q . Crouch uses fo l k forns and t em~ a nd v a rious dr aT11atic tcclmiri ues . ~ Ji4e intertwined wit:1 7 us i c ~ ~!any of the poems are dedic a t ed to/\1:iusicians a r ke r an u Coltrane ; others n tt enpt the conplicated spontaneit_ of live <la• of t he final r io 5 when there Bu t the poem ' s he r o , ~fonkev Junior, phrases and obscu r e informat"on �~ JI./; .whfctr h e c onstr ic t s into f rig ht e nin~ , s urr eal image s and s t a tes . " Sonetimes I Go t o Camari llo & Si t in the Lounge'' J scribes ho~ the roet stares into 0 ai,minr; of s p irit , " v i ewi n f; t h e u o rld as ye llow trur-ip e t s of s t a rvinr; blues h e a r in:; a \' i e tnan ese 1. ot!H:: r ' s " ultr a - hi'.3h- frequen c y screa!'ils . " '.Te are ''~ told t hat " cobal t b u l e t s " snas '.1 tl, e heart of t l:e "lone ranger " in "L1cr L:1as ) ~ 'I \ t h e re i s a need t o Sere.:::., . " Eor., e v er , Lyle ' s T'lost [anous poe;-:1 is " I Can ~;i;~~~:~;i~~i~~;~t:~;,~;J~~:~~::~~~~;~~~ ~ • Oj e n ke has an un liriited r a n:;e of intellectual and social concerns as he ~ sculp ~s h i s poetry fr om the dive rse inzredients that produced the Afro-American . ..., cc t: i r1:; 1is srea t knouleclr;e of Gr. eco- Ror.1an classics , \/ t l1e da r.. sol i tuc e o f a :ladean wo r 11\U"I !Ie ~ vtC1clers i n t o an cien t r: r e ece a n u !:/i '.:;e r ia in t h same poen . In " Ha t ts " there .::: is a co1.ur,o tion f' l.'.,,u.32J b:; i ~h tn i n ~ a nt l [ani ne , assrss i nat i ~~ tin r eo ple and i~o l e i rass-blatles? La t er o ~ ;) i o:3e .. es , _ e r a t es .:iml t '1 / ra c le of Delp.ii e nt e r t he poem. the s e char a cte s (o .I::\.:_? . e t o ta tts j t o fi nd Eu t eople es caoin" into a " toxicant" • 0 s ane t oo-true trutl • . ·· \ Oj 2n.~e aL,o ,1rot2 an l .1trod uct i o n t o Evans ' Eva ns ' r ead i n ~ al i it v , f'j e nka s-,i d : 11 (, oo:,: 'f1,e Lov e Poe t o '":.oo. chc ., " J c picts n ff.:::.nilia ~ s ~ to some : , ove r t y • ... Aoout " f.nnery L, cry · n'.; slyly into you r ear ." t wo roo. ches d ..mce a cros s th e room t o t he tune 0 (1971). t "c �Scott is one of t :1e r.1ore vell known of the Hatts poets . . n "T:1e fis 1 Party ," he s.'.lys : r The fi s h are eathering again toni::;h t@ ..• And f i sh- wat chers , i ;,;norant of the wo rld ' s problems , ge t their char3es from trying t o guess wha t the fish will do. During the conver sation , Sco t t t a l ·s par ~ t he tica lly about war and poverty , but a l l is exclanatorily inter rupted: i 11 \ ..}1)1:,t Hey , loot-? Goldie has "-eaten Jesus up ! a tt s , 1966" is a poem millions heard on natio,1.'.11 t heme of / lack ra ge and white indifference . 1'/ . It has the familiar nut Sc ott closes it on raemorable l ines : The nan named •ear has i nhe ri ted half an a cr e , <if an<l is angr y . 7f6t her Uatts poets dea ,'it love , v i olence, contemplat i on of fr eedom and r:msic. :-Iany l eft .Jatts after t he l a t e sixtie s . edit ~ Troup: \fCn t to Ohio n i v.e rsity ( to .,.....Ue r '-' j fr ontatipu) a nd~publi s1ed Enbr yo (1 973 ~ As h Doors and J uJ u Gui t a rs (1975 1 , and co edited Giant Tal k~ Third World Vo ices (197~), a f ter moving ..._, In t tor ~e11e..-aL V~ Q to New York. Lyl e , who has not published a volu~, 11 - '1' Washingt on _A.,i! University in St. Louis, and recently returned to Los Angeles. Jayne Cortez "'..,-,,.,, .«: since the late sixties. went to New Yor~ where she has lived and, , • Her three books are Pis ~ _a ined St airs and the Monkev . fan's Wares (1969 ), Festivals and Funerals (1971) and Scarifications (1973). C_g_lebrations # and ~oljtnd~ (1974). ➔ Her themes and styles are broad , but ~d mos tly~e~brace music a s a s pect and fo rm. j She has also recorded an Lp , Af ricai .{ as strugg le and s piri ~ is also a dominant theme in her poe try . Pis~a ined is e sp ec ial l y rich in its interweavin8s of mus i c and struzsle. "The Road" is "where another Hank moans" and is - - - -- -- - - - - -------·--- �J S t on e y Lo ne s om • ... , "Lea d " desc r i b e s t he kind o f hard li f e tha t is "cracklin hot a sunrise." f'. Lead , o f cours e, i s LeaaJe 11 11 whom the "nigguhs" d e s p e r a t e l y want to hear s p it t he b lues o ut. tTn Ow-£ T11t.u'l He r stru r,r~ les a r e _.A.simp l e "contriv anc e s" as they chro nicle the hardship s and i oo t ime s o f Di nah, Bird , Ornet t e, Co ltrane , " Fa ts" Nava rro , Clif f o rd Brown a n d o t her s -/4-a veri f iab l e poet i c t a p e stry o f/ dea t h, f rom one who ,,1 0uld(fivn<)~y Lovc lack e x p ression in de f iance o f 11 ) ~ . • • ea t mu d t o t ouch the r o o t o f y o ue .• • l Amon g o t her Sou t hern Calif orn ia p oe ts are Rob e rt Bowen ( 1936J Bo ze ( 194Si ) , Ki n amo Hodari l l9'1<¾ ), Arthur ) , Dee Dee McNeil ,194~ ), A,.,. lao- w IIQJ c.ou,-Tl'p...t"' 1'• f ..... ~ --K""4 ,,...,..a. oF 111&111, """· l...e ..,., , S•v~~a.C. Bill Thomp son~ a nd La nce~ Will iams . ~ '-Ps: , r t f:Lec.,IS-tt\Q 1.1 <1.-ted l fl Turetn ~ d bo.tk'JrO flr'lC$ I I I I I · . I t 1( I · F <1~~ w.. s Northern California } ~a lso b ,T, ... 0 o~~~:a: :::n:::c~~:;~~~c:n1::~:,:::::::1°:o::;~;~~~~:~~:~:)937! ), (m ~ ~~er (938.7 ) (nowat Bl'own) ,,..,c~s (194~ ), ! Reed ~ o un _ Cl _nl Ta " o)"" ), Ol" V'Wli.ndeZ- I ~ Cr u z ( l'.? 4 9,v )1 , "n3elo Le,:is ( 1 950~ -th\.lL(lr)t NK.o.tu·nc;2fatlq;;) ( 19 4 7 ) , . 'i ller, .,.Laure~1ce ~:c , a ; ~/(194 !.. :C), ~ ,, ~ om\!elc~ <:e,1L Brow~ ) , a. El l1uha j i r - -- ~~ • J oy ce ,, ,,,__,..._ __ kr ), LT . 194 4L ) Ma c !~ N ) , Jos eph 1 ), , ~avid Hende r sie,~ n Ec k e l , Glen ::yle s ( 193 1-7 £~n e~"t Go. it'\ s --..-- - Gc o r ~c Barl ow ( 1 9 81 ) • , ·.e r.:1an r own _ _ _ __, (; ruumb ) , Pa t Pa r ker · • • • • · ;:c Nai ' ~ I\ De Leon Ear ri s on (19 4 l ~ N ~ ~'a a An ~e lou ( 1 92 .!.. ) , f , r .:1'.1 We b s t e r Fa b io ( 192 &,~ ~ _, _____..- ) , William And e r s Alli W ~U,kewto Aru,e~.si (~s "•.,.~K/1.J. t't7f)a ~ -{a J ;;; a rea ac tivit y in t he J.r t s ha s been h e i ~h t ened a :1<l e nh ance<.! b_1 the San "rc:mcis c o Af r o-Ame ric an Hi s t o r i c a l a n d Cu l t ural So c i e t y , b ookstor e s s u c h a s 11cr~:ar\l~.: i~1,t.t~ -\~.~~f.:~; I ac tivit i e s of 04v/u Panthersan<l sfoilar ",roup~~~e'RainbowSigncultural center inBerkeley, I �. oA Na irobi Col l ege , and numerou s ot 11er cul t ur al .::i nll l i t er a r y pr ojec ts . o~'"'eie by many~ bard s a r e i ncluded in ::iE er 's Dlces Poems Bl a ck Bones (1 97 0) , :!_urnn~_ of Bla ck Poetry , Yardbir J Reader (a semiannua l edi ted by P-ee<l, Young , 811• Bro~ and Myl es), Umb r a Blackworks (Hende rs on , all i ssu es , espec'ially f 19704 71), and othe r n~tiona ~l y di stributed anthologie s a nd pe r i odicals . tX s,-r-o.n!te. o..nd o~iq1n&L wt-,te.-, q__ Reed)/,:a s publis hed t hree volumes: ""ca tech i sm of l neoane rican hoodoo church (1971), Conjur e : Sel ec t ed Poems, 1963 1 1970 (197 2) , Chat t anoo a (197 3) , FtHJ" ~...., ,,1J'd,Ji.v &NI_.•,.• •t.fll,. a~Jl••,.,.,~.S. zcls novels .I\ Hi s wo r k has drawn a curious mi)t t ure o: aclJec tive s and s c r itics: fr om " bri llia n t," ' cut e , " " j umbles and pu zzl es , " "important," "baci comi c s " and so on . novel s i nto h i s poems . nc:eedJ Ree d wr i tes his poet r y i nto h i s novels and hi s In t his servic e , he empl oys dia lects, Voodoo , t h2 occult, wh i ms i cality , wit , ys tici c, sa tire, whic:1 he o viously enjoys, all reinfor ced by as sorted librar information and s treet i ns tincts . He v iola tes time bar r i e r s , placin;; an anc ien t Gr e e ~~ fi ~ur e in a c o temporary poem, or vic e v er sa . His ve rse f orP1s are ex pe riMent al, roughly reca lling the i ea ts ~'-Lc,U> ~eadinl\ w,lL ~i,01.11 hil\'\ iri t"e:fw,.,t',tidl\ of l>v" bc,.11'/room lr elr1dT0Lson, nt ~ pas t s t y'i i..,t i c irreve renc ies . /\ The r e .:ir e no s a cred cows (3 vt and o t her ~ e f or Ree~ who s ometime s l amb2 s \ s _/l nck na t i ona lists and whi t e lib e r al s i n t he same poem . Gene r a l ly , h is technique s wa r !<. (some a re a stonish i n~) ; but l1e ofte n s pend t oo 1~uch time a t tacki ~~ r ea l or cr eat ed an ta~onists a nd ~av ·ng f un at t he expens e of reade rs. His ti tles alo ne are enough to keep you slappini~ your t ,i gh or scra t c. i n:; yo ur head : " Repor t o f t 1e Reed Comrais s i on , " "I am a cowbo y i n t he boat of Ra , " " Ther e 's a whale i n my t'h i 6 h, " "T e fe r al pioneers," "The Bl a ck Cock, " " Gr i s Gris ," "And the Devil Sent a Ford Pinto, ~ hich She .:1 lso Ro ut e d ." In 1973 Re ed be can e the f irst / l a ck wr ite r :;; to be nominat e d fo r a National Book Award in two catego r i es . be found in a special "Arts & Literature" is su~ of 'the Black Scho a , June,L l97!i. ., ------ - - - - - �Goin alves (Din~ane ), a n occa si on:i l ;-,oe t , i s unin ue in his i nt el l ectua l-:; t ypogra phi cal Cor\Sf;."<.1c6,t 'i 1 Li _r ~ o f ideas (sec B ac k :?ir e), but .1i s servic e to / lack tvb poe try has been nore obviou s i n h i s work a s f ound er-ed it or of/I J our,al o- iJ Poe try. He a l so s erved as poetry ed i t or of B a c ~ Dia l ogue . st e ady , i nfluence on t he/ ew )fla ck oet r y , he ha s wr i tt en some of t he nost in f or med cr i t i ci sm t o come ou t of the pe rio u . , et Day Bookst or e in Sa n Franc i s co , , he re hcadquartereJ . L Cur ren tly he r uns/ope r a te s 1e Jou r nal and it s pres s are Anong poe t s publ i s heJ b y tl-ie (J,l enetra tiQ~, 1071) , a .\ qui et , bu t r e ss a r e ~ ea l anci Hel t on S,:1it: i r tuo s o J oet uhc ,_ras horn an 1 r 2.i sed .i.n San f rancis~0 " ra l colm" ends discussin b t he ~in s of trnc ·s t ea rs n ~e and tcl linz t ~1e r ea der : thrrtin n hea rt t , er e a re na y unmarked graves . There are also wordf gift s in "the danger zone , " "If I cou ld hold You fo r Light," " f or a sorceress" ("you keep chan~ing me into air" ) a nd " Black Mo ther" ("an odd ecs t as movin " )~ the s e 7oin blues, excursions throuCTh cit streets . and thoughts on Af rica . l M.. 1 -:7, { (; o.~both"i~vsi, oest\-teTc,dLt 14vicl Youn ~ and Ha r pe r bo th teach wr i t i n _ a t St anfo r d and Brown,\ Young has 1 published Dancin~ (1969) and The Son~ Turnin~ Back into I ts el as well as novels and arti cles. (1971) . His ~oetry satirizes militants , salutes ~ h4v11Til white and Third Wo rld poets, and incor~orates legends into a broad~~ase • ...,. There is a consistency of interes s a s seen in the titles o f his books. In "Eroson" he finds himself dancin" "naked" tho u1h All mv shores had been ulled uy, t;;, · .• "Yes , the Secret Hind Whis? ers , " dedicated to Kauf ma n , calls poetry a "tree" forever a t your door , S'1yl,ITt,at.t.y. �ounr, ranges over the whole of the lif e experience , writin~ about s quirrels , ,., c#'H owe11e J i,.,, $tyflsfibt.t.ly j azz musicians, Spain , Stockholm, ni ght..., time and sorrow. _)fis poetry is diff erent f rom that of Harpe; who le f t California in 1970. Harper 's volumes are Dear J ohn, Dear Coltrane (1S7~ ) , History is Your Own Heartbea t (1~71,, Photographs : __, Negatives: V Historv as App le Tree (1972), Song: Want a Witness (1973 ) , Debridement 0. 9 73) (1974). I and ?U~htmare Begins Res onsibility Praise f or his poetry has come from a wide spectrum of e . inent critics a nd poets , primarily a cademicians , i ncluding Gwendolyn Brooks and Ha den. Cri t ic N• . Rosenthal recently singled out Harper and Baraka as iJD& t exampl e s of _/ l ack poet s contribut i ng t o the new American poet r y scene ~ Time s Ma gazine, November 2 , 1974 ). (~ Laurence Lieberman has also . raised Ha r t e i; who received nominations f or the National Book Award as well as the Black Academy o f Arts and Letters First Annual Po etry Award. ~ t, has ke pt a consistency of tone wltt-eh critics pa rticularl his poetr sometimes lacks metaphorical tension Harper ..J' a olft l"'J ea · r,end though funk ? ) to i gnite t he imt ortant stat ements he makes about / lack music , there is a f irm inte lligence at wo r k . Hi s themes a re illusion , pained c reativi t y, war , r a c ism, jazz, nature, history, death , and the my thological evolution of mankind. Much of his poetry is personal , confessional , and he intenveaves a medical vocabu+ lary into some of it. and musicians. He often includes chants , hums, and names o f songs His musico- poetic concerns can be seen in these l i nes f rom "Dear J ohn, Dear Coltrane": ~ Why you so bla ck? cause I am Why you so funky ? cause I am �Why you so black? ca use I am Why you so sweet? cause I am Why you so black? cause I am and adamantly)ilack : _,Fly to w2wana5 Ml l1an '~ C ..u~, 5 Allah (1 969), Bla ck Man List!W; (19(,9), i;-vend (19 73,., ) i£i!SIII. ~ 3 ch book sa lutes Allah and contains some occasionally we ll-turned poet r y intermingl ed with prove r b s , parab les and s ongs . He pra i ses El i j ah !·luhammad Tommy .S mith. and announces ) Thomas Lives !" J;ha,t ---- " Bigger In " The Origins of Blackne s s " he s a ys1 Bl ack is not a c l or but ~ All c o lors c om e f r om B~a C~ B··· '1yles a nd Ee -: el s arc al s o at di ff eren t ends of the poe t ic s pectru~ whi l e !kNair is i n t he n i <l l e. ify les pub l ishe d Down o f h i s drawin ~s anci poems. " Bebop and & Co ntry in 97 4 D.3 a co l l a ge He survey s con t enpora ry l if e , hi s upbringing on l ues in Phoen ix , " an<l h is exper ienc es as an ar t i st and a rt s t uJent. f E~c k e 1 s l1as r.iove d ~r01:1 lflr \'!f:, • II poetry i)Oet r:1 o [ anz er- an d protest t o ..,_, a hu.:1an bein?, for hu:-.1an be in~s . " i;r i• t t en uy t li s books i nclude .,lacl- Dawn, This Time Tomo rrow , Rla ck Ri. ';ht On, !I01:1e i s Whe r e the Soul Is (196 9), Ou r Business ' '- . the Streets ( 19 70), and Fir e Sign ( 1973), wh ich gives its name to his ~in .., pres s. In his e a rlv phas e ~ckel s wro t e about " Bla ck Is," " He ll, Ma r y ," J ., �" In Her::or · of f'.arc s, " "A s.espo n s i b l e :·1ee ~row Lca<le r, " a nd o t h er poems.) a lso c o i ning a n int ercs t in;; ter. : Hes t ern S •phil i zation '0· .. Fire Si g n " f o r t he fr e e ;;.nd will b e ," s hows a t . e m.:it i c and cultu r al breadth 7 a s h e writ e s love po e r.1s and sa lu t es fr e edom in g ene r al . NcNair, a cosmic poet u ho br id ges Af rican s p i r it ua l it y a nd his m-m psych ic revelations , h as p ublishe d Earthbook (19 72) and Ju a Gir l (1973 ). Ce rt a i nly the world will h ear ~o r e fron t hi s g ifted young wr iter . 'tt,e mvLt,'.'fo.lRtil,J AMo ns .;;io rt ½e -n Ca lifornia women po e t s, f1!.1aya Angelou is prim;, r ily a p rose and s c r i p t ~Jr i t er , but has pub lishe d~~ ook. o f p oems : Just Gi v e ' 1e Coo l ,, • ~ . . ~ Qh &:iAy 1W Wthg.s dtte O l? O. €1:t.M.§. Well/R :,fo ie.;1 }2\~ ( 1971 )Nht~was 1;omfn~ t e d for t h e Pul itzer/ rize}J\ rink o f Wa t e ~ 7 tn '""O"'s ,tr MU.Sico...L O-.l'Hi, Pol~Low.1T,, tT"lt'Luences. Pa t Pa rk ers p oetrv c a n be f a u n i n a n~ ce ent lit tle vo lume c a lled Child He.t- Poe~ of i; s e f (1972 ) a ~d Dice\'f1/i)Sh e "ses her own woman- f e e lings t o assess p ls the SI lg; c u rren t u pheava l. "Bro ther " rev eals c ont radictions in a v e -but - hurt app ro a c h s one . /l ack nen t ake t owa rd,! their wonen . The "sy st em" s he has just bee n st r c k u it h, s he s a , s, r o~ her Ot .1cr/\ n o n s a f ist. eal P ith h mar a n J t r.:t '.:; e dy in h usb.:md- wi f e rela tions. In "A fomen t Le f t _g ehind" she a s k sJ j " ron Have you ever tried t o c atch a tea r ? e e p Wit .d n " s ays t he ~;ay f a wona n is t urbulen t wi th ma n y fo rc e s a nd c olo r s o f fe e l i ng s , bu t f A imma n ' s .od ,. us t be tau:=.;ht t o spca <gl, · · · Pat Pa r k er 's wo rk s e a rc h es b ehind t he c o s me t ics and the v ocue to -l'II ,I 17 •- di" stu r l.,anc r.-~,\~ so , "1 00s t •.:e t1o r .-:: o f ,Jo y c e Ca r o 1 r~11oma s, t he ~~~~ wh ose t wo b oo k s I �CD l 13:J..tte r swee t (1973) and Cr •st.--1 1 Dreezes / (19 74) . we re pub lished by Fir e Si gn ~----&.:.tA \3Le~s,~(itfl5}~ JOC.f.l 8 p,Uw4 • . -------..----,r-.-....,._A'U..ruieA Pre s1J\ ""Iler po;;;? are about worn e, s and love. ~ --- o ds, chur ch,/J-a c1~ nu si c, child r en • There i s a nodern feel a nd tex t ure in he r line~ which economize without displaying a br up t nes s or undccipheraLle code . Yet he r s t ren gth is unmi stakabl ~ a s in "I Know a La dy" : f, I know a l ady A caref ul queen ·She bows t o no one Her wi l l is a Fine t hr ead o · s t ee I n t 1es e poems, and t he works of P~t Par -:er and Leona Hel c1, one sees a st r ong heal t h a nd f u t ur e · n Ba: a r ea ,mraen poets . ,-~elch ' s f i r s t book, wa s pub lished i n 19 71. Black Gibral t ar, Leona He r e a nd t h ere, one fi nds subt dued rage and i mpa t ience bef ore r a cism and i gnorance ; bu t her poe t r y a l so exa lts t ~e/ l a ck woma n nnd s r e nks in l ow t ones t o men. f r om ·olk ex re s sions t o forria l e xami nat i ons of s t ud, f a Bl a ck with " c l as s " anc.l c i ~ni t l 1' C.o t ove. Her l angua e range s "St a tus Ouo" i s t he : n y ,1hite r ood l e b y t he lea sh . M" j}.. 1 2 sable than the ot her wo~en , hor po e t r y s alutes a :u~ber of heroines includ i nr; r, T omen i n :1er fam i l :• a:-i d ~a1-:ki Giova nniJ. Finally t he r e is t he much-t rave led Sarah Fabio, instrumental in / l ack= s t ud i es developmen t in ~or t .. e r n Ca l · f ornial but ~ o now live pub i s hed two vo uii1es, A : 'i ror : in Io va. She A Soul (1969) and Blac!t Is a Panthe r Ca ;>:ed (1972 ) , and the~ without not i ce , br ou ~h t out s even voluraes (!) all in 1973: Soul Is: ~Soul Ain't , , Boss Soul (also the name of her Lp~, Black Back: Back Black , Ju jus & Jubilees, My Own Thing, Juius/Alchemy of the Blues, �and ~ogethe /; to the Tune of Coltraneis Equino!i® Her earlier poetry is ii \ more formal, reflecting her vast reading-thinking range; but the later work shows that she has joined the new poetry movement completely@ Her most memorable poem is "Evil is fio Black Thing " in which she converts all e := I dark things traditionally associated with evil into li~ter colors or NV' she allows them to be revealed in a broader contex~.w.r.1:~~ they invariat Her recent voluminous efforts deal with experimental bly become goo blues poems, rap f styles, folk narratives, and attempts to reconstruct ~ ack oral histor~ These things she does quite well on her albums and in live readings; but much of the work in the new books is excessfvely QN bUNNl\ff conversati ona ~lu•dsd with co~trived ' hipnes$. Erzulie and Thin g~(l975) is co authored by poets Nto zake Shange and Thulani Nkabind. And Ms. Thulani 1 s work also appears in Jambalaya: Four Poets along with the po ems of Lorenzo Thomas, Ibn Mukhtarr Mustapha\(Sierra Leone) anfyn duction by Zarco. Cru~ Jrunbalaya is edited by Steve Cannon.mth an intr~ Cruz writes poetry marked by brevity(i) Sna s(l969) and Mainland(l973) show_ him relying on his Puerto Rican heritage, his rei, lationships with other poetsl( often j lack), New York Gi ty and other urban areas, and Spanish mythology<!) Now living in the ~ ay area, Cruz often ini ' terpolates bi p ingual phrases into his poems Barlow (Gabriel, 1974) has done impressive and promising work in the area of urban language and Afro-American histo!"Yt,) B. Rap published Revolution I ~( 1969) and Metamorphosis .of Superniggeq (l973). Meanwhile, a young inmate at Vacaville Medical Facility, Herman Brownj(Muumba 1 published Some Poems and Things\( 1971) Young Sacramento poet Clarence McKie Wigfall has shown strengths in The Other Side(l970 ~ and anot~et' Sacramentan, Wes Young_, brought out Life Toda~ (l970) and Rambling and 'l;.,~g~ l 19 7 2) • Young }hack poets were~~,;i;'li shed in Gran~ High SchoolJ a 011mibus© Redmond, who has taught at C liforni~ versity, Sacram ; to, since 1970, conducts writing wo rkshops on campus and/\communi ty sites ~ the Oak Severa oets are working and studying at Black Arts West in Seattle· and Park School of Afro-American Thou~i-.t ' \.,/ />'+J. e t 0 t+ ~~ lmu..s .s-r.Sohri ~ 0-.c..he.s a.-+ Wo.,s htf\ ~~;~le Urv111er-s,ty . p I �(JJ 5~ G/Y C---/ e r ns ~ "Arma g;edd on," "chariots of fire," "smokinP, sixties," " get <lown on Ehitey" and "wa rrior pr iests" a r e oft en u s ed by critics attempting to describe and define t he Jtew..Jrlack poe ts. "1obe su1--e; I ] iJ ~h bvt there was~verhal fire and brimstone•,,/\few of the noets had time to stav "mount e d in a chariot of fire," as Blyden Jackson +t&s./41-1d S,(e>_re.. - 0 ne n C1Tes em. Ind e ed, when t he ~ /\is viewed in its wholeness, C\t<lll that s ome who mount ed "chario t s " often we r e 1o t poet 1t Even the most verbal and .t ' popula r of the n ew poetsi L7 r VY ' rikki Giovanni, Ba raka, Sonia Sanchez, !'-adhubuti~ denounced poetry as a luxury t hat could be illf afforded during a ',?(evolution," admitting in t he meantime, perhaps , t ha t thei rs was a particular brand of oratory not striving f or poet ry in a traditional sense . At the same time , the / l a ck poetry tradition has t h e se men and women, and others, to thank for snatching it from the yink,t of obscurity and giv ing i t a prominence ~ it had never before enioyed . This chore alone has earn ed t hem an i mno r tant " place" in the poetic scheme of ' Th·/ s M11° _j_ /If.albei t a " nl a c e ' ye t to be des i gna ted; ~er\\lV\C.l"lro n ofCl.1.l~• I ~eu the r{'Oets. ~i<cL4ivcl.y l be c.dte--ed h11 /3(,1.,-, /(a~• t> c• n1 , • f 11 • f'o.r.- ~h,~l\\ ";i1"" po~ ,T;bt'l ~l'\d h,s eml!Wlc«ris o~~t-"•lr!$p1red sc,en1H'ic. Soc1al1~ pl'!c..e m<ly ct So Jyat'he re are myriad problems and conflicts in the writings and lives ofr,,~/r So!!le, s u ffe ring f r om the " d isfigu r ement of perception)" <l::E L HI hiiUl, do not always nortrav a corre ct socio l o~ ical picture of Bla cks, let alone a correct poetic one. Anx ious to " s atura t e " t J,enselves in the new /,'l ackness, they disguise their own c on f usion in half-baked theories about Afro- American lif e; this results 0... 4-h t ,·~ in ~ ~oe t ry ~ ften ~ r i ,Herl wi t'.1 conf usions, inaccuracies and oversinn lii f ications of t11e )(lacl/ ,--<peri e ce . A fu rt . er res ult, and th is star-makers v · ew the noet r v throui:;h a receiv es a f inal s t 2r,11 of a:,ryroval 1 s ~,;hast 'J, is thnt inverted l ens; so t hat a pop ilar "la tex b rand '' '1i e t:, e cle ener , searc in:" aml n or~ :) r found poetrv (numas , ~att er s on, Cornish, Corte z. Jordan, Larde, Rivers) is o,n. laved. Such a n i:wersion y,rovirley ia c': ar.d \·Jhite readers witli. an exte!1ded " isfi?urement," �mud<lvi.ng t he a lreadv clonliled vision r a t hc> r t an cJ ea rin ;:r · t unJ as ;;cal 11ad r r ed i ct 0d . Adding t o t i s confusion a cad. r e o f ...Jiack critics whr )arade ess entiall y po l iti l cal , parochial and ideologi cnl defenses under the banne r o f a / lack / est he t i ce Bo t h 1-fcKay a nd 'Rivers sai') "~o w'lite man can write my stor y, " bu~ <lurinr t h e cont emporarv 9eriod , some bep ea~ue red ._40-4,'4. la ck readers and teachers ~ ,~ as l r "Uher e is t he Black writ er who will write it? 0 ~ v ~ej:~ ed Contrary to r,o . ular be lie f, i t ta k es(llLi 1'•••--•----• ■ 11111•1~8M~~8~ un d erst an d t h c comp 1 ex to And t hose f ew young ,;..r rit er s (and s oo ·esmen) • \SPffl tre4;t-$ In . ~ who seemed to have master ed as pe cts of it often I •--• ■ "-nr1.s on (: 1al co lm. ~ enomenon calle d the j 1ack/ xperi.ence . Knigh t, Harold Carrington) which allowe ...., and exnerirnente::il:la . To ther1 time ~ ~ r eflec t .._ , ~ ~ deve o ~ \ Even r,wendolvn Brooks had "tb1e" to war < out t icklish '--' questio sin the are~ of art, politics and poe try . 3'..i female poe t s, she did no t 1t dur i ng her early vears . ;; ~ " ➔ Unlike rrances Harne r{ and ot he r teach or go on a temperance~leapue lecture cir cu it That she cultivated and rotected he 11 distanc e' 1is ev i dent in t e superior qualitv of her worl<';I which does not shun the salient t hemes of the / e~ etry: / 1aclz pride, Africa/ l a c .· music, self-love,,?1-ack heter osexuality, violence, mistrust o f whites, destruct ion of the t estern world and self-de t er mi na t ion . Yet those opnosing the ,t'iack/e stheti c do no t always have a clean slat e , sinc e they are often "shored up" by pers onal exper ienc es with whites . AmonP; the oryryonents of the "separat e " aesthetic for Blac ks, Hayden and Redding are most vocal , However , both have maintained close associations with academy-trained/oriented white critics and writ e r s . ~ 8 Hayden nust a s k himself why / lack poets should not subscribe to a ack/ esthe tic if he subscribes to t he aesthetic of the Baha 'i / aithi "t he has said, "to which I willinP,ly submit," 2] possesses the possibilities and potentialities for a new ~e r ep l ace or r.1odify~hristia I - ) I . 1'UI • I 1 '.J! tr 1c onlv one," £j!8h Bl a ck culture _ aneih~ eligioo//r • ~oul d ev en force (mys tique) behind / lack �, -f~ t51$ striving s and aspir ations: Aa p ros pect , s hould n ot he too li ~!1 tly dismiss ed . d. o d d ?~I d 10L.03 1ta.L That some n ew poe ts _..,./\wade into the intense intellec t ua\\ rea m of / ,lac k n ~ss, however, is seen in ~ f)eem tl!ss;" Jayne Cortez s\"Fe stiva~ & Funerals . " ~usical , daring , ambivalen t, complex and technically dex terous,fft • pa@m summarizes t h~ ~ .~re ' uncertain world of/ __ a c ~ . Like Hayden s II l" . Zeus " and C::wendolyn Rroo lcs .I'.S" Riot II r•J J :tt, E fJ..J U it fluently captures the susnense and hyperactivity of~ontempo rary~ . 1 The polarities / - festivals and funerals-~ are a rel e typal and m tholo gica ~ since t e y a t once tap the unexplored and state whnt is known. ;f,.;l'J\ff~ of t he 19 6()s . ~ The poem is also an emotioI}a l heal t hv ambivalenc e, couched i n t he " invisib l e " world an d " cy clical n i ghtma re " o f the / 1a ck / xp e r ience , become s a ll e~orical as t h e po et c ele r ates hero e s, sun ;,; ad u nsunrr, a l r of ham a r e d ead i n one wa7 o r a not her . Th e y w.:_n~e ri his s o ' ri t .-, tound ed his t on°u e b ut ea t ~ T e " s o T" . .atli. ass _c c o~i "0 s both t l-\e a70 v ;i.nd t',e ecstas , a s i t ) etween t ,e clone nee d e ( '' s v r-i ns o er e, n es tl e <l s o,,.,ev}ie r e .., neec e ") a -~ " cnlt u a ..,. L s" 1-\a " rus~er1 " tli.rou ~li. s tr eets u r ,,.in r- .:1e 'T'he t d ie f or s , an 't:J et h s " o st a '<Oo<l f ri p--,_ r- " , :t~o . she loven: b ut he '' c.o.D.'' to her/ ,, A. w~ h " t 1-ior ns o n I '-" I I l-)is as been s hiDDed 1--ack ca s ket,-"• .!- • colle ct on deat h co1lect on d 0 ntl-i c oll e ct on d e a t heJ h is "friend' ' soon ecome s the many cleay -lack snokesmen whose blood has heen "consumed by vultures" : T-Jho k . lled Lununha �The• Qk)o'fe. ~lines ioin ot11er nnan c es of a fri"hte a l l f rienc s: dcat1i a .c1 done and r; frai j _n_ <T wl-ii c h lanen ts t h iolence a nd consumpti.on have 1~ ;s of evour Pd th Ther e are no tears •e have no f r iends P. WP. is the ~-,ord a r e a l onee The worl d of " cad llacs a n d cocai ne" is !'OTm a ted by +e st ; vnls anc f une ra l s . poets t hat sc r eal" ''ki ll r un • I ~lac's know ever- ho erin(T de at, is as close as the j t k e 1oi tor a n c " t e 1'lues." t he ch~rch. , 11. ikl 22 IILb even ~-Jhe 1 ce, h e cl rivin(T nace ui lone, false idol:? • ( we a ,•e a. Le n e 11) 1 bov, alon/ \wi t hout 11 ~o.~ Block girl, J'lack t . livin° i one o dra aticall e d by fo r ei~,er s . s ·~ a r: who "d l le uJA4t'<. · 1 It i s a · ,1 a d t e nrhan n.:ize of ecs t a t ic ope r a tion rr•-',l• il , '' " .:ish ' 1ds in t 11e wi d , '' " the flesh o f Patric e " In Africa o r l n e r+ r . oli t ical onnn'ssio,., ......... frie,ds in a ho st i le countrv o ~ merica tli.e fa t e s of Rla c·s are Lumu .. f'9, e d ~~alcol::10 r e s s ur e \ c ooker wi thout a haclt 001; or va l ve t o let off stean . t he poem' s l angua ~e co~ lenent s t he "rush " o f/ ()ff . T~e rush of lac k l if e ) whi ch is ne ce s s i t a t ed bv on r ession hut .wh i ch , i n t urn , r e s u l ts inl\eno rmouslv "UMhfll,.0~ i g1}\~ e arl y deat h s . rµII peritd; bat re d!fCJl!tiy fake§ Iii u .., zcc.t dcai 1F tLc nJaclc E1.pC1.is cc: c~a ;1 . &.J 'ii!! ; H11. ~vt.f.2_f'l.setv L 1.atr.., aan@ JlidAle.;Qi pa@.il§. ii§ ih!M'-iery il!dtk it as Jaz ~., n a d siR;nifiaaot arnor Rs It is a 1\llu 1 JIit ia ot5lc; th21.1c &iid astjsnflt hut it , �a]J1i,1 ?!8titd!/~--LS$8 .~ E of i! cilbt li(O jS ULLioas. c&P( :fSE 1metrr l in s11 is t 1c tltc 1 olacc 1f822 !l6212 .t of t 1t c '.!uprooted perf ectjou " 1 '.iiC!itl 1 lc _aco Cflra:s it Liilhtt..ES t.te e i r1rul \., GEL I S Lu1LU[Jl hase !Sa bttorl in the atatcd jJ GCJ U . C,Q[ of all Ehl§ d§ the Blues. erotic Alid 1.1 Ed!§ c6ih€§ [tit? i!hpt0Vi saf 1on § @if § @, II® ';- the poet ltd§ iidOl,~atL-tl t~ sto umy aad always 111 1 £!.talc pa ssa ge of 21..e r t cl! a@§t!tt!LIC thfilE 1l h@t erarli t it1u pra dr:aad Fron among t he T!lany good ooets of t his era will eme r ge a few r; reat ones , though ~ ~ ;ec:; has ~ ......J.~1" . . 11 hren ~retarded hy the popula r renunciation of "art" and ideas . " (JJ\J/ But i t c annot be r est r a ined t oo lonr~ h eca u se t '.,ere 'i..S bo t h urgency a nd breadth in much of the new thou p;ht and noetrv . It is paradoxical to send / lack st .dents to ~d.jfic.h"o~o9y Western schools4 to be trained on " heavy " philo soph,,._ 7\1\and then ask them to reduce cu,d;r"NMritj Fo_..,~ u"'eLyJ /tff f laclr. thought '" all their knowled g el\t o compla ints and f ocusless ra~t in1-!S . and z l it erature ca rGot he called on to function in the~ raditional caoaciti!¼,z . . . ._ to train, develop a nd stimulate th e f aculties - l then th e "bat tle for the minds /VI f\,'\ • of i.t\' 1 ... ack ho.': loeeh T'leople" ~ alreadyA.wo-:i hy t~P other side. .!_J t t,ttt t. T inally, ~ !3.rn c ks as a peoole are µ r ofoundly t r a~ic, co~ic or h er~c, then their idea s and their ~ INlenci6,,,.,,,.,,.,,,4N~ f f l ~~ t,,. WC have no t a l ways roamed Cr."Dav,-,,._,,); the "s treet s and alleys of other T!len ' s minds':Aand a true and honestf ~1b st and not b e afraid to be " ~reat" ~ poetry J~outd ack poetry will . alon .s ide wha t eve r else of, gr eatness ther e is in t h i s wo rl d . • � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_09_13to15 Title A name given to the resource Editors proof, Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, Chapter VI. Festivals & Funerals: Black Poetry of the 1960s & 1970s, typed with handwritten edits, p. 406-552 Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/cb827ff2ea92aacd73a7c753da49071b.pdf b300bfe0dfdbf9a641328a4d2ed24306 PDF Text Text - ell fci \_ flHAPTER V A LONG WAYS FROM HOME: j f 10 , ,. 0 , 1~~ Sometimes I feel like a motherless child, A long ways from home; A long ways from home. - t Afro-American <l'p iritual / 1 M- I OVERVIEW c;::::- ':':le d i srti.rt io n of c::ro:1clocr rill Ja~.fg._4Jly8vide:-:t :.:-: ,.: ; '- ~s 1 f n nres'si f ma ms z WJ f s 1 s_______.. because poets of ---------------same age do not always achieve recognition at the same time. chapter 11 the We have looked at James Weldon Johnson, for example, but we mention him a g a i n ~ i ~ In fact ~ for freasons to be shown/4-Johnson overshadows almost the whol ;f _/l ack poetry . al ~ . Melvin B. Tolson, born before Hughes and Cullen, will be viewed ~ ai'ter t hem in the so-called postJ enaissance period, tJince ~ the primary aim of this study is to ..__,, *citeN the most si gnificant _,I names and events in the development of th·,e • poetry,) e1m err• a ~ riticism will remain minimal. (~,o·Ly= ~) From this point Aon, ) lac_fr pee.ts M and Black$ ~Tlle./.Wjtlt !"1':'"":: b~ ame1t,cur c.to,li,'!, ~~r n o..,.1itfil s,•<-,,.flM "': Regin being 'lriewedJ\al~ngside all oth e r r . A-tl"o-Al"\tH u."~y~ ·r-~& - M A_/<P_P raisals of- C tApoetry ii I 1 a-; become a bit more difficul~ since up until the second decade of the 2Ot - nb �we. ... a. v,ewed ~'Y century, ,;nack poet~lilallA...,._Aas somewhat of a novelty. a we~1h..e for ---•• ,t1ub jec't$ for "curious II whites or . , a few dedicated Blacks. ~~~.rses.fed J• 11 , ""' 11»&-airsAL r a ·: .lSlli- very little armament with which to fight critical or literar y "lynchings.n Their models were essentially white (some cont temporary/lack poets continue this practice~ and so were their critics. g;.rsowie. d dtve~stcin.1 11 p.--011:deJ In the 192 they lHIM~one of many "exotic"•·•• 4 WJ,\bored and thrill-seeking whites, I ••••-1•-•.r" In the postJ,tenaissanc~ their skills were often directed towa;rd.l integration and various other social pri _ . most incisive and j.\'1:ltiflli\a ams.) The blow to 1iii-_JJ.ackpoets\iS a dis{,- respect and rejection that parallel the general treatment of Blacks. Criticism of jlack poetry is invariably political 'I and racial "iii • be. · tr /4 just as ?lost of the poetry is forced to and. -p..o'fis't ~ Some poets lament~this because it implies t h at protest and anger are reserved for them. It also says t hat the whole range of huma n behavior is somehow placed off t limits to the Afro-American poet, criticized by whites for not being "unit hi, versal" and by s own {:!_op/.tl I ti :,...for not being )Slack" enough . Needles s to say, it is a dilemma of some magnitud~ and no amount of words or lamentations will answer or solve it here. We do comment on these matters, though, because they begin to appear as serious i unavoidable -/4- plagues to the?ack poet from this period on in our study. ' ... �J. 1 Lhi:1!! el tap1D¾l8U1~1~.• ~. Many poets (Mari Evans, Lance Jeffers, James Emanuel, Ray Durem, Dudley Randall, ~ Zack Gilbert, Bob Kauf an, ~o butdidn~~;t ov+ oLon-ies unTi en,, others were pu :i.ng in period cals Frank Horne, and • ~ foeuwhohad been publish ing books during the years b f ore 1960 (Hayden, Gwendolyn Brooks, Conrad Kent River s, :1ughes, and others) brought out new works sometimes reflecting different themes and attitudes. Poets who had been publish ing substantially in periodicals or anthologies before 1960 will be noted in pa*ng. There will be no attempt to give individual attention to the ~cores of? 1960 sand '70 U:. ack poets writing and publishing i n t h e • II Literary and Social Landscape ,Y<I ~, 1"' '. . ':•· Ni gh t is a curious child, wandering~•••• _, MFrank Marshal 1 Davis 1930 I n 191 I tr.e pop lat i on of/ lack America was 9,ijfy978) \ 14- Langston Hughes was a boy of ten and the NAAC!?s one year old, By 1930, h owever, thefa ack population uon~d ="increased to 11, 891,143 (or 9 t t ~ ~ajor migration of Blacks to northern .-1/tAJJ e-.,_ A fl industrial centers W::QUJai ha u°I\taken place; rac4:-eJ:- riots 1 , ~ ~ __________ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - ...__ t11 4£.,,..0,-,./f:l ,n,{~ - · �and lynchings f . l 1 continu~ to be among the most fearful prospects for/ lack men. Booker T. Washington had chronicled the hardsh ips and bitter disappointments of Blacks in his Up J'rom Slavery. > The new "freedom" was short== lived and illusive, Washington observed, because the ex-slave bad no skill, no land and no place to go . ''Emancipated II Blacks were not farin g muc h better than their fore parents. D1 ois had be gun to raise some of the broader, global issues of/ lack oppression and place the.J(lackJxperience in its proper perspective i n ,., The Souls of Black Folkf. During the second and third decades of t h e @ century,_/1-ack sch olars, acti vists and writers continued to record t b e )D-ack j 'x perie nce with tell ing accuracy and drama. Additio nally, a number of ch anges and de velopne nts i n )tlack co:--iniuni ti es se t o:ff a ch a in reaction of cross-exa11'li nations, intense debates , calls for c:-ianc;es and t he cbarti n2:lof ~e-:.r directions. of 11.ar.k."°'lttf Accordingly, t h e studentt:1ust u nders ta nd t h e o:r the tines i n terms of· Q 1. Tb e decline of Dunbar ' s inf'luence amone poets. 2. Failing support of Booker T. Was½ington' s "accomi mi datio nist" philosophy. 3. 4. The continued disillusionment of survi vors and heirs of ;t;ee 1Reconstruction. t "'--' The development of white hate and intimidation groups (Ku Klux Klan, etc.), , r! oOa �C 5. The _ I 1 91 presentation of "stereotypes 11 of Blacks in the mass media and creative literature of the period. 6. o,vJ The "Jim Crow" laws or the ~outh, /\job discrimi f nation and general segregation in the north. ~ The splits and confusion in the/ lack community due to the "new" mid le class; the appearance of ,( '.,{ - West Indians in Ame1l ~a and class alienment according to color stratification (i.e. , light f skin, dark~skin, near white, etc.). Much of t h e literature of t h e period deals with t h e t h eme of 11 passing or f miscegenation. /\ 8. Race riots in various parts of the country between \ i::_ ,f't 1905 and 1917 . , .:C-11 ~ ~ 11 gs•s: at' America -...____..,., , science and industry were developing rapidly. -t~ Indications of t h is were tech nological warfare and the automobile. ~ radio, Th e "new / sych ology" was taking hol~ and t b e realis m of the previous literature was bowing out to naturalism. Th is new mode is seen in the works of such writers as Theodore D~er,,and William Fauikner. Interest in local color t: dialect, which had dominated the later portion of the /\ century, was also dyin ~ and the~ lack American was "re~ iscovered" by white writers as a subject for r .e alistic fiction, drama and poetry. White writers who published popular e accounts of/ lack life included DuJose Hayward, Sherwood �Anderson and Carl Van Vechten. characterized American society. Revolts in interests and manners Black critic James A. Emanuel points out iq2ot s, th --~ that during many~hi tes ·went to Harlem to ":forget the war and engage their new Freudian awareness by escaping into exotic black cabaret \'~-rr-o Q~AUIJ~·tj,ti'q J ugbes records t his exotic indul8ence in li:fe ✓ The Autob ioeraphy o:f ,l.n > Ex-Coloured Man.1/Drama...o:f the period was dominated by Eugene 0 1 neill wbo won Pulitzer and Nobel prizes. ~ / Two o:f O'neill's ~ plays (The Emperor Jones and The Hairy Ape) symbolically dealt with the psychological involvement o:f Blacks and whites and suggested a transracial mixture o:f :fear, hatred and admiration. j r, ] Si L &lib b12 D! icl,;; ::tor orif~•-11, • e-o'f/..e • .w&i!r"-fi' ~ ilpin ~ z:Jh e starred in The Emperor Jone • r 3 I I . _ .ffeviews _ . ~ '----" I ~111""' ..........,, f ~Gilpin' s performances ( "naked bod~ ••• dark lyric o:f the :flesh") _ _, typi£ied preoccupation with the exotic savage M a trend that had continued :from Jack London (The Call o:f t h e Wild, The Sea-Wol:f local color: ~Page, Harris, Cabl ~ and t h e white writers o:f J ii 3 However, many &Me writers, like O'Neill and Dreiser, had begun to shake �off the mystique of the American Dream and deal instead with ih ~ "illusion. 11 Such was Dreiser's theme in his novel{- An American Tragedy ( 1925) • The founding of Poetri: ,/2. Magazine of Verse, by Harriet ~ Monroe (1912) signaled the birth of the )(ew ../oetry movement in America.~ ---------J ·cci:?r- In 19151 the anthology! if.I ti ?] -----=--_P_o_e_t_sl ,~~ J~ ppeared to l .!-1\aissident factions wanted to dispense with traditional forms. -Wtl!M!'J- Imagism was in fluenced by Ezra Pound's theories and French Symbolism as well as ) 'riental and ancient Greek poetry. Ch ief spokesman for the Imagist poets was Amy Lowe1; who was joined by John Gould Fletcher and Hilda Doolittle, among others. During the next two decade s_, the group waged a successful battle a gainst the dissidents~ but t hey also ret iorked traditional forms and cornered a new reading market for poetry in America and England. "':'\ Poet Vachfel Lindsay, an advocate of using rhythm and the \!,, reading aloud of poetry, is credited with having "discovered" Langston Hughes. Black poets who participated in t h is "revival" of American poetry were the innovator Fenton Johnson and the . anthologist William Stanley Braithwaite. The most significant development of the period, however, was tbe,P4ck cultural £lowering , principally in Harlem, ~ has become known as the Harlem Renaissance, the Negro Awake,l ning and the Negro Renaissance. Central to the ;:,(enaissance" (critics differ over whether it should be ~alled such) was the ~ �migration of southern Blacks to northern urban centers. With the working-class Blacks also came (and grew) the f lack telligentsia, artists and activists. Current f lac k creativity or scholarship cannot be understood unless t h e Harlem Renaissance is placed in proper perspectiv8.J because the Harlem period is the most important bridge existing between slavery and t h e ,,,,., modern and/or contemporary era,_, . Hence, it is necessary t hat we sketch out the important political and artistic de velopments 1 /la;~ up to (or happened during) theARenaissance. A partial listing of these developments must include: Founding of the Guardian by Monroe Trotter l'i (l901). Founding of the National Association for t he : Advancement of Colored People (1909) and estabi, l ishment of The Crisis. 01 Founding of the Urban League (1911). Founding of the Association for the Study of ] Negro Life and History by Carter G. Woodson (1915). Establishment of The Journal of Negro History by Woodson (1916). Black troops' involvement in World War I. Great ,)figration of Blacks _t.Q__ northern urban center~ / ~ /) 1916 1~ 19; ~ the tre d~continued through the /) middle of the centur] • '--' The recording of j 'lack achievements in all areas; lack scholarship is brilliant and sustained -~ (d �throughout the entire period. The writings, especially, of W. 1 I ·F· nf ois, Charles s • .Johnson, Alain Locke and .James Weldon .Johnson. The high point in the influence of Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association (Garvey, who came to the ~ from .Jamaica in 1916, preached a back-to-Africa movement . He was imprisoned in 1925 for mail frau .) Founding of Opportunity, A .Journal of Negro Life 1 (1923) 0 Opportunity and The Crisis published much of the new work of t f!e /\Re'naissance ··-··-••11LLM&!!!l-'l!!¥1!!1£!1£-&• writers and offered annual prizes{YJ The flourishing ofjlack j usic and musical dramas (Noble Sissle and Eubie Blake do Shuffle Along, 1921; Louis Armstrong, with his own band, opens at the Sunset Club, Ch icago, 1927; Duke Ellington opens at the Cotton Club, Harlem, the same year). The postf war Pan-African ;t'o ngresses (Paris, 1919; t I London, 1921, 1923; New York, 1927; Df ois was 1 primary organizer.) .James Weldon .Johnson edited the first ~century American anthology of/ lack poetry, The Book of American Negro Poetry) in 1922 . .Johnson ' s work was followed in quick succession by fi ve other poetry anthologies,;;> 11..,'1-~ ( ~ Negro Poets and Their Poems (Robert Thomas Kerlin, 1923~ 2lb �An Anthology of American Negr o Verse (Newman I vey White r and Walter Clinton Jac ks on, 1924); '-:) fn Anthology (Clement Wood, .1924 )/ •~• Caroling Dusk (Countee Cullen , 1927) ' ) -..,_Tegro Songs: £. ~Of ------------------=-~ Locke , 192 7 ), G our Negro Poets (Alain note also was F·f· Calverton's An Anthology of American Negro Literature (1929)J which c onta ined 6 C ;.l:'..en and Loc rce 1-!ere t ·wo 1t_-'7 pages of poetry ., a :~:ajor fi g 1res of t': e Ii 3 )i& nai ss anc ~ al on.:; Hi t'h Q- a.u~€ :IcKa:: , Johnson, H sh es,- and -_, Jean Toomer. JI- Locke edited the anthology .:wQla.:,;;,,.~ heralded and chronicled the new filack mood and achievements: The New Negro : lt emains a classic today . He /4n Interpretatio n (1925); !_! "Ar ?r-c1dv(.eo also ba~the equally important A Dec ade of Negro Self=Expression (1928). A Rhodes ~ cholar from Pe nnsylvania, Locke received a (A. Ph.D. in 1918 from Harvard and is still considered• • *l •~fortj f/41.k-" -- most interpreter of_p..aok creativity of the ARenaissance . Cullen published Color, hi s first b ook of poetr:r , when he was @ and w~-:. instantly recogni::$ as one of the best young poets in America • r1cKayA Culle n Mhei,,eJ to of English poetry. ~ ....----:---- s-r,,.,,t t he s ft Jl11 tradition Considered the best "formal 11 writer of the naissance period, Cullen was "1eticulous and careful in b is (VJ.. poetic workmanshi13A J-'e - •••• !3oifled J'A, t h ose ■ wh o CL im b-e~ rr7he Dark Tower II to '!-)r ood over bein3 called poets. In addition to Cullen, other key poets of t b e !Ie:i4 eFs ., '• ,,,,,,, l\·wakening ~ publ ished b1p ortant '1olu~es or antb ologies and 2 t7 �int'e~d· added t o th e creative and criticaltflttrb=l;ei". Joh nson and :1 is broth er, J. Rosamond, edited The Book of American Negro Spirituals (1925) and Tbe Second Book of ~ e:d. eliU;ia Negro bo'fh Spirituals (1926). McKa:~.r published poetry inAEngland and America. Johnson said HcKay belonged "to the post-war group and was its most powerful voice. poet of rebellion." He was pre-eminently t h e Hughes and Cullen won national reco gnition (and poetry awards) at about the same time. There, h owever, ~--;;t t h e comparison ends. Hugh es was one of t h e wide traveled of all the~ naissance writers. He was also the most prodi gious and multif talented, writing succ::£ul~ in all ""-=--- -_-_...,,. · Hughes, who when he died in 1967 was t h e ~ ~anslated American author, is known as the international poet laureate of f lack people. Joh nson recorded much of t h is creative outpouring in various ways. As a scholar, he is known for his anthologies and h is seminal interpretations of _!lack cul ture ~~s ic J e:ae:the f pirituals l in ~articular. 1-: ~} 1922 anth ology/ ~ Of great importance was bis i~ an illuminating / reface, h e cited t he four ma j or j 'lack artistic contributions to Amer i ca: V 1. The Uncle Remus stories, collected by Joel Chandler Harris. 2. The f piri tuals ( 11 to which the Fisk Jubilee Singers made the public and the musicians of both 3. The Cakewalk (a dance "poetry of motion"). nd Euro~ listen"). Paris called the 9 �I ~ 4. Ragtime { "American music," for wh ich t he @ i s known all over t he world). 1 Johnson is also noted for hiS work with t h e U.S. diplomatic corps, his pioneering fffit:Wi t h the NAACP and h is brilliant ~ employ~ent of / lack idioms and psychology in his poetry and discussions. One of the most unique voices of the Harlem Re naissance _ . w a s Jean Toomer, who along with Hugh es, Cullen and McKay make up Locl~ s Four Negro Poets. A complex of person,i, alities, talents and racial mixtures, Toomer was a constant enigma to critics and fellow writers. Alth ough h e admitted that b e was of seven racial strands, he acknowled ged._, imat "~ growing need for artistic expression has pulled me deeper -and deeper into t h e Negro gr oup." In 1924, Toomer's Cane was published. Set primarily in the deep south - ~in Geore ia 1~ 5 N\ it also deals with t h e urban i mpact on migrating Blacks. ~ Love, racial conflict, sex, violence, reli gion, nature a nd a grarian themes are all explored directly and allegorically. ,) Rae f pride, the lower side of Jilack life, and a romantic engagement with Africa were the main t hrusts of t h e f.enaissance literature. activists. So too with t h e painters, musicians, scholars and Garvey had set up a re eal court reminiscent of ancient African j 'ingdoms and had infused his followers with v isions of returning to the "homeland. 11 His "court" was resplendent with h i erarchical titles and lavish re galia for - - - - -- - -- -- - - -- - - - - - - - �~ parades. ships. Black Star Line was t he name of b is fleet of The prevailing spirit of tbe day was one of } lack indulgenc9i and many whites sough t for, and · got t heir share Bui. Nµi(,f of, it. ,<fne aladk- Awakening was not the exclusive property of Harlem. Po~ as Kerlin points out (Preface, Negro Poets and Their Poems), t he mood of change spread to other sections of ~~ the country. • • • • • • • • • • l ~ ~ a n thologies - published were The Quill in Boston, Black Opals in Ph il ~ delphia and The Stylus in Washington, D.C. Important, too, were the collections and studies of folk songs. Af'N oteworthy fr' collections for tre period included: Negro Folk Rhymes (Thomas W. Talley, 1922) Negro Workaday Songs (Howard W. Odum, 1926) Rainbow Round My Sh oulder (Howard W. Odum, 1928 ) Wings on i·"r:J Feet (Howard W. Odum, 1929) American Negro Folk Songs (Newman I vey White, 1929 Other brilliant and exciting poets and writers shared t he _;{e naissance sce ne~ -th ough they are normally over~ Hughes, Toomer, NcKay , Joh nson and Cullen. adowed by Some of t hese °'- writers ;rmost of whom did not publish volumes until "SM later period-' were: Arna Bontemps , Georgia Douglas Johnson, Waring Cuney, Robert Hayde n, Gwendolyn Bennett, Sterling Brown, OWen Dodson and Helvin Tolson. Prose writers of the period included Eric Walrond and Rudolph Fisher as well as Hughe s and Toomer. Bontemps, anthologist, critic, librarian, poet and novelist, �published in leading magazines of the period and won nu~erous awards for poetry . Brown pursued the fol,';;, tradition wh ile cultivating an ear and technique that rivaled some of t he best modern poetry. His debt to folk idioms and characters is ob vious in such poems as "odyssey of Bib Boy, - "Memphis Blues," and "Long Gone. 11 n 11 S outhern Road, 11 Brown contributed to per odicals of the and later published important critical studies. Dodson wrote verse plays and collaborated with Cullen on at least one writing project. and poetry. He 1 too, won numerous awards for h is plays Hayden and Tolson, both significant modern poets, were to be heard from in succeeding decades as critics and outstanding teachers. ~ ~~~. f 'f 60 e-- l~Den t h e stock market crashed in 1929, white patron4, zation of/ lac k artists ended. Black creativity and scholarship, however, had grown up during the ffi1/st three decades of the century, and important writing and musical development continued. Migration of Blacks to northern urban centers was stepped up before and after World War II~ witb many Blacks being attracted by shipbuilding and oth er war-manufacturing industries. Afro= Americans have participated in every U.S. military c onflict V Th e rr iti ng of poetr:" co rit~ nuedJ but publishing was slowed down. James (1973) , notes1 ~ o. Young, in Black Writers of the Thirties "Black writers produced less t h an one l �since / olonial days. During World War II and Korea, however, t hey were used almost exclusively as fighting troops (between . a,, 1943~ ptt¥S:, ,,JJ Jim CrowAas abolished in thefa med / orces). Nevertheless, f lac k soldiers, returning h ome fro m European and Pacific war t h eaters, still faced unemployment and lynch ing ; and in some southern citie~-vkre forbidden to appear on t he streets in military uniforms. Baldwin is one of many perceptive American th~ G\ writers to note t h at'>31~ck mftn, seeking t he fruits and . . realization of t h e American Dream, tried t hrough out h istory 11 to adjust and fit" i nto American society. So, in face of official American contempt for h is humanity and h is welfare, t he/ lack s oldier marched also with an "equality " of death into t he Korean War. 2 James Weldon J oh nson had opened t he dis mal period of t he De pression with Bla c k Nanhattan, a social h istory of Harlem. Black :Manhattan was one of t he dozens of studies on urban ~ ack communit ies~~1 h ad been begun by works such as Df ois's Ph iladelphia Negr':;_ - Social Study (1899). Like Joh nson, many of t he poets and artists tur ned their writing skills toward .t pe . recording of .J'lac k social problems and artis~· i ach ievements 18 Charles s. (.Joh nson's -:::~ ~ na ~ mericans, Wh at now ~ 1 Joh nson's Th e Shadow of t he Plantation, ~th _!31' 1934). Some ' volur::e of poetry per year·· "b et ween 1929 and 1942." V This turned out to be not so true in t he Viet_)<fam ~ar ~ ~ho s1xt ~ wh en a dead f lack veteran was refused burial '1n e a wh ite cemet, r y near h is h ome in Georgia • ___ _ _ _ __...__ ___ __ .__ - -- - - �of the writers were subsidized by WPA grants1 wh ile others <;t{Ll managed to obtain jobs as teach ers a nd journalists . A ;Jl;hers, o.UO like t he common folk, ln soup lines . It was~uring t 11 jtooJ, t h e period of 1930; 60 that wh ite sch ools or h i gher learning started accepting more B ~cks, as students and teachers. r Jf.1. -c :_t.; Generally, .Araeriea witnessed rapid advancements in science and industry. Radio drama became a cultural mainstayJ a nd the motion picture industry provided a new and exciting diversion. "'::"\ Baseball continued as t he "national past!,.ime" (for Blacks, it was the era Jackie Robinson). Jac k Joh nso n had already (in the previous era) dazzled Araerica with b is pugilistic skills. But it was the prize fi gh ter Joe Louis ( t h e "Brown Bomber 11 ) , however, wh o captured sports-minded ---- America with one of t he greatest records i n ~ b oxing h ist ory. Louis•• defeat of ~ Germ 1:_:= Schmeling . ~-'t \,.eN"'~ time i n U.S. h istory - L y orld of nations ~ ~ itler. ira~• siRg ~~ (1938) came - - _,, at a cruc i al ,<tmerica's rising mi gh t among t h e challenged on t h e battlefield by Two years earlier, a ·racist Hitler h ad refused to acknowledge t h e feats of America' ~lack Olympic track star Jes s e, OWe ns. "--' , In prose and drama, white American writ ers continued to straddle a t h ematic pat t 9tween realis m and t he American Dream. A distinctly "post war" gr oup of' writers emerged. Dominating the period were Dreiser, Sberweee ....____ -Anderson, Sinclair Lewis, Willa Cather, Thomas Wol fe, ort/eill, ~-- - - Faulkner, Erpest Hemingway, Tennessee Williams , J o~n Dos Passos , Katheri ne Anne Porter, Er ski ne Caldwell and Carson HcC ullers. Usinc \ • �symbolism and all e gory to attack war, decadence and t be a tor.tic b om":J , American -writers often took as n~odels such Russi .'.;.n wr iters as Chekov , -Dostoevski and Tolstoi. I :~ny employed : : t rer ..: 0-!: c o~sc :. ot .3 ::cs:: tech nique -a style ini'luenced "ne,;-1 psycholoQJ 11 o:r ~ 1e t he and Irish writer James Jo:rce ~ wbich allowed f'or uninterrupted explorations on the t h ou ;hts of c!1aracters ·who 11 streamed" t he ir references. A si milar n ood pre vailed in t he poetryM much of wh ich dealt wi t "'. 1 social decadence, war and the mechanization of t;1a.n. E. ~ . Cummings, known for h is t:rpot graphical tric kery and general linguistic and syntactical experiments, was one of t h e most relentless critics of bureau cracy and war. Such t ':1emes h a.d also concerned T•f • Eliot, considered one of the greatest modern poets, in such poems as 11 " The Love Song of J'. Alfred Prjtfroc k" and The Waste Land. Irnagist poets "H.D., 11 ., PArsued Th e t h eir development via such voices as Ezra Pound and Harianne I-Ioore. ~ A____...._= ld lcLe is-h , u _art Crane, John Crowe Ran-&em--, Allan. Tat&-, ' ;.,, cJ Historically,~ lack_/usic had been marked by white imitation exploitation. . There always e · ·--~-- · foU 'white" musical face t hat t U0-- - ~ ~@e;&:&1lffl' need to create a -C-o lil!' Americans at large. From the minstrelsy of plantation <;"lays to the sophisticated operettas and musicals of the twenties, this pattern ran u~ �During t he modern period, f e: Jop became t he musical broken • Wh ile t _.e bi e:; :: . \ heir to )(a gtime, early fazz and Tin Pan Alley. f/ ,;,,,r (!eK a{t:and 11£0~ composers-M l Basie, Ellin8to n, Fletcher Henderson, '' \ ...______ W·f • Handy, Eubie Blake, Noble Sissle, etc. - 1 continued t heir 1 1 important work , different k inds of experiments were going on among other musicians. From these new for mations and probings came some of the giants of modern _p ac k ,Music: ..,.,J.files Davis, Charlie "Yard Bird" Parker, Lester "Prez'.' Young, Sonny Rollins, Gene Ammons, Art Blakey urns in Africa), Ornette !I Coleman (see Four Lives in t h e B LIIJA:-:-,\I (Af'ro-Cuban), Business) , Chano Pozo - Dizzy Gillespie~ _ !abs Gonzales y op poet I Paid Hy Dues ; 1967). and singer: o From t h e musicia ns and t h eir supporters emerged an undersroun°:, 11bip " language. Th is tradit i on, of tal king in metaphors and encoded cultural neo~ logisms, h ad begu n during the,./enaissance. Often, too, / lac k Rs vocalists were featur ed with the musician9 i3:@PI ( atul 1 I cf these a ( Ella Fitzgerald, Sarah Vaughn, Billie Holtiday and Bessie Smith - wh o died in 1937. \.;; /V\ The mi gration to cities also sa~ t he continued rise of urban or b i g~city pues. B:r 1960 , h owever, t he ;{1ues h ad gone t hrough several important periods of de velopment. Some names associated with the moder n period were Louis Armstrong , Fats Waller, Cab Calloway, Bill Broonzy, Pops Foster, Eddie "Son" House, Robert Johnson, Johnny Temple, Roosevelt Sykes, Elmo James, Bf • King, Leadbelly, Jimmy Reed, Muddy Waters, Josh Wh ite, Sonny Boy Williams, HowlinJ· olf, John Lee Hooker, µ1 and Big Joe Turner. These men - - - -- - - -- - -- - - - - - - - g nin ' Hopkins t_ / i'r.,n',ied t eal\ h e flame~ • tJHlf\b y �w.f. Handy. Leroy Carr, Blind Lemon Jerferson and Several notable/ lack literary explosions occu.fred during a,.. ,~ 11 ( c10 " the period between 1930 :eQ.. Important werei the publication of Native Son (Richard Wri ght, 1940); the publication of For People (Margaret Walker, 1942); the appearance of Invisible G,""encJr,Lv n 81">e.C1 ~~,~ • ,✓¥1a.n (Ralph Ellison, 1952) and i:aAwinning of the Pulitzer/ rize My for poetry II ] ] j (;___950) -/@-nnie Alle~1 • Native on, a novel, featured a/flack protagonist named Bigger Th oma~ who sym~lized (and in many ways contained) the anger, rage and pressures felt by urban Blacks. The book was the first by a)1lack author to make the best : seller lists-jand was also a eook of the Month 6lub choice . ~ ,! During t h e same periodJ • Wri gh t, wh o died an expatriate in France in 1960, published several other novels, sh ort stories, books of essays and miscellaneous prose. appeared. In 194~ Black Boy, his autobiograph~ Wri ght is significant for many reasons, fore most among t he m being t hat he was the first j lack writer to deal, a., accurately and on ~par with the best fiction writers of t he day , with the philosophical and psychological complexity of the p ack urbanite. In doing t h is, he opened a new range of possib ilities and ~lped free .flack fiction in many ways. There were other excellent fiction writers during this period: Rudolph F ./ 1 er, Zora Neale Hurston, 75 1 J -. ___::_, ; McKay, Hughes, •••Bontemps, Ann Petry, D ois, Frank Yerby, Eric Walrond, w,Ui4171 f)emby Chester Hime,~and Sterling Brown. Wright, however, was the first to for ge and sustain a major f lack art piece out of mythical and racial materials. �~ ::;:win., whose reig~ succeeded Wright I s, made h is entry in 1953 with the publication of Go Tell It ftn the Mountain. Hi s other ~~Cl~f~~. 7 work includes Notes of a Nati ve Son (1955) and Giovanni's Room (1956). A1 il. r(\(;\ r"\ et · ~ AWalker, ae_ 1ii !__:J &: 1 !£ who teach es liters. ture at Jackson State College , was @ years old when sh e wrote "For My People"f one of the most famous,.J'iack poems. Her book by the same name won the Yale Series of Younger Poets award in 1942. Rich in cultural folk references, / lack ph onology .and social history, the slim book brilliantly traces t he h ope, humor, pathos, rage, stamina and iron dignity of t he race. Tbe winning of the Pulit~er_h ize \ by Gwen~ l y n Broo0 (and Ellison's accolade • )~ d the world that j lack writers had mastered t he "ultimate" English literary craf'ts of poetry and fiction to a degree into question. no longer called their abilities Ivrany, /lack critics feel, h owever, t h at t h ere 4, before Annie Allenf e;, were excellent volumes received t h e Pulitzer / rize. should h ave These critics say f lack artists, like t he.Jlackfa perience, come periodically into fas h ion (e.g. , Harlem Renaissance) ~~ to be tolerated at t he whims of white literary bastions, despite their proven abilities. The G.,,tndolyn citation of ~,Brooks (who published A Street in Bronzev ille, ~ 1945) was a citation of the )D.ack ,Experience , h owever;kdespite .7y the fact that the prize was not a major~ i ; . ; in the 1 _/lack community. searching and f Bla~ks, caught up in the post~ ar mood, job~ quest,.or social equality, were not reading �much poet:y.fEllison, who has not published a novel since Invisible Man (1952) remains one of t he most controversial figures in American. Jiterature~ much of the controversy arising from what he says outside of fiction (see Introduction). Communist-oriented papers genera_lly condemned Invisible Man when it first appeared. They held that it was a 11 dirt -= t hrowing 11 ritual for Ellison-~who combines naturalism and complex sym (V\ bolism in t h e book. Black novelist John Oliver Killens also gave it a ne gative review. Generally, h owever, t he work is considered, by jlac k and wh ite critics, to be a gre at novel M perhaps the greatest American novel. It won t h e National Book Award in 195~ an~ i n a subsequent poll of "200 j ournal i sts a nd cr i t i cs , i t was judged t h e most dist ingui s hed single wor k of fic ti on since World War II. ~ r . - Anflamed by t he spirit and example of t h e Harlem Re naissanc e , -g/- OJVJ f"'CLY fl" , lack poets of t h e pre ~and post war years continued ex citing G""mdt,L1ra experiments. 1illlllB~ Brooks recalls t h at a brief e ncouragement .from t h e "great II James Weldon Johnson wh en s h e was a ch ild spurred h er on her way. Some of t he poets of t he~ naissance, h owever, quit writi ng altogeth er or be gan writ ing in 4other J o. nso n r eported in 1931 that Fenton Joh nson had been "silent" for ten years. Poet Bontemps also ·wrote novels f t h e most famous of t hem being Black Thunder (1939 ), an adaptation of the 1 831 :Nat Turner-led slave re volt. He edited and wrote, and sometimes collaborated with oth ers ·o13,anth ologies and biographies for young readers. With Hughes, he ed i ted The �Poetry of ,~ e Hegro: ...,1764J1949, c c :1s it..~ c r e c~. a breal-(___::throush in modern/ lack lit erary activity. One of t !-ie };a ndful of/ enaist sance / lack writers to survi ve into t he .ie ~:enties, Bontemps died in 1973. / a,. 17.)'f So~e have cal led t he period ~e tween 1930 the a ge of Lanss ton Hugh es in/ lack letters. I ndeed, Huc~e s remained pr o·~1inent and prod uctive thr ouch out t he t :.:ree per iods -'~naiss,~ e , 1930~54, and t h e fo nt emporary era . ;)uring t '.1, pr e ,-1, ahd post$-1ar periods, Hug:ies conti nued to · turn out ever:'"·· e t b ing fro n news pa per fictio n columns (Jes se B. Si mple) to juvenilia to plays . Eue;hes i n poetry, like Wrie;½t, Ellis on a';'kBaldwin in fh'ose, faithfully recorded t he_jlac!r mood. =~the others, he also predicted t h e social violence of t b e sixties. Poets and other volu~es of the period includeO: Sterling Brown, Southern Road ( 1932); Culle n, T'De :Iedea and Some Poems (193.5); Hayden, Heart-Shape in t h e Dust (194 0 ); Naomi Long Mad ::;ett, Songs to a Phar,tom lUsbtingale (1941} ; M ,}! 1th H. BingQ. DiJmond, We Who Would Die (1943}; Tolson, Rendezvous America (1944), y b dson, Powerful Long Ladder (1946); Cullen, On These I Stand (posthumously, 1947}; Hayden, with n . tfyro~ 0' Higgins, The Lion and tbe Arch er (194 8); Tolson, Libretto for the Republic of Liberia (1953); Selected Poems V or Claude McKay {posthumously, 1953}; Ariel W. Holloway, Shape Them into Dreams (1955); John C. Morris, Cleopatra and Oth er Poems (1955); Alfred Q. Jarette, Black }Ian Speaks (19.56); Beatrice Wright, Color Scheme (19.57); Mary Miller, Into the • Clearing (1959); Percy E. Johnston, Concerto for Girl and "' �Convertible (1960 ); Oliver Pitcher, Dust of Silence (1960);~ G·Jendol:rn r ooks , T'~ e Bean Ea ter (1~ jici:Ff&FijJ; 81& ltJt )! ~ 2 ? ?ssn Tis "' writing and/or translating during this period were Dudley Randall, Samuel Allen (Paul o.nd Vesey), Margaret Danner,1 Rich ard Wright (wh o also wrote poetry). (□ I a, t g;; :Ji Black and white poets exchanged ideas and socialized_ _ Ii - , · st J cl Ju ! I§ j I •ff=••~d -••-11111112•1111111112111111LS•t•z-11g~i-•..."s111t••••·1111■2,a i I c O ~ ~ny of the A~rna~ were introduced to publishers and t he reading public by well-known white poets or critics. Such a practice was to come under fire, during the late '160:fs andlf701's, by some ~ lack poets and critic; who judge .._/ lack writine . favorable to '5e-e work. .f'ee.l that whites -eot1ld not Reviews of the period were generally lack writerc who showed great finish in their Hayden, Walker, Brooks, Tolson and Dodson were among t he poets who rece i ved h i gh praise for their technical virtul osity. Steph en Vincent Bene't wrote t he fo~~ rd tob For Hy People~ Allen Tate to 7 l!'.!E j:!bt Libretto I or the Republic n-.hon rt.<eiued of Li eria and Hayden won Hopwood/ wards twice.~ accolades fri om jJJIJJII. Poetry: A Magazine of Verse ~ re garded as the white American olympus of poetry. One of the most important anthologies of the post~ naissance ',,µi/ period was The llegro Caravani (1941 ~ edited b y Brown, Arthur P. Davis and Ulysses Lee. The best inclusive anthology of / lack ---=--:--:- 41'l - literature, it remains today --0ro 0€ th~~utstanding textboo't!,· 21.0 f%_ fr �Brown also published two important works of criticism, The Negro in American Fiction and Negro Poetry and Drama, both in 1937. And J. Saunders Redding publish ed his critical work To Make a Poet Black in 1939. ft Wo.4 estcu,tt, hed 1 i•sfl I I .Jn 1940 !!f Pbylon/\wi th D+ois as editor(~ 1954, Ir., I· t h e venerable W•f •f • as American soldiers prepared to return from Korea and television glared to consume the world, the Supreme Court decision of May 15 closed the book on one era of lack American history and opened up Pandora's box on another. Wright's Black Power (1954), a commentary on his experiences in Africa's Gold Coast, may have been more than of just a hint "A~ w~a~ _"::!:_t..o .~on:~..~ · c;f{ffi;.;:would witness some, but not all, of the ingre, t ~--ients of Pandora's box., lil'"1.ac k woman i n M ' t gomery re f use d to eive~her • Vf. when a ,,...., ~on seat on a public bu5 to a white man, a new era of )3lack struggl e was born. A successful boycott of buses was led by Martin Luther Ki ng , Southern Christian Leadersh ip Conference. hordes of young .Bl acks (and some whites) be gan sit-ins and various other "in! s" 1 as the Freedom" cry reached a new pitch. This was t h e ges ~ tation period for the Congress of Racial Equality and the · And o.U~~ wl,',Le.J Studen~ Nonviolent C<\o rdinating Committee. ,j"hite youth took l? to television and swayed to the rhythms of Chubby Checker, the • Jf'' \ ~ ~t Chantel s and the Five Satins. But as America "twisted the ) ight a':;;'a; " another and different mood, expressed through a �diff e r ent v oice , wa s bugging the r im of t he we were not y et "Beyo nd t h e Bl ue s . rr,, eam . 11 And 11 III THE \JO fl TOTEM Good mor ni n ', b lues, blues, b ow d o y ou d o ? /() di_}. j()R.);!µ y /u:;J 1 _I_ Leadbellv N\ - The Comin g Cadence: - -- w Pr e'£i0na i :::sa nc e Vo ices .._;,, s t .. e 2C ,. .. ce nt r:r con ti nued to open its - e 1ilde r ec. ( s 0::1 ~3.:" "s h ocked " ) ~ l'tlt,.~y :"e s , all. UC£ I. /v ta fM!li\.c}'lan.;es we r e occu1tl n[.; M not t~ - le a s t o.r.:o ~ :::; t 'l: er:: i !1Jtl a c . . oetr:-r and t he arts . 1·· i t'ti t}'l e i ::1cr a s e i n t ~e nu:-::'Je r of p '.Jlicat i o;1s tak i n 6 t h e ir wor k to t he p i on e r i nG effort s of D n~ar, Carrothers, Camn½ell, ( du Cott e r , ~ ) an othe r s ) , ~ ;.ac k (tl 6.1'\ l)4'C _,,, pat e !~a 7 i ng t:1eir ~ rt flTJ oe ts could at leas t a nt ici l r e ad 1J7 white editors. : :a.·-:7 of t~ e 'r' p oet s ·riting i nt e fi ct a nd sec ond decades of the cent ry 1-1 ould ne~ e r e l i ghts of t .. e . eard f ron a g a i n~ ½ t a few would ar 1. a i1 Re~ai s s anc e . e co .~ Nl.nC,fd ovtr- Th e p oet s -1 J. 3 i "mi n or" a sur i- _r i ~i ng d i Ye rsit~ of styl es , li n~ui s tic i b e nts, the n es, te m~ e r ame nt s a nd a ce cate Gories, n. ~1d came fro'."1 pract ~ ~r e v er~r cor ner of the U:'.1ited S tat es , the ,.vest I !"ld i es and -Soatr America. '\ i 1 • o nz th e early poe ts ~,er e Kelly :-:iller (l 8 63/V1939), Leslie :!'i r.c .{ne:.,. Hil l (1 SON{_ ), (1 380j l960 ), Charles Be rtrar.1 Joh nson Benjamin Bra~l ey (1 SS2J 1939), Raymond Garfield �~ Dandri dge ( H38 2J 1930 ) , Otto L~ Edward :recal l ( 1333.!. ? IV (1 836~ ..t.Y ~,.__ 1 _,,, • - ) , Angel i na Weld Gr i :::~c~ (1~30~1°5~ ), ( 1330/2 ( J ess i e Redmo::d Fauset ~ Boh a nt nJ ◄!!•••-• ~ - J a !::es (1 322,.!1961 ), F al ter Everette !-TawL::i :'} S ) , ~Irs . Sarah Le e (Brow n ) Leo n R. Harri s ) , :2f f i e Le e News ome (1 835/2 i , Ha lt er Ado lp.-~e +-o-b_e_r~t s 1 (1 886~19 65 ), Eva Alberta J e s s y e- (1 397~ ) , Geor [;ia Dougl as J ohns on (188 611966), T e odore Ee nr ~,. Sh ac ke l ford ✓ (1888.!1923) , Ros c oe C. Jami son (1 886! 191 2 ) , Ch arl e s ~ i lson N fl/ ,,,_., ) , T:rs . I-' I ae Smi tb Johnson v(l 190J / ), Andr e a l885/4 ri ef o c1s95k z ), Ben jamin Ebe~e z er B rr ell ( 1~92Q ) , J oseph Se a mon Cot te r , Jr . i illiam Ed ga r Ba i1(~ ~ (1 895~1919 ), Clar i s s a Sc ott Dela nJj (1 901/2 ~ 2?) , and s cores more. Najor poe tic contrib utions wer e ma d e by James Hvl c! on J oh ns on , Fenton J ohnso n , Cotter , Jr. ( cu t dO"wn iefepf \t \ ~L4 0 deve l op h i s pro:iiise ) a1id a feiv ot her s; :ret it i s i mpor tant that we a t l e ast ~ ~~ 0 lq J 5s 1% Br own a nd ~ o:ne of the l esser l n C ~ s of th i s per iod . Redd i nG feel/\ not11i:::: of i:,. fr portanc e, beyo nd the Joh nsons , occ u7'ed i r. t!"!e fi r st tw o de cades . But; fo r pur poses of ou r study a nd co nti nuity , He must note t h a t t h i s was no t a per i od of i :iacti v ity amo ng poets . n ic all:r , t here was s ome e.x pe r b1e n tation. Te c}:, i However, :r..ost of t b e poets e i the r h elp ed ph a s e out tJ"!e dialect 1 ~osue or rr ot e h armless pie c es on nature , love , gard ens, de ath and ~u~an sorrow . Ot hers wrote h arshly and b itt erly of t h e war . , Hiller , r:athe mati c ia n and s ociol ogist, was a l e a d ini; �/ lac k spo _csman of the d ay and onl:r occasionall~r rrote poetry . His prose 1. e e and . n Sa.t i sfi d II provided fuel for oe:-:: 'I f rthcr discuss i on of co nte m orary racial issues. ~ stanzas, of it i s r e mi nisc en t of Fent ,0n ._.Tob nson (''.T i red" ) &eSL,e~P.irx.k <::J and l"1ar 6 aret Wal rnr good s tud ents Co nsistinc 1 ( "F or Hy People ")., ~i ll produc~lan:r ile he was pr incipal at C eyney Trai ninc for Taac ers (later Cbe~n y tate Colle ge ). 1-:ordswort:.'1 , I: l ton and B 1rns . ch ool e at tended ~ a rvard taug t at Tus egee; ': : . n d ,1 1is 1 1 t e rary i nfluences an ,,,,.rt~ -aJ?-e Lon gfellow , Hi s p ' lis he d 1-1or s ar e Tre ~- ing s M. of O '"'ressio n (1 , 22) a nd Toussaint L ' O:rdrt r e -/;.A Dra r.iati c Hi stor-:--- Roy L . ~11: , poet a ..1: 1/e d cat:., is a prot~ i:se .... 9 2 ~ ) . 1i1. ...M of t:: c s eni o ~il~ 1 "Wt.tq« I\ ~; ith '·fas:-:: i ngto .-ty::ie f0el:l.. ::.~s a' 01 us teat 1..,e i l_ 11 - , t race relat io ns . J ~·h 1s o n : ,,... l is 1~ 7 71; , n J-.,, - ! laced !:e tel_s ::os t 6 ri ';)inc l:: s no ~ i c tly ," a poe t c d i s t i _la t i o:1 #,c,.arl~s ..... strenc t :·:ourn t e travail of ..::~ race ." ~ - i-."' --. t 7 :o f eels~ tiJ·:~~fro-Ame ):;Wj~~ constrai ed o ~press i on to 3 i7e ~-: i :-: -:, i n: _, n _,, ~ , " ✓ - - d 1 -i ,, s - as a!'l • oetr:- i s a .d s 0ri a~, J. --- nr--1 ..... - - <.;:.. _ fSr' 'C,J ),..,I o .:e ri ::: rork in �""'1 .... -. ... ~!- 1 T_ti C" ..:_ c c r::::i . 1 -- ......, r..._ .,--, ,. - i ,- " ~-v, ~ t"l ~ ~:~.:~~p:~ ~;~l~i~e~-~~ ~<1qW; .. .J ._L,....., .... ...,,.. l.. Dandr i d::;o ' s poetr~r i s -"I _ , ... \ ~.. ,, '-- _,,. , , ~ ~~~c.K;i.,.~~\.,tL :e s _,. ..._, ~ '- !'ac i o. :1. .; ~ c o:--:,t '::i "': c t o :S i J 11 8-d ·; ~_:: : es: I •~ to ..) --.- c t 1_,e .; r :. if c "for sor.: t'-- t ::::. 11 J.?;)S:!:0:1t::r eD:~(}ttcred '•:r t he ab or ted Reconstructio n and contemporary vi olence a gai nst Blacks, h e asks: Or can it be you fear t he grave Enough to live and die a s lave ? "Zalka Peetruza II recalls McKay 's 11Earl e m Dancer II in that every part of t he woman is dancing "~ save her face." A native of n Cinci~\t,i, Dandridge suffered a stroke when he was O years i' old_, whi cb left bis le gs and right arm paralyzed. Thereafter writing most of b is poetr~r fro m h is bed, b e published The Poet a nd Other Poems (1 92 0 ) and Zalka Peetru za and Other Poems (192 8 ). Dandridge also wrote competent poetry in dialect and ¢ I ✓ 1 I U was a disciple of Dunbar.1/ Bohantn and McCall contributed poetry to various magazi nes . ✓ If • A teacher from Washlngton, D.C., Bohan~ did not publish a volume. Neither did NcCal 'ly wh o be came ~ beC.fAlJSe OP,an editor of the Independent aft e r PECOIIM'1g . blind typh oid. A Angel i na ~rimke pub lished a three-act play (Rachel) in 192~ but her poetry remains uncollected . Born in Boston , s h e was �educated in various schools ~ several states, and later taught English for many years at Dunbar High School in Washington, he1t Jfr-e~"-"'~~ D.C. More than slightly& 17 llag/\Gwendolyn Brooks,,r• L ■ nGadt ;• Ar poetry contains some of the most distilled language in modern i.<-iflt,,Ut,.trl,1 American literature. ,r»d?f · t , precise and poignant, she writes of love, seasons, darkness and high spirits during her maturing y ears ~ 11 eg , n the phrase "the)'ew Negro. Although she had ----- been publishing poetry in periodical~ her first big break came when she was included in Cullen's anthology \ Caroling Dusk (1927) . houJ~e/) Not until the sixtie./~would such lines as t h e following take on their full political /cultural significance: ,~1y , beautiful still fin ger, are y ou blac k ? And why are y ou pointing upwards? In 11 The Want of You/ eve n t he moon and clouds j oin i n "the crying want of you. S • 11 Long overdue is a detailed study of '¼,~e.Lt~O.. I 'It Grimke.4111 But she is included in the best anthologies of Afro: American poetry and literature. Critical comments on her work 3 2.. ( can be found in t he work of Kerlin, l_:( B~, who c~o.W1.c:mn3ec:J he.,,. wort.A~ ..., and Brown1 A"ir?ny and quiet despair "I. e.~cefon4L ~ AUs · 3 lent student i college and for sever~ years ,___ _ __, / i_ ' literary editor of the famous Crisis magaz n, Jesse F uset ~--- ~ also served as an interpreter for the Dtf ois-inspired Second Pan-African Congres ~ in London. A native of New Jersey , she attended Cornell (Phi Beta Kappa) and the University of Penn sylvania, and published four novels: There is Confusion (1924) , Plum Bun (1929), The Chinaberry Tree (1931) and Comedy , American �St ;:rle ( 1933). Her poetry appeared in numerous periodicals during the twenties and thirties. "Oriflamme, 11 Her skill is evident in her most fa mous poem. Inspired by a quotation from Sojourner Truth, the poem views the/ lack moth er "seared with slavery's mortal scars" but vows that her sons are , p Still visioning the stars! Black poets apparently spent time reflecting during t h e period l/a1~-r- - between the beginning of the century and the ARenaissance. So much of the poetry takes us into their private lives '-sometimes into racial tones and sometimes not. Some of J essie Fauset's verse, for example, mirrors h er knowledge of French (sh e tau 6ht the language and translated into English several West Indian French-speaking poets). This is seen i n t h e titles of some of ~e poems and in other places where she interpolates French words ~~he~poe.Ttiy l:S into t h e texts. Generally her tone is quiet A. neat and well written. Hawkins (a native of North Carolina) ,sraduated from olle ge in 1901 and worked for many years in t h e railway mail service. I n "Credo" h e announced : 4rl'rn:t I am an Iconoclast. With obvious irony, Hawki ns goe s on to claim h e is "an Anarch ist,n (see Brown) and "an Agnostic. 11 Additional irony and cynicism is seen in such poems as "A Spade Death of Justice." fs Just /. Spade" and "The In h is rus h of language and boldness of subject matter, Hawkins anticipates Tolson. His Ch ords and and Discords was published in 190~ and h is work appears in �-The Poetry of Black America (/t:3.off, 1973) and Kerlin's ~ anthologJj which includes critical notes. Brown also comments on Hawkins ( a "foreshadow II of new "Negro Poetry 11 ) . Harris, 1-Irs. Fleming, !{rs. Newsome, Roberts , ~ :i 'i # Jessye, Shackelford., Jamison., Wilson, Mrs . Johnson , Raza.1'; ter i A:ro , Burrell and Bailey were among oth er poets contributing to various periodicals of the day. Harris brough t out The Steel Makers and Other War Poems in pamphlet for m in 1918 . He served as e'ditor of t h e Richmond (Indiana) Blade and publish ed sh ortt stories in The Century. 11 Tbe Steel Makers 11 is emotionally and technically a kin to some of the work orfwhitman \ Walt Sandburg . Jand Ct.\-lL It praises t he steel2,w orkers M among wh om Harris himself numbered at one time . In another place, Harris asks the white man to accept him since , despite color and feature 1 differences, "'t Th e Negro's t h e same as the rest. Harris' work can be found in Kerlin's book.1/Yrrs. Fleming publish ed Clouds and Sunsh ine (1920) in Boston at t h e inceptio n of the /enaissance. Mrs. Newsome, wb o writes pr i marily for children, did not publish a volume of poems until 1940 (Gladiola Garden). 1 Among the "earliest Negr o.es to employ free verse with artistic effe ctiveness II were Raz af'ker i efo and Will Sextpn tw ..;~1#.o fq.)b,r o-.1,00.s "-Sexton contributed to various peri odicals, as did Razaf 1 e i efoJ whose work appeared in The Crusader and The Ne gro World. through the t heme of the day, Sexton announced : I am the New Negro. Carrying �Taken from "The New Negro" .- this line will be seen again in various places and temperaments> including •Tolson' s "Dark 11 Symphony. In "The Bomb Th rower II Sexton plays tbe role of "America's evil genius" and sardonically proposes a reversal of the ideals of J'emocracy. Razafkeriefo, born in Wash ington, D. C•.1 to A.fro-American and Hadagascaran parents, /only/_hag/ an elementary education. He asks, in "The Negro Church ," for "manly, thinking preachers" And not shouting money-makers, after declaring (in the ma nner of a Stokely Carmichael, Halcolm - X or Rapl Brown) t h at t he church has great "power." Preach ers, be warns, s h ould work to Tlf'i t t h e Negro" 1 For this world as well as h eaven. , i In addition to anger and impatience, t h is poet also expresses race pride and praises "The Negro Woman." If it were left up to him to pick a woman for "queen of the hall of fame ," h e would "select the wonderful Negro woman. 11 <fhurrell, wh o con~ tributed poetry to ma gazin~ , ech oes Razafkeriefo in "To/ Negro }ioth er. 11 In four e4. gb =e -linef stanzas (using iambic octa ~ meter) Burrell celebrates the mother. () ...xa ~ grace and fortituden of t h e )fiack Recalling that greatness of f lack h istory, he asks fu . ; ..Jt2J\"O ~&fth.. mother to V,~i \ :? f ) ~,;;t/ '1;;, ~ - 11 Create anew the captains or the past; (_I in your soul t he Ethiopian power, • • • The preceding two poems call to mind Hughes •s \"The Negro Mother," Watkins' - -- -- - 1 1Ebon 1"laid and Girl of Mine," Hrs. Joh nson's - - - - -- - - - - - 11 To My �11 ...._ Dodson 's "Blac k ?-Ioth er Pray inc , a nd oth er moving tributes to t h e Ai'r o-Ar.ie r i c an woman • <//,.1 il s on • s "S o01e{ Grandmother, 11 .._ b ody ' s Child" is not 1300d poetr-:ir 'but its subject is. :_e worked as a printer and t be atrica~ performer a nd serv ed ti me ~---- whe. tte in t~1e Hi s souri Stat e Penite ntia.r:r dna i.11 .._, 4/ . !ei!s .t,i.:., .e,._:: e pu t ) S?:-: a.c ~rnlford was a i.mti ~re togetbe1"' a s 111all b ook of l1is verses . ?h iladelph ia Art 1-l useum. Hi s bo ok ~-Iy Cou ntr:" and Ot,~er Poer.:s ~ was publish ed in Philadelph ia in 1913. Jamison publish ed ~foo-o Soldiers and Oth er Poems in South St . Josep~1 , :I5.ssouri , in 1918. Jamison writes ab out "Castles in t'be Air, nEopelessness II and 11 ~e Her:;r o Soldiers. 11 something of t':1e flavor of Dunbar's 11 11 l ove , T1--: e latter poe m ':1 a.s Colored S oldi ers" and salutes the bravery and coura 6 e o:f f lack troops wh ose grandly r ise. 11 These troops, ~ America instead of seeking 11 11 souls on points out, fou ght for veng~ de for t h eir wrons s." I\ A native of i•Iissouri, Bailey's only volume o:f poems @rhe Firstling) was released in 1914. r baseball L( vi a ..Q..h t lstian s ym )Olis m) ga~ "The Slump" ma kes a. analo g ous to t ._e hardships of / lac k life: J Well, we're all at t h e b at ~ and warns t h at the nball may b e h urled" as a plea. "Hr . Self n is at t he bat but 'f There's t h e Beggar and Gatei - nd a wh ispering voice from above call nstrike t h ree." 9v0....,.ftt!essye wrote moving poetry but is much b etter known �for h er work in developing and l eadi ng professio nal ch oruses. Born in Kans as, sh e r e ceived musical training at Wester n .. Uni versity in Kansas and Langston University in Oklah oma. - Hoving to New York City in t h e twenties , she c.onti nn1ee. wor k~ wit w/ I\ .....,,.,, fi gures -H-ke Will Harion Cook, J. Rosamond Johnso n, Hall Johnson and oth ers. In h er famous concer ts ar ound t h e world she bas used work from Por gy and Bess, Joh n Work 1 s compositions ~ a nd tha.t. of t h e men listed above . Her pub lish ed collections i nclude 1-~y Spirituals (1927), The Life of Christ in Negro §.giritu~l ~ (1931), Paradise Lost and Regained (Hilton•s work adapted tofo ac k songs, 1934), and The Chronicle of Job. (a fol::: dra:-:~a, 193 6 ). I '.'.'1porta:-it fo r t:~e sar.ie re aso :1s ::-ioted i q or discussio n of Alex Ro gers, .b<i.-VfJessy e successfully comi )''~ . ~~m bi ned t h e . poetic and t he musical lancuage (t:-i ouc;h t h ey are so s i milar to start with !). Her poem 11 The Sinr;er 11 recal l s t he ·work of Corroth ers, Dunbar; t:oh nson_j Jamesl , a nd numerous oth er poe ts wh o ha ve brid ged the gap between t h e two art f orms. One is rer.ii nded of Johnson' s "O Black and Unknown Bards 11 in i_'j:,.YJ:. Jessye' s statement t h at t he singer's "speech was bl unt and manner plain. 11 Like t he "unknown bards, song was "but t he essence of t he heart. 11 11 h is unlettered Her poems, published ' i n newspapers during t h e twenties, sh ow f li gh t h eartedness a_ V but _,, • sincerity and /\sense of convict ion . She writes about "spring " and t h e "Rosebud; ' and wh ile sh e i s not singularly distinguish ed as a poe t, li er l i fe's work is a n indispensable float in t h e grand parade of creat ivity i n �the arts. ~ iht In choral work, H!i.aa Je ■■ sto' is especially noted for her direction of the Original Dixie Jubilee Sineers, later named the Eva Jessye Ch oir. ,,------. hµ. of aHi: ■ ■ I 11 Pt 1 For a thoroueh discussion '&/,life and works ( along with th of h er co temporaries)) see Eileen Southern's The Husic of Black Americans. For poetr:" s_elcctio:1s , see Kerl n. !It During t h e period of t he ~Renaissance, poets such as Georgia Johnson, Jessie Fauset, Anne Spene r I Alice Dunbar = Nelson, Hill, McKay, Jame s Weldon Johnson, Dandridge and Cotter 1 (Who had achieved reco gnition before r- 1923), continued t heir output either t hrough magazines or book\ publication~ Much of this work is recorded in Johnson's The Book of American Negro Poetry (1922, 1931 ) 1' ~:3:::lin' s Ne gro Poets and Their Poems (1923, 1935) and Conter.iporary Poetry of t h e Ne gro (1921), a nd in ot:., er sue:."} co ...:l'i~a t:to ~s a n per ioc.i cals. A~~e Spencer was born in Wes t Vir ginia and studied at the Virginia Se minary in L:tnchbur gJ where s __ e h as spent most of her life. (she recently relocated in California~ fllttt ua, for a long tim~A\rt;arian at Dunbar Hi~h Sch ool in Lynchburg . This poet's work h ardly ever reflects racial or political con cern~ but s he is one of t h e most technically1sure of all J lack poets. She writes about women, love, carnivals and t he workings of the mi nd . In its brevity and conciseness, h er poetry anti cipates t he work of Gwendolyn Brooks and is loosely a kin to Angelina Grimkf 's (though vt h e latter's work is raciallyl flavored). Her poetry also bears some kinsh ip to t he 1I magist • sch ool of - ..,I �poet , writing in t h e early years of t he century. Elements of a.L>t1 t h is particular t echnique a nd style can~be see ~ in Hayd~n.. . ~ ~. ~~ 11 ( The Diver , n ulJigh t-Blooming Cereusf , and others:' . ,4 "At Th e Carnival 11 we s mell sausage and garl ic t h at i Sent unh oly incense skyward and are told (in an echo of t h e ronantics) t hat ~v 1-vhat ever is good is God. 11 Dunbar 11 laments "h ow poets sing and die! eulogized J lack poet in t h e same class and .K. ea t s. tt-e~mos t ~ ib!!EBapoasu l!S 11 al.Y w±i,h and places t he Ch atterton, Sh elley · · moving poem, i·t seems , is "Translation/ where in two lovers r.aver speak., I But each knew all t he other said. Calling :::ier t h e "most original of all Negro women poets," ft □ lllaa Brown advised, in 1937, t h at 'h er '1sensiti-re, and keenly d be "collected for a wider audience." ut ~s o , no one h ad undertaken Brown's su ggestion. Al\n-e Considering her span of ye ars, ..,_~ Spencer (somewh at like Hayden) has not been prolific. Her work can b e found in se veral antb ot logies and periodicals of t he twenties. Critical assess ments are given by Kerlin, Brown and Johnson. James Weldo n Johns on, we not ed earlier, published Fifty Years and Other Poems in 1917. ----7D: :: .JlJr 'r~ncluded dialect as well as conventiona~ itandard~English commemorati ve pieces. Not h i ghly original, the work was one more step in the long and fruitful development of perhaps t he most important f'igure in the h istory of f lack poetry . It seems Johnson was involved �in as many things as could have been hu;nanly possible. After ht\ VOl.vfn'lt.l\ f his 11 1 (\on Broadway (with ligh t operas), h e worked for t he re-election of Theodore Roosevelt, served as United States Consul (a reward for his political work) in Nicaragua and Venezuela, published (anonymously ) The Autobiography of / n Ex-Colored Man in 1912, wrote editorials (for more t h an QQ) secretar:r~general-L wor .dng i n that post for ~ \.:'.:j) N\ ye ars . A deeply psyc .olo 6 ical wor1: , Autobio 6 raphy dealt wi t 11 sue"": an explosive contemp orary topic J -the theme of passing- Lt hat Johns on /V\ -----= IV\ would not affix h is own name to it until it was reissued durin 6 the ;(enaissance (1927) with an introduction by Carl Van Vechten. The conventional poetry of Fifty Years shows Johnson to be politically at the t hresl"' hold of t h e "awakening." ¥: Sri ti; V Brown stated, incorrectly, that Johnson's "Brothers" was t he most "vigorous poem. of protest fro m an~r Negro poet up to h is time." We know that Whitfield , Whitman , D ois, Hawkins and others were just as strong and forceful. Fifty Years was highl:r praised by Braithwaite ("intellectual substance") , Bra er Mf.thews ,'~h ould be grouped with t he noblest American commemo l (i\ ~ t\ ~ ( rative poem~), and other influential critics. This first book ti. strength, ~ irility M and robustness t hat would mark '-- Johnson's future writings /V\especially God's Trombones (1927). The poems are patriotic {"Fif'ty Years/ which commemorates the fiftieth anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation), nos talgic { 11 0 Southland!"), descriptively amorous ("The Glory of , ' ~ or"), the Day ~ as in Her Face"), strong and v~rile ("The Young Wa~ �.-I/"' / ~ - -::J race-proud (angry) and didactic (~ rothers ")) and fundamental .s and reli gious ( 11 0 Blac k and Unknown Bard/ '). The last poem, more i mportant for what it records t b a ~h ow it is assembled, ~ /\ is an artistic tribute e:f t h e makers of t he / piri tuals. Using actual words and names from .fpirituals, Johnson weaves in t h e strength and artistry characteristic of the~ songs h e loved '4 and to which he devoted so much research and listenine time. Oreat aJ:, he says, is produced b y These simple ch ildren of t h e sun and soi l . Johnson knew, too, t h at these makers would not e O b lack s i ave singers, gone, for~ot, unfamed , if work of t he sort h e was doing continued in t h e '!J ands of those t o wh om he pas s ed t!1e torch . Alt _ ou,)'} Fift:r Years is stron0 , solid work , it is l at er t hat Jo!1n:::on ~ cones .!1to :1j_s own as experi~1entalis t and pac e s et ter. Ge or 6 ia Joh nno!i al s o ,;rote race-c o:1s c ious 17-rics . $; ~ t\ ....___..... e.r ii? t!1 ,3mes ay,e s« c,:;csted in h er ti tle s: . . . The _:eart of I q,-i) Woman (1918 ), Bro nze (1922) and An Autumn Love C:rcl~ "Skillf ul and fl'::)t," her poetry deals primarily 11ith loneliness, sorrow, seasons-" unre quited loveJ and is intellectuall.,,rt b ased. T:'1e first . w}~ gnition as a r i lack woman after Frances Earper to ach ievekreco poet, she is explicitly racial in Bronze alth ough allusio ns to 1 Sh~ J'lackness sometime:appear in h er other work. Yet~ seems to know something about the heart of all women (and men) when she says the singer's songs ~ 1 Are tones that repeat �Th e cry of t he heart 0 Till it ceases to beat. 0 "The Oct~roon II deals with a woman who is tainted b ecause she is t he victim of One drop of midnight in the dawn of life's pulsating stream but who finds h ospitality in the )!lack community . His Critics/ 11 humble fold"- Lpresuma.bl y t h e Tb is poem recalls Cott ~ The Mu la tto to / f Sr, '.s i' wh ich depicts t he multit racial predicame nt of one {probably Cotter h i mself) made up Of Red Han, Black Man., Briton, Celt , D and Scot, but wh o loves t h e dark-s kinned, . curly;:::haired race t hat "puts s weet music in my Qi eot'J t lJ,.. SOU~ - ~ tension in "To My Son,!" •xj~h~ p s a similar .-.zbc~ ~ b etween advising her son t h at ._. "dusky pall or shadows screen t h e h i ghway of '-- sky" and encouraging him to "storm t h e sullen fortress II founded on racism. In addition to writing such powerful and lasting jl.,"!l!:(h " ~ rJi••••• was of service to young writers for several Poetr-."1 , ~r-~4i.ra......i.e,■ decades. A female counterf part to Langston Hu ghes, s he h osted regular and spontaneous writers' meetings in her h ome in Washington, D.C • ., wh ere she moved after receiving academic and musical training at Atlanta University and Oberlin College . A native of Georgia, she was employed in government service most of h er adult life. For critically introduced selections of her work, see Barksdale and Kinnamon, Johnso ~ and Kerlin. Brown also supplies a good �asse s s me nt . We s h ould note, i n pas s i ng a nd by way of introduc tion to Fenton Johnson, I-I . Binga Dis mond (1 891~19.56)1 wh o did not publish a v olume of poetry until 1 943 (We Wb o Woul d Di e ). Di smond , like Johnson and Frank :-:ars!la ll Davis1 was one of t he ma ny writers of t ~ e period wh o -1as not p:~y si c ally prese nt i n Harlem duri ng t .1e fa naissan c e . a nd , a trac k s t a r Dismond was b orn in 1 i r g i nia (as was Frank Horne ); studied pb ysical t: .era;-:r a t Rush r:e d ic al College after attending Eoward Uni v ersi t:• Acader.iy and t l-:e Uni ve rs i t:r of Ch i c a g o_. c ipation in t .e/ n•1" (T~e Hidwest ' s pal't · qtvt~ o..oect..tHJ..~~ enaissance r>. a.s"-b ee'fl~rpm f.J 1; · r11 1 ½M~ml 6$1 i'L ) Dis mond, ·t-rb o Hrote so., e crisp and po i [;:.1ar:~ poetr:- of lo·.-e a nd protest, is more i r.1portant t o us dt rin.::; t :~i s period for _1is journali sti c ~-1 or {. :'Ti t:1 Jo~._son , :1e edited The c _. a ::7ipio n (starting i n 1916) for se veral ~e ars. ::a0 azi::e They The Fav orite :ia 0 a z i ne ( nTl1e World ' s Greatest :-=ont .. l:r 11 ) w:i'eG~ 1 tkt.•·-- t'Fu _ 7 1 iii& published Apoems and art ic _es . Johnson h ad se ve ral of h i s plays perfor r.i.ed in Ca. icag o ' s Pekin The a tre ~-rhen !1e u as ni neteen a nd is genera_ -:r seen as 0¥1t t he raost creativ e link~ , etwe en t:1e poets of Dun'!;ar ' s era awd I th H l n a:i.· s s ~~ a nc e . B or ·n i_n C. i- c a g o ~ ., 1:.,. •\. J1 r-., eco no ..-t~c a.:.. ~ r ' : /'} e atte nded t ."e cit~-rf s r).a '.'!e s a k e : l i·,rersit:r and tau gh t scho ol for a year in t 'b e So 1t~1 . ~~e priva tely pub l i shed t h r ee vo l u~IBS of p oetry , one (A Litt le Dr eami .G, 191?) in C'h ic ago, and two ( Visi o ns of t i e Dusk, 191.5; and S on~s of the Soi l , 1916) in !.ei·1 Yorl5 w:1ere _ e l ived f or a s h ort time. iarr iet 1-Ionro0 and t "The !Tew ;oetry 11 groupt b ad estah lis'!-:? ed oP' �Poetr:r (1912) L 1 :: is l: o,;1e tow n, n :1d Jo .nsor. i;iade co r.tac t w:.t'"' le er . I n 192 , i"'h !;-, "" P"'· lis'•cd Ta _cs of Darkest A:ccerica ~ A participant in t b e "poetr~ rev i val" i ~ ~~ort stories . A nerica, Joh nson :.-~ ad b is wor { a ccepted for Poetr:rt and t :1e an-t .. olo ,. . i es Ot:-iers (19_6, 1917, 1920) , T!: e :~ew Poetr:r a r. An Ant bo lo;:;:r of American Poetr:r: _ L:.rric A,. er ica, 1630Q1 93 . I ✓ and tl"'at F~,it say i n,:: 1/ oh nson was , 1 timat e l ~r t _e poet of "des·pair" :1e ~ was t:1e onl:' poet ri ti ng i n s ch ~ rnin ( as Br ow ~, Reddil~ G, Jo -,~s on , ~-ac;ner , a nd ot'~ers :::a-,-e done ), cri tic s l o~ J?resented~ t of t l': e 1,ia n . ~ a nd :J ~:1 ':mr.:; ; !!e did orrow fro l"!l :~nsters, Li 1dsa7 t:::!.3 allm-red ~ir: to v oic e so:::1et}-:ii::c relat i v el:- ., e•,ri n / °"ac ., poe tr:• .r'- Ee\~ro·; i ditg an a·:e nue h,(experi. eni;t e<c:h«nge. bfA~1 tf:'j1a c :~\~do~r[~porar i es . But in p oe ms such as "Tired , n "Th e Ba nj o Play er, 11 11 Tbe Scarlet Woman" and "Rulers II b e displays mu ch more t h a n "despair . " Reflecting , a.s Brown noted, t h e "two extremes of Ne gr o poetry after 1914," Johnson can deal with eith er t h e )rawling urban blues or t he down- h ome , "we s h all ov erco~ ' motifs. Because h is work d oe s not co ntain a co nsistent sp irit of h ope, 8r sj-a..-.t,g .;::::::___,... Weldon Joh nson s aid 'h is riessage mirrored ideas nforei r;n to any ph il os ophy of life t h e Negr o in America 'h ad e ver preac::1ed or pract i c ed . the 11 Johnson t hou gh t t is was 11 sta.rtlingtt de spit e 1 "'oirt~ about t h e same time as Fento n Johnson's wor k , of •f · Handy tbe b lues era-~ a nd t be work of W sometimes calle~ a civ ilizatio n "father. 11 ( 1.3 73,; 1958 ~ wh o is Fenton Johnson is "Tired II of ,_ , h as g i ven b i r.i 11 too many" ch ildren and �no ch ance for t h em to share i n t he American dream. Eo proposes to h is wife t h at t h ey Throw t b e ch ildre n i.1to t h e ri ver: and observes that ••• It is better tfdie t han it is to q grow up and f'ind out t h at you are / colored • .'l~ ~ Johnson writes about roustabouts, prostitutes, va ~ants, ~ aborers> eu~J IAu"i,u,11\tWtl \CIMJ/ ; · aai strong will) and is, as Jay Wr ~h- -~id~ of Henry Dumay poet of t h e dispossessed. (and it1211 11 11 t he He is also t h e poet of t he blues ...__, ' • 81col!l!wo1 'ui 1,ui!c@i bh&b HtLc 1.s!l:&63 JIG a fi68e!0..I ubi1g. 'Io In breaking away from traditiona:,.Pack poetic dictio n and form, Johnson not only received influence from t h e wh ite experimenters lr.M" of free versek he borrowed h eavily from t he b l ues and, at t h is leveli must share some of the accolades usually reserved almost solely for C: @?i.Hugh es. 0 It is now widely accepted that the b lues do not simpl:· preach resi gnation. To the contrary, t he blues, telling about heart ache and personal failures, carry h ope in the singing and the going on. Hargaret Wal :rer is only one of t he many poets whose work seems to reflect t h e influence of Johnson.A/Jo we really believe t hat Joh nson meant for t he ch ildren to be t hrown in the river f ,/n+ ore than we take the bl~es singer literally wh en he promises to "lay rrry h ead down on some railroad track 11 ? Johnson's "note of despair" is one mor-e 'brilliant ~Vlhl\Loqic.o..L ' distillation of the strange l)ill!J&&m1~if\web T.ua>_....~ ,aia'1 tu i!lii,i!liOP produced t he sorrow songs, the j pirituals, the ditties, jokes, r hymes and / �blues. At t h e t ime Joh nson wrote h is poetr~ Handy was com posing some of h is most famous blues songs ( 11 st. Louis Blues, "The :Memph is Blues, ff 'Yellow Dog Blues 11 ) and arrangi d ().// blues pieces Travel<;'· 1er, ~ 11 ..__.. ~ 11 aditional I I nTrain' s A-Comin," "Let Us Ch eer t h e Weary "Come on, Eph ," and "Juba." And in t h is list alone s locked partial answers to much of t h e work of several Afro-American writers: .._,Hughes, Walker, Tolson, Wrigh t, Brown, Jayne Cortez, Gil Scott-Heron and numberless oth ers. It is possib le t hat critics looking at Joh nson were ~ ,~re~ pared for b is irony and poetic assimilatio n of t hemes and ~ jfv,evious.Lv \ feelin gs Ptivhzi]F3IXJs~gloss~d over by Christianity and oth er anesth etics. I n nRulers~n Joh nson dis cusses a "monarch II on "Lombard Street i n Ph iladelph ia , " wh o "was seated on a t hrone of flo ur b ags . " Near t he "monarch II two y oung b oy s with guitars l play ed "ragtime t unes of t h e day . " Clearly t h is 11 :nonarch 11 (a p ac k ~l ab orer~ in reality) is being serenaded and saluted just as any oth er -ruler • would b e. -...,., -._,I of t h e b l ues ( "~a.gtime 11 ) . He presides as a prince Joh nson 's work is i n most anth ologies of Afro- American poetrY.';) and critical assess ments of h i m have already been noted. For more t h orough discussions of t he poetry-blues concep\ seE}.._ Steph en Henderson's_,U~n_,__,___-= ~.tl, "tt-t°til ~ t h e New Black Poet r y / .-,. i 1L i or;rapty ~A ];ftit,Zi ._ At t h e dawn of tbe .:. ar leci Renais s a nce, t here slimi'.;ol..: ., e of poetry eared a :~ Se amon Cotter, Jr . "'!!!!_'JJ~~~~~ pr ecoc i ous s on of the Cott er alre ady disc us s ed . ~ t be Young Cott er di ed a n earl:r de at!J wh i ch cut s~ ort t h e wor k of one of the �most promising fi gures in Af'ro-American poetry. Born in Kentucky and frail fro m childh ood like Dunb ar, Cotter :1ad to end his colle ge career at Fisk University wh en h e de v eloped tubercul4x3\• . An i nnovator, as was h is fat h er, Cotter s h ows a s h arp awareness ( in The BAnd of Gideon, 1918 ) of t h e pli ght of Blacks and an even sharper ability to express t h at pli g~ t along with oth er sentiments and feelings. He ech oes Much of ;(lack poetry's concerns in "And Wh t Sh all . I Sa_ ' ,~1ai n i'·1(s ic 11 }L::,i,... j ef.per-,rne,,13 anticipates \)lf!Y of' Hughes 's p,{ ~ .s tl · 2!•·/\in The Weary Blues, "Jazzonia, 11 and so on- Lwh en h e recalls t he "dusty earth -drum" M which hammers fallin g rain~ Now a whispered murmur, 0 Now a louder strain. Bearing t h e i mport of much of the "exotic II J la.c k literatur e of t h e renaissance, Cotter neverth eless sees in t h e b eat of· t h e (_!) ~-#"Irr---. ')r ,:,._,;i ~~or f~f S l e nder, silvery drumstic ks a rejuve nation of life as ordered b~r God, "th e Great l'Iu sicia.n. a/ -= ,-- \/ Cotter b e gan wri ti~ poems lih P e a tee 9',a g er. Eis tech nique, _ ~rrton ~ ~.,,,., ~oh nson ' s, combines t h e b est of tro.di tional Western / t>e,.wY' poetry with t l1 e neu wave of free v erse. ,) love, "Ue gro Soldiers , @ --r own illness. 11 His poe., s a.re ab out reli~ion, ..flackness, justice and h is "Is It Because I Am Bl ~ • seems to ha ve looki ng forward to a l 960~ een "soul II song of a sit:1ilar title wh erei n t 'te singer sa:rs (r; ~ Sometb inG is h olding me b ack! Lawd , is it ":-:iecause I' m Bl a c k ? I n ~ ~ooen Cott er asks wll:r wh ite s a.re so ar.1azed tl'., a t e ca. n 11 l!, kt. �"stand II in t~: :: ir i r:porta.nt :1e eti ncs, l ook tirnrn st r ai _:,__t in t>e fn.cc , a r:d 11 spea~c t !1c ir to :::.::,t:{'A:j Cott erR work app ears L1 '=''~0 3 ook: of Ame rican ~Ie.:;ro ?oe t r:; , 1Je~ro Caravan ., :1:erlin ' s study ( 1 The stamp of tbe African mind is upon" Cotter)., and T:~e Poetr:" of Black Americ a . Al t b oue;b Kerlin submits brief critical comr.ients., a study of t b is young poet's work is sorely needed. He[iert\ alsotseveral plays and unpublished sonnets. Ci)c PR01HETS : LThe Harlem Renaissance \ ._, if .... A wave of lon ging t hrough 1/ my b ody swept . ·. Claud e i1cKay c--- The Harlem Renaiss ance fsee s ection 'f of t b ls eh apter) ~ is normally seen as a dec ade-length (1920 1 ~ 30 ) of cultural and artistic activity in what James Weldon Joh nson cal_ed t h e Ne 2,- ro cultural capit~. There is h arriless dis agreement as to wb er. t _e~naissance actually b e gan and h ow long it l asted. 1935 . Some say it started in 1925 and ran until Others gi ve t be first time span_; mentio ned ab ove. Still others (includi ng Wa gner., Black Poets of t h e United States) (1 ~,.,, ~~ ~- ._, .,... •at v"' t '.,. . c "'t' er .;- od{/ ,_ e t Trcn .. v • . +-v 1d ~e +-Tro •,•or ln " - ,. •.7!)..,.,.,. . "'- .L. .., (,- c, 0 iJ, ... ,,.,39 ) • ~ ; ..._ _, ~ j oets of t h eAt naissance- ~which included dance, painting ., sculpture, mu sic, t heater, literature., science and sch olarsh ipMI knew and read ea.c:1 oth er's works. Ironically ., h owever., only one of t h e leadi n 0 fi gures is said to h ave ,..., been born in Uew York City: . . . . ,C ountee Cullen (1903/~46)1 and �he w0;s rai s ed in the "conservative at mos pher e of a Meth odist ~tlf-b· parsonage, 11 the adopted son of a mini s ter. Hugh es " (1902J '"' 67) s pent much of t h e decade of t h e twenti es traveling i so did Claude McKay (1890~194 8 ); who wandered over "Europe and /V J::'~~ouv North Africa" j in many instanctis t ""a lone; way fro m h ome. 11 Jean Toomer (1 894f 1967), disturbed and h aunted by h is com~ plex eth nic background, was a mysterious fi gure wh o died the same year as Hughes in the anonymity of a Quaker commune in Philadel phia (obscure after h aving years before). '- gi ven up writi ng several tio.n/2,, " Often called "minor" writers of t ':1e Ren ai s sance, neither sterling Brown (19 01was born in New York. I\ - ) nor Arna Bontemps (1 902N .., 73) And neith er publi sh ed books duri ng t h e twentie ~ but t h ey did have poems accepted by such ~agazines as The Crisis and Opportunity. EcKay , label ed t h e renai ssanc e ' s poe t of a ncer a nd: rebelli on , Kn•-' "h is famous sonnet l "If We Hust Diei" wh ich win~s is chiefly,for l 4 down (up?) to t h e following couplet: Like men we' l l face the murderous, 0 0 cowardly pack , Pressed to t h e wall , dying , but □ fi ghting back! wrote it in 1919 shortly after that took hundreds of/ lack lives. ' as the be ginning of the l!I )Ii! ------- Many critics use t he date j enaissance . But McKay had ma.de �his entry i nto t he Harl em world of letters two years earlier (1917) with t he publication of two poems ("Harlem Dance II and ~ - ~ "Invoc a tion 11 ) in Seven Arts Magazine. He came t o ~ in kl APvov~ 1912 fro m h is native Jamaica, where he~Amuch European lit erature and philosophy, to study agriculture. Enrolling first at Tuskegee and later at Kansas state College, he finally went on to Harle111; where he worked as a porter , waiter and restaurant pro~etor. Before leaving Jamaica, McKay had established bis reputation as a poet of dialect poetry with his Songs of Jala i ca (1912) and Constab Ballads (1912), the latter work reflecting b is onef time e mployment as a policema n on t he i sland . In New York , h e gained quic k entrance into literary and political circles, establish ing a life long friends h ip with Max East man (who wrote a biograph ical note for Selected Poems ) (1953 ~. McKay counted among b i s friends some of t h e f luential l iterary and political fi gures of t h e day: '-' Joh n Reed, Floyd Dell (The Masses), Waldo Frank, Frank Harris (Pears on ' s Ma gazine), =~ c 1 s Gar ve~ (Negro TTorld )i and others. Fiery and f orceful, McKay was t h e sub ject of much attention a nd di s cuss ion. Alth ough he ne ver joi ned t he Communist Party, h e ~.-w·'-,~" def e nded its s ta nd in most of t he publications/\he wrote~ .... nif Tle Mus t Di e II wa s r ead into t he Congressional Record as an example of / iack unr es t and resentment. In fur McKay l eft t e Uni t ed Stat es i n 1919 , re turned for a brief period the fol l owing year, and left agai n to travel all over Europe and North! Africa for 5 l ears. He r eturned to America in 1934 ® �7 remai~until h i s death in 1943. HcKay's other volumes of poetry include Spring in New Hampshire (192 0, with a preface by the famous crit i c I ~A. Rich ards ); Harlem Shadows ( 1922) and The Dialect Poetry of Claude McKay (1972). Son 9s of .Jamaica was reissued in 1969; and a new volume of prose and poetry (The Pas sio n of Claude McKay) was published in 1973 . published writings, 1912!t{ in Chicago_, where ~ It contains published a nd un ""' 48. NcKay died obscure and poor ._, had gone to teach in Cath olic/ ch ools. His life, like t h&t of so many f lac k artists (Dunbar, Charl ie 11 Yardbird" Parker, Sam Cooke, Leroy Carr, Bli nd Lemon .Jefferson ~ ?t) Ito t'li... o.d.,tfid.n was lived with consurrw-te speed, fea~~o.nd tragedy . Though he lashed out at whites, his closest friend s were white; while he wrote defiant, ' angry and militant verse, h e denied t hat it pt-ecl1c~mtt1-t-. was inspired by - - - - - BlackiA tradictions and enigmas in h is life. to unravel t hem here. There are other conf, But we make no attempt Key s to much of McKay 's complexity , however, can be gai ned by reading b is autob iography (A Long Way from Home, 1 .37 , lS'? ), .J i s ovels \ { Home to Harle m (1928 ), Banjo (1929) and Banana Bottom (1933 ~, and h is many articles and short stories ( Gingertown (1932 ~. He also wrote a study entitled Harlem: ._,Negro Metropolis (1940). for McKay's poet ry is bis Selected Poems . T:e ~e st source I n many ways it is ironic that McKay is called t h e poet of anger ( Nathan Huggins 1 Harlem Renaissance) calls him t he "black Prometheus! '~ since most of his poems deal with quiet �topics s uch as mothei l..o) nature, nos talgia, loneliness, mental reflection, reli gion, world travel, and descriptio ns of c ity life. Of~terally doze ns of poems he published, only ~b out ten can be called "angry . " . ,,\ Of course., there is often seeth ing unrest (ll/jmewl4 I/ And I am sharp as steel with discontentF=l.J in much of t h e poetry t hat is not overtly violent. true of everyday j l ac k lif e. Such is And in this sense most / lack Americans could b e labeled "militant" or "viole nt 11 J - harb or i ng , ('I\ as it were, polarizi ng tensions ( "Baptis m" ) t h at make one defy all : ov1 I will comel\bac k to y our world of tear s, A s t ro nger soul with in a fi ner fr ame. Though one of t h e gr e at es t inf lue nces on) lac k t h ough t and art of h is day , McKay per h a ps did not know t hat h is writ ings i ns pir ed various s pokes me n for Afr ican nationalism: sldar Sengb or , Ousmane Soce and Ai. ~ Le opold t clsair e. And he i s today . Ii 1IJ . seen as t he ma Jor link between t he~~ naissance a nd t h e mil i tant writ i ngs of t h e 1960 s. Just as h is dialect poems (such as "Two-an '-Six") h ad ch armed a nd entertained h is fellow Jama ica r.s, t he disciplined anger of h is popular American poe ms incited and ins pired Blac ks, and titillated and fascinated wh ites. For during t h is period, wh ites around t h e world were indicating a new i nterestl .._ in Blacks ; a nd Blac ks , inspired by t h e growing national i s t feelings in s ome Europe an countries, found ready fuel a nd propaga nda in t h eir brother s of col or returning h ome �from t h e war. Ye 1} for all the anger, Nc Kay never swerved fror.1 h is use With Cullen-Lt b ou e;h not so of conventional English verse. religiously~ he avoided experimentation. f\,' The fol k materials of American Blacks, t he examples of Fenton Johnson and oth ers MI none of these see ms to have h ad much influence on Hc Kay . But his English is desi g ned to cage fury and passion in "sonnet: tragedie ~ n as James Weldon Johnson called t h em. Ab ove al ~ h e is a poet of passion, distrust, anger and h atred. We ha ve seen some hatred before in. flack poetry (Du~ ois, Gwendolyn a.: Be nnett ) but not q u i t e ~ we s e e i t in Hc .KaJj wh om Wa gner ✓ says "is par excellence the poet of b ate. 11 Such f e el ing is i,ta,,tY/ ! (j., e.xpressed,(?oems ~ "The 1"Jni te City, 11 nHulatto , 11 no ne Year Wllc-s:::J::-._-_,°'} ter, ' - - - -- -- 11 1 i!}ork I Love to Sing," and is not always the b ater. 11 Polari ty. 11 But lfo Kay He examines bate in t h e r. ands of whites ~ or as a product of Wes tern sickne s s a nd decadence, vented albe it on t he Blacks. The nobility of the f lack sou'!. lb is to stand above t his emotio n and not"-be de stroyed by it. Other t hemes in t h e wor k of :Mc Kay are t _.e i mpor tance of t h e e arth (and t ~e c ou'ntr:rs ide), disillu sionment ( see Du:-:a.s) with cit:r lif e , r ace D!'i de (c e ebrations of / l ac 1r. v irtue9 I ~ ( "E-1r1 em Dancer 11 ~ ' ast s. nd p~ird ti v is n a nd r oma ntic tr eatnent of Africa , Harl e n as spiri tua.._is m and reli g i on . :·lb i e 1-lcKay was not a n ex perif mentalist, h e did make t he sonnet form . a Pan-African c ross road, and unnoticed modifications in IMl.t.t As t h e fir s t _Jlack poet to --~sustai ned -A43>-P-e~tF-e~ use of the sonnet as a p olitical/racial weapon, b e mus t be - - - - --- - - - - �s i ve n cr ed it ( i nste ad of be i ng d i sparaged - Lc. f . Hu;~i ns) fo r /V\ turni ng t h is "wh i t e f orm i nto a veh icle of protest, love and rac e pr i de . We ob served t h at Lucian B. Watki ns opened h is s onne t to "The New Negr o " with CE~' He t hi nks i n black . ------ But in no oth er quart er, before or since HcKay, does a j 1ack poe t persist-Li nf using blues a nd tragic iro ny •.A"with t h e sonnet. M ' ( V\ Gwendolyn _B roo rn wi ll lat er i nvent h er me morable 11 sonnet-b allad. 11 And Culle n 's s onnet s certa i nl y must be taken i nto account. :n cKay ., h owe ver, endur e s with an ir onic i nco nclusiv e ne ss t h at ver ge s on t he 11 despair •11 .critics s eem to se e in Fento n Johnson. F or HcKay t h e sonnet is a f orm of t b erapy/4- a l i owi ng h i m to loose controll ed anger. ( 11 Eis is the .anger of a nati v e Jamaic"an h ome b oy 11 ) ca.u_gh t u p in t h e strait f j acket of wh ite literary amenitie l . He wa n..ts to be freed.. poetry -principally t h e sonnet. This open-endedne ss c an be #\-) s een i n "The Negr o' s Tr a gedy , and "The Lynch i ng . " 11 A! d freedo m comes t hrough 11 The Negr o's Frie nd , 11 "In Bondage, " As . a correct a nd carefully nurtured darling ..., , a,.J,1,w&... of .Wes ter n poetry , t he sonne t h ad been , in t h e annals of English /\ · ).i~•n. (.;"j:') li t era1:ure ·tf o;-_ c e ntl}ri s wh en }1c~YA nsf1!9 it.' Contai ning ~ ~ ~~ 1',el ~ .,M\,,c,, \\k'fM~ ~chf..-s li ne s ( inA,1{ t e tH• s tan za ic patt~rn~ , it is desi gned to pose -===----, a prob le m, squirm in it for a wh ile, a nd close in a neat. answer ~ve.lly ~~y l, :.-(1.f. s . wbichl\b e g ins with line nine, ~ the sei tet . · Presto! Just like s olving a prob lem in math e matics t 3tluU\ r, s no 4t ~°"" ~ 11Solv i iNS .-.,.~ : t e so easy ng " the _. ~ 11 solve " a lynch i ng . But be pla ces it i n t h e most awesome, · �gruesome contexts by equating t b e lynch i ng t h e crucifixion of Christ (see Cullen's The Black Christ and "Colors"), and failing to resolve the white man's moral and religious crisis. The blue-eyed women come to view t he body, but sh ow no sorrow1 And little lads, lynch ers that were to be, Danced round the dreadful t h ing in fiendis h (_ P glee. s Clearly this is not how Petrarch, Shakespeare, Spentr, Milton, Wordsworth, Arnold or Sanwana would have wanted t he pr oblem "solved." There was no answer ~ except for Blacks) "fighting back " her e a nd th er e.J- so McKay modified t h e conce pt of t he sonnet in order to deal with a real "prob lem." '/Afost --aiD So critics of /lac k literature and culture ha ve discussed McKay's work. His Selected Poems is available and h e is now bei ng repres ~ e ve n in wh ite "pres ti ge" anth ologies ,. ') on,\ y~ roo15.,....- ~ Th e United Stat es in Literature an 1·icKa;r to date is 'by Jean Uagn er (Blac k Poets). Another recent study (which includes prose writi ngs) is Arthur P. Davis'' From t h e Dark Tower: _Afro-American Writers, 190 to 1960 (1974) . Also see appendixes to most anth ologies,·t'NJ bibliography section of t h is work, and especially t he listi ncs in Black Writers of America (Barksdale and Kinnamon). Unlike that of t he "pure~ loaded" 1:cKay , Jean Toomer' s body housed seven racial strains and he looked wh ite. Evidence to support the fact that Toomer rejected h is f lack blood and "passed II cannot be found in b is major wor k: ~Cane ( 1923). �' Tci· t ·•,:,r i· s i t ]• .,., .l4 ... V - _... fl l"'l' o .J..,,--- '-' n1u ··c.,. , · ;an :...J ....., 0 .l .L .J.. - - ' II wri .1...1..en 1.· n 1°36 L, L, L ;,· a •1d '- - sad 1 ~· - •.' overlooked, in ifu ich h e tries to unite t h e disparate eleme nts of t h e American personality into one person. Apparently unh appy in childhood, Toomer never knew h is fath e~ wh o abandoned t he boy's mothe~ shortly after he was b orn.I in Was h ington, D.C. Toomer's possible claim to name and money b ad been t hwarted earlier wh en his moth er, t h e daughter of P. -~ · Pinchback, an i mportant Louisiana Reconstruction politician, had to reduce h er s ocial statu,s and re locate in the upper-class of Wash i ngton. lac k area It was,'Ch ere t hat Toomer found spirit and robustness: _ 11more emotio n, more r hythm, more color, more (~~~~). gai etyi" AAi'ter attending local public sch ools (including Dunbar Hi ght h e enrolled in one colle ge a.f'ter anoth er, never becon ing a serious degree candidate. From t h is latter type of life, h e went t hrou gh a series of jo s, finally gettine . i nto serious writing and putting poems and stories i n s eve ral avant- earde little magazi ne s. Too!ner also fo;med close assoi ciations with Uew York i nte llectuals: ...Hart Crane, Wald o Frank (t o wh om h e dedic at ed a section of Cane ), Gorha m P. Hunson, Alfred Sti eglitz, Paul Ros e nfel d, Kennet~ Burke and others. Later, wh ile workine as super i nt endent (for four month s) of a s mall / l ac k s ch ool i n Spart a, Geor 6 ia, !~e gained much of t b e material for t h e first and t h ird sections of Cane. After pubi, lication of Cane, Toomer's life returned to "psych ological disarray " and h e tur ned to oth er sources i n search of a sel unify i ng meth odology . Wi t b oth er intellectuals/ associates, he �delved i nto t he ph ilosoph ies of F. Hattb ias Alexa nder, P·f • Ouspensky, and, most importantly, George J. Gurdjieff--w~ose ,r disciple be later became. Gurdjieff, a Russian, assimilated aspects of y oga, religious mysticism and Freud, to produce what he called Unitism. won over converts. Toomer later e~poused t h e t heory and For a short while be also lived in a heterosexual experimental commune . married two white women . In quic k successio ~ Toomer After h is second marriag~ in t he thirties, h e quipped: "I do not know wheth er colored blood .flows through my veins. rr Earlier, h owever, h e h ad noted i n a biographical sketc'h accompany ing work b e submitted to The Liberator , t:m:'t'I have lived equally among the two race croups . Now wh ite, now colored. From my own point of view I a~ naturally an American. I ha ve 0 strived for a spiritual fusion anal agous to the fact of racial intermingling. Wi t.1out denying a single element in me, with no desire to subdue one to t he other, I have sought to let them live in h armony. or three years, h owever, Within t h e last two my growing need for artistic expression has pulled me deeper and deeper into the Negro group . And as powers of receptivity increased, I found myself lovine it in a way that I could never love the other. Although James Weldon Johnson complained that Toomer refused �(alle gedly out of contempt for racial categorizing) to be included in the second edition of Tbe Book of American Negro Poetry , it was later brought out (conversation between Sterling Brown ar:rl Jean Wagner ) t h at ill1f eelings existed between the two men . At any rate, Toomer's poetry and prose appear in practically every subsequent anthology of Afro-American literat ture. ~R t ormo o£ /influence L Toomer exerted mor e )t h an any other ~naissance fi gur ~ on t h e lack intellectuals of the era other writer experimented with literature o qui te t he way b e did . PDr,~ro,~l ~ No depicted Blacks r It influence s eems to ha ve occurfd between h i m and Hart cr·a ne. And Robert Bone ( Ne gro Novel in a. , erica) places Cane on ~par with t h e writings of some of t h e best American contemporaries: Hemingway, Stein, Pound, Eliot • . . . 1,.,J,e.-. o.;,q,i-taltv pvbl;sl,e," Tb is is IJii4 surprising since Cane ..s old ~ than ~ copies. I ~ " '~ I '<.:.:/ As a wor k of art, h owever, it reflects oomer's efforts to ach ieve unity of b oth self and purpose. Called variously a novel, a collection of short stories/vignettes, a poetic drama, Cane defies labels. we In~ classroom~ ~ often refer to it as a Zlues l "lipic-Lconceptually"similar to the great nationalistic IV\ ~ sagas of t h e world: BeG,wulf, Siegfried, The Song of Roland, r~ r· haka, and others , ....:vwelded by / lack spirituality and t he -----,~L::;; Afro-American ritual. Cane has three basi c movements .1. N\ Toomer h ad b een interested in bot h music compos ition and painting- l wbich involve (1) Georgia and t he South, (2) Chicago, fl Washington, D.C. and t he North, and (3) Georgia agai ~ where �,w.t. In Toomer waxes autobiograph~. t h e first part of Ca.ne t t ere are numerous pictures of women, many of will be ripened "too soon." C)l-'A\ bttt7ffi--.JQLLUJ..a a_.v1 lHce Karintn a, In tbe second section, Toomer views northern urban decadence and corruption and t h eir i~i fluence on Blacks. rack In the third movement, a ne.1ve north ern educator goes Soutb (Georei a) to find b is African roots. He rather clumsily passes t _rough a series of rites duri ng which To~mer use.s &ll:1~1' s ymb olis m to h ei ghten t he man's tonPi1sto~ --......._ fear and,eo,1p1811 II l'i.....__ """""Nany of t h e stories are introduced by and interspersed with poetic sketch es. fi nal) section, "Kabnis~ The third , and i s s i milar t o a play . Karintha 's skin "is like dusk on t h e eastern" h ori z on; and immediately, at t h e opening of Cane, we find si,snificant symbols in the words "duskn and "eastern. 11 T°'.".1rou r;h:)ut t h e ~ book, Toomer Assays t h e plight and joys of Blacks t _rougb t i ~ and sometimes enigmatic poetr:r. Word meanings a.re gi ven double , triple, and even more levels, as in t h e "Reapers" s h arpening t heir scythe s for far m chores out also, perh ap s , for a massacre. Black b eauty is someti mes surprising in t ~e cont ext of wb i te barrenness and brutali t :{ {11 :;o~,ember Cotto n Flower1,r0 0 "Face n is an old, tired_/lack woman in Geor 3ia. "Cotton Song" celebrates t 'h e workson g , un ity a n ong field workers, and encodes revolutionary messazes: nwe aint U, LJ Day! a gi..rine t wait until t h Jud gnent n The nBecb i ve II is a ri:ctap .. or for t h e .zbetto, cor:pr 0ss ed , doned off, L~1poveris1°cd . cfrl, The narrator wis1~es 'he could rest �"Con7ersion 11 and Homan's li ps, needles. 11 11 Portrait in Geor 0 ia , " t he e lectricit:r of a Ea.rves t Song , 11 and t he cane scents a.nd pine From t h e pen of t~~e poe t spill t h e li,,e s M :Jroke n, mended, sorr.e ~ / 1?esun/4 of t l10 se'rerely damaged men a ,1d 1-1 one n w! o , 11.with ve sti ges of pomp ," carr y t ?:e ir ,f; Race memories of king and car avan \ and g o singi ng t h rou 6 h t b e "Georgia Dus«.." Ori Ginal, awesome a nd s us ta ined in craft s.-:1anship , Ca ne as p oetry is a classic of A.fro-A~erican literature. In the most i mportant poe m in t he . ook , "Sor.ar r t b e Son," Toomer encases 'b ot:: b is superior t e ch niques and t l1e conc e pt for Cane. ':!:1~ e s o:~ si:-1:s: ,· · Pour O p our t h at parting s oul i n song , b ecause h e knows t h e tradition is in" tact. '-' Just "pour II t h e song, b e as ks , p And let t h e v alley carr~.r it along . And let the valley carry it along . The songs of "slavery" will be transformed i nto ~ t dir ges, composi tions and epics (lik Cane ). And Toomer's was a fitti ng a-, observation i n t __e years trreceding t he b irth of big b ands (Basie, followin g t h e b lues (Handy and The plaint -e soul will soon be g one, but it will leave 1) 1 An everlasting son, a singing tree •••• Likened by some to a series of artistic sketches, by others �to a symph onic composition, ~ ot:.ers to t h e syncopat i on and vocal blendings of Afro-American folk music, Cane i accord inr; to one critic J -was at least two decades ah ead of t he era in M which it was written. Less i mpressive as j lack material but bril l iant as a :----"\ general work of art is " ~ Blue :i: Ieridian . " 1 Heavily i nfluenced '---1 by the modernist sch ool of poetry (Pound, Crane, Eliot, etc.}, , hE•nt.t 1 "Meridian" was overlooked for years and is finallyl\.a'rlt h ologizei~ ~Black Writers of America:)~ ____________ of Upwards lines, the poe m makes use of various r hyme sch emes, stress formulas, linguistic and stylistic marriages . a lot to Walt Whitman in its sweep and intent. muted shades of Sandbur g . It owes And t here are "Heridian+ " seems to be Toomer' s near-final effort to PArsuade t h e different elements of h i mself to 11 live in harmony. 11 ~ Eliot b ad knelled the doo:n of Western civilization in 1922 (Tl~e Wast _and)> and other poets had echoed him. Fenton Johnson, of course, h ad preceded Eliot with t h is proclamation. in Cane -- Toomer had intimated t he same t h ing -- (6a,' 11Nove mber Cotton Flower"). But it is in 11Heridian" that he warns of t h e impending downf'all of t he West 4' noti ng t ~at such f'ate migh t not be undeserved. The world is full of "cry ing men and hard womenn and We ' re all niggers now~-get ~e? Black niggers , white niggers , MI take D your choice. These omens of doom come in the first section of the poem. �But t h e second section heralds t be coming of t he new man (for Toomer, perhaps , an admixture of races a nd colors )1 wh o is spiritually a nd psychically elevated above race and oth er immaterial pr oblems . Tbe new man is a "blue" man , possibly a cross between a j lack and a wh ite man, and even sexual crosses are sugges ted. For we know all t hes e things troubled Toomer. 11 He was concerned as a teen'a.s er about hi s ~ nascent sexuality . " t~~ And b e declared t hat he was above b oth sex and race if~tneym1!41N'T or obstacles ..-~defeat. It is a ch allenge to t h e ~ curious student, h owever, ____, to unravel t he life and works of one of t he most complex geniuses in American letters. lvbatever the outcome, Toomer's i s an ach iev~ k .b e reckoned , wt.l•r His work can be found / l •l"" in most anth ologies of Afro-American literature. lisb ed Essentials ~ 11 ~ ~;; He also pub.l, defi ni tions and aph orisms n_/ in 1931. Toomer wrote more things1 but most are uncollect ed and remain at Fisk University . An unpublished see;ment of h is autob iography, Earth - Being, a ppe ared in t he January Sc..-} olar . issue of Th e Black Wr1ile Hagner' s treat men~ o not equal h is discussion of oth er poets of t h e ~e naissance, it is good. /\ :; Brown, Redding , and numerous other critics discuss Toomer's work in various places. "Jean Toomer: Of special aid is John ~1. Reilly's An Annotated Ch ec klist of Critic is m, -.J for American Literary Study , ~ l. IV, no . Toomer listings in l (1974). ~ c i · ~ ~ane 11 Resources See also WT)ZtldDI El] r Countee Cullen, another bri lliantf tragic fi gure inf lack r7..-\ ~ �poetry , s pent most of h i s life t ry i nG t o bridge t he gap ~et we en a 11 Christ ian upbri nc;i ng 11 and a npa c:;a n ur s e . n .__.. How can t _e educat ed Afr o- Amer ic an , Cullen se ems t o as ~, re ~a in true t o h is nat ive inst i ncts a nd f eelings wh ile be w:e ars t he mantle of Eur opean ,:!ie s pe ct abili t y 11 ? Th i s particular aspec t of Cullen ' s lif e and wor k i s oft en taken too li sh tly by critics wh o view h is h i gh l y st_rli zed poet ry as i ntelle ct ual ( a 1d lJ enc e not real) journeys i nto t b e awesome worl d of deat h , rel i c ion and color . Yet Cul le r. knew , as he s a id i t i n nThe Shroud of Col or, 11 t bat bei ng/ lack in wh ite Amer i ca requires "courage more t _1an angels h ave. 11 History , of course, sh ows t b at so far Culle n ' s name ha s a/.),' witbstood h eat fro m t' _e furnace of !!Baptis m" just 1:-Hre r:w.ny oth ers before a nd after. And such fi gures as Gwe ndolyn Broo ks, Carl Va n Vech te n and Eleanor Roosevelt~\\uded h is passionately search i ng and s killful effort to a.void be in 6 dev oured b y t h e dragon of racisr.i h e tried to slay . However, Cullen did not consciously seek aft er t h e unity s o des perat el y t h i r sted af ter by Toomer. On t h e one ha nd, To omer f elt f ree t o ex pl or e all facets of t h e r eli gi ous a nd r.iys tical world; on t Je ot he½ h e was committed t o a n i ntellectual a nd spir i t ual search of ~1 is African ori gins . Cullen embraced Christia.nit~ and de veloped t h e first major ~ l a c k tra gedy fi gure b y r ei ncarnating C~rist into a j 'iac k man. / "onl_ :: egotten /_!~ff' The "pure II and no ~ Black becomes t he new Ni'li, on a several-;bundred~marcb up Cal vary . Here, of course, Culle~ was close to McKay ; but in sustaining such efforts, i n rr..a king t he m alle gor ical, h e surpas s ed McKay . Cullen's already complicated perso nal situationsllalS'lltitNl. ......_,,, �aggravated ":Jy b is reluctance to deal truthfully with t h e details of h is early life. It is still unclear as to wh ether he was born in Baltimore, NarylandJ or Louis ville, Kentucky, t h oug. h e makes references to both ( 11 Incident 11 and "The Ballad of~ Brown Girl 11 ); or if he was raised by h is moth er or h is grand mother (up until the time of his adoption by the Rev . Frederick Asbury Cullen). Johnson (The Book of American Ne gro Poetry ) says Cullen was born in New York City (as do t he editors of The Negro Caravan) 'M' probably because this is what Cullen wanted readers to think. Possibly, Wagner notes, he was an ~illegiti matet ch ild and, out of fear of embarrassment, purposely confused This mystery, coupled with Cullen'sfllP* awr;ti,vbl4d .,.t:, Pe ~ ------s exual"-1«: ll 1 tmk h is desire to assume the persona of an t he ~ . ~ ~ bs.rd English romantic poet, h auntK"bl f precocious ,..tAthrougb out h is l ii' e1iii.\ ,..,___ Cullen's initiation into poetics came, as wit. Dunbar and IIueb es, in h i gh sch oolJ where h e won poetr:r contests a.nd published pieces in a student publication w½<l i e~ b e helped edit • ......__,. By t he time he h ad finis . ed New York Uni versity (P_ i Beta Kappa. )1 be h ad won several awards (including t he Witter Bynner award for excelle nce) for h is poetry and received a contract from Harper'f-s .....__, and Broth ers for publication of b is first book (Color, 1925). This marked the first timet, since Dunbar's death that a major publisher had brought out the work of a j lack poet. It also marked the first time in almost @ yea.rs that such a book h ad been published for a live )Slack poet. @ The most skillful �f lack user of English verse forms, Cullen achieved almost instant success. Color sold over ~ two years of publication. copies during t l1e first AM h e rec,ei ved 'hi s TI. A. from Howard during t he same period. He generall:r sided with }IcKa.y in not breaking away from traditional Englisb poetry. e~pecially admired the poetr:r of Keats and Sh elley. 11 noting that He Jo nson, he .migh t b e called a younger brother of' Housman ," said some critics argued t h at Cullen was not an flautbentic Negro poet. fl And Cullen, reminiscent of Toomer's position, straddled t h e fence on t he question of inspiration and t hemes for/ lack poets. On one occasio~ he acknowled ged h is de bt to the J lack tradition~ but_; on a nother, complained t h at t he ~ ack poet ought to b e able to "chant fl poetry spiritual or blues appears. 11 11 in whi ch no His ~stb etics were stated more ew-( __ , I\ concisely in 1927, h owever, in t h e _ flex ll2 _f_ _ • 'l'or•rd to Carol ing Dus k (1927), comp iled. an anth ology of Afro-American poetry wnie,lii he _. His comment was startline , especially at t . e heish t ,, of· the Harlem Renaissance and comine , as it were, from a )(ew ,, Negr o: As heretical as it may sound, t here is t h e prot bability t hat -Iegro poets, dependent as t h ey a.re ~ on t he English lane;uage, may _, ave more to e;ain ( fro m t h e rich backe.;round- of English and American _::.. poetr~ t han fro m any nebulous atavistic year nin 6 s towards an Af'rican inh eritance. Cons equently, Cullen called Caroling Dus k an anth olozy of "verse �by Nego poets rather t h an an ant oloi:;y or iie ~ro verse." But Cullen could no t alwa~,rs subscribe to t h is particular~est!1 etic111 f'or mucb of' h i s ow n poetry can b e labeled towards a n African inh eritance. u a ta,:istic· ~rea.r nings Exami nation will s h ow t h at such poetry is found i::i h is earl y volume (Colo_ ) as well as in b is later irnrks: /ft, Q}_d Girl; Copper Sun (1927), T:.1e Ballad of t· .e ....,r own ~ Ballad Retold ( 1927), T!.1e Blac k C1"r ist and Other P oems (192 ), The '.fodea and Some Poems (1935) and J~ is selected On These I Stand (1947). poems children : l The Lost (1942). ZooJU-940) ~ :~ e~ also wrote b oo ks for and Hy Lives and How I Lost T. e. f He translated Greek literature ( Tbe Hedea), wrote numerous lyri cs for musi c and worked on a draliJ.B.ti c adaptation ( "Saint Louis Woman 11 ) or an Arna Bontemps novel: Sunday. God Sends In 1932, s eeking to renew h is •iminis . i ng creati ve powers, __ e publish ed bis only novel , One Way to He a ven. s~. Hos t of Cullen 's poetry represents t Le vast influence of C _ristiani ty. _ e wrestles with t e Lord or o.sks God w__ y this event or t h at event occurs. Especially is t __ is see n in . 1 co nf l.ic t ,t'~er-e ,1,Av;A the co ntrad.i ctio • ns of wh ite h i s poetr:r of racia 1 11 Chris tian ity are exposed ov er a nd over . For a Lady I Know" depicts a wb i te woman in h eav en wh o t h inks "black ch erubs 11 servants) will do h er 11 c elesti al c~ ores. Is vhrth Its Sonn.: " ch ides "An erican poet 11 nscotts"b oro, +" ( or too, outrag ed by t h e pli ,gh t f of Sacco a nd Vanzetti ! for not defending / lack b oys -- e. t kangaroo d for "rape II in an Alabama / ourt. ThJdu cause, Cullen • says , is also "dt vinely spun . 11 In 11 Colors 11 t h e "swart" (i.e., �~ lack) man is .. anged on a 11 newer Calvary. 11 Cullen's onge st poem and treatment of this t he me is The Black Christ (pu~)lis'.: ed in France). It deals alle s orically with a lynch ing . A j 1ack man, Jim, attac ks and kills a white ma n wh o insults a wb ite woman. Jim is lynched, as southern law requires. His statel, ments leading up to t he lynch ing, and t he actio n oft e poem, suggest the crucifixion. Redding called t h e poem "foe ch ildis.1 mysticism of a bad dream." 84 !"tide ~ despite t h e poem's evasi vei ness and "mysticis m,i: lync ing is much worse t b an a 11 oe.d dream." Finally (th ough t h e the me continues in countless ot er poems), there is t h e famous ''Yet Do I Harvel. -11 Here Culle n applies t h e sonnet to the riddle of t h e Afro-American poet, concludi ng, after high praise of God; i,h ab ~ P C Yet do I marvel at t h is curious t h ing~: To make a poet b lac1;,\and bid h im sing! Curious, indeed, was t h e/ lack poet i curious ~oth for Cullen and t h e whites wh o lavish ed praise and gifts upon t li ese ·;ew and Unusual Negr oes. was also "curious. 11 And Cullen ' s fame (recallinr; Dun ar's) Here was a poet making waves with old, outdated forms of English verse. "fresh beauty. 11 Johnson said be 6 ave t h em This _is true.J but Cullen's wh ite audience seems to h ave gotten special pleasureSout of b is ability to h andle J'lack anger, Jlack grief and }§lack pathos in such a.musingly antiquated poetic cloth ing . Prevalent t h emes in Cullen's poetry, then, are race pride, endurance, lynch ings , cynicism and pessimi sm ("can deat!"} b e worse?"), �a primitive or romantic view of Africa ("Heritage" and ma ny others), religious and psych olo 6 ical conf lict , love a.nd death , spiritual freedom, personal or racia.l inferiority, doubt and fear, t he tensions created by b eing...)3lack a mong whi tes, and Christ as a sy 'bol of conflict and co ntradi ction. Cullen saw the plight of the Afro-Americans as true tra gedy in a Christi an land. This comes t hrough in ma ny of b is poems, but poi gnantly in 11Heri tage n: Fath er, Son, and Holy -Ghost, So I make an idle boast; Jesus of t he twice-turned cheek, Lamb of God, alth ough I speak With rrry mouth t hus, in rrry heart Do I play a double part. For t h e/ lac k American, trapped in Christian attire but lo nging deep inside for what Zack Gilbert calls "t 1-:at all-Black Saturday night,n it is indeed a tragedy. Cullen tried all __,. ~ i s life to reconcile a 1~hristian 11 education wit 1 a npagan ur ge.n Toomer wanted to "unite 11 __ is several parts. And IIcKay tried to find a nh ome n in t he desolate and sometimes conteri.ptuous place Elijah Huba.mma.d calls "th e wilderness of Horth America." HcKay went all t he way to Europe and }fort 1 Africa. made annual treks to France for several years . Cullen Blac k literature abound s with t h e tragedies · incurred WJ en j'lac k i ntellectuals relinquish t h eir "dance n for a "b ook. n Earlier in ''Heritage/ Cullen admits t h is deep need, felt by B acks can~h t i n wh ite �worlds everywh ere , to "Strip!" a nd . Doff this new exltberanc e . C_r fo Kay 's 11 ~ Come a nd do the Lover ts dance! 1~rnch ins '' remains unsolve d b:r t l1e sonnc t and Cullen 1 ,, w ~ is unab le to n a ke h is "h eart a nd h ead re know t' ,at ze d1 b eat 11 of h is i mpressiTe iar1b ic tetrat-, despite t he meters. . V lJ.. . ., i Cl II A c lass ic statement on th e inner , wor kings of th e mi nd of a f l ac k genius wb o must world. 11 twist and squirm" i n an alien "Heritage tt h as yet to b e seen on t h e many psycb oloGical • • O.-t wht~ h. -'"' AA ~'-w•omc.u,-rt",'t.'' ~~t.urtioti inio A~\~-.1 dimensions ~1.\1. t operates J t l 11 i T {s AL~ 0,dQvisiafiir19 ~ vrg•CQ1. - E-"-pLo ... t>-11\!Y\ 0~ T~,..,oht-t ?S vent• This and related t h e mes also perv ade oth er poe::-:1s :r Culle n . .-,llOo,,Q" ,+ 11 From t h e Dark Tower 11 is inspired by l: is column of a similar name in Opp ortunity . Alth ou 6~ not made e ternally to ·weep, 11 11 lac k artists and t ~ inkers were t l:e:r must ei t :Jer face destruction of t h eir pote ntial or wear t h e mask and "te nd our a g onizing seeds. 11 Cullen also writes a b out ti mid lo vers and .J3'l ack proi stitutes, a bout nany 11 many nbrown 11 c;irls (anoth er fa v orite t heme ) and t h e ach e of t e .auma n h eart. :Ie writes in t e e s h adow of Ke ats and Shelle:r and pens epitaph s to t b e m. His of tradi tional Engli s h verse for ms is not as a s HcKa y ts. But 1e does 1.:)ri ng a } lac k force and tellectual veracity to t h ese devices and tech niques wh ich h ad long h oused "w _, i te" h opes and feelin gs. He too x: t h e best of Keats and Edna St. Vincent i,Ii llay a nd ma.de i t wor d an ODwii~L~ b.'-il•"' : ; ;~ ~ tech nical"{ I ;;i:Ql(:J @ _.ti& Brown identifies '> is "gifts" �as 11 f'luenc:,r and brilliant i magery. 11 But h e is likened by many critics to t h e standard~English work of' Braithwaite and Dunbar . Cullen consciously developed misery~ apparently in an ef'f'ort to 11 suff er II like t h e romantics, so he could know wh at real innerf strife was all ab out. He had not seen the underside of ,)3lack life in t h e way t h at McKay (Banjo, Banana Bottom), Hughes (The Weary Blues) , Fenton Joh nson, and oth ers had come to know and understand it. into a pristine verse. or 11 He subdued h is anger and viol ence Most critic\ allude to the woman4)- ikeJ pris s; " nature of Cullen's work. Redding complained t hat h e viewed "life t hrou gh the eyes of a woman wh o is at once shrinking and b old, sweet and bitter ." In Culle n 's natavistic 11 or "primitive" piece; one feels t hat he is not really t here CJ/.)/ bimself t, much H-ke one feels in reading wh ite poet Vach el Lindsay 's poems oq Af'ri ca and t h e 11 Cone;o. 11 But Cullen remains one of t h e e~l\!~~meteorites of J3lack poetry. His passion h as yet to be surpassed,i even among contemporary Afro-American poets . Th ough h e does not convince t b e reader t h at h e would actuall ip ! 11 and do t h e an intellectual fury Lover's dance! 11 •• e does distill chronicles t be death -during-life 1 vortex (Davis calls it 11 11 alien-and-e:x:ile 11 ) that so many Africans in America struggle against. Wagner's Black Poets contains t he most up : to ~ ate and incisive critical assess ment of Cullen. Seel ,also criticism by Redding , Brown, Johnson, Huggins (Harlem Renaissance) , Bontemps (including Harlem Renaissance Remembered) , t •. e listings in t be Cullen section of Black Wri ters �of Ameri ca a nd 1'\\<t w~r 011 a i' lio:3raph?t" Ii:an:,r of C 1lle:i ' s u npu½ lis:.: e works are depos ited in t ~e library at At_ a nta n i ~ersit~ . James 1foldon Jo 1nson, ·wlJ om we h ave cau se to r.1ent io n a cain, ranks today as one of the r.iost distinguis ::! ed men of_Jnac k US JU JC &... ! G&i~ ti£ DC& Amer ican letters ? , e _lb Jt.Ci tr _Ml bl J"gLt; . PD tPili -'7111 ?fl .Wtali1ctisrsf]ij§QDJfft] :s ililll [teArts•jg "- Autcb iograpby was re issued in 1°2 7 :,w\, t.WYl, c ontinued to I D a.-• rarl i• t h e earli e r pse ' donym carr,r1 Johnson ' s~na ;.1eJ drop pe~ e2 ~ Duri <Z the t we nt ie~ Jo'hr..so , een so c ial o':) s ervations of ,.z(lacl A.. erica wit'!:: oetic de v elo me nt a nd output. Ji" Sdlbb!S _ ? Th e Boo k of Ar:aeri can Le gro P oetr:T ( l 922, l / 3 - ) ias one of t b e ._ i g:1 poi nts of ~ ~enai ss a n ce. I mp ortant for r.1ore t . a n j ust t . e poets inc luded , t . e ant .. oloCY represe n ted t:1e first sustained effort 11 t ii£!2.!? t .. _3 of a lac k cr itic to ide tif:r 1Tegro 1 elements i n poetr:" •ritten si nce Dun , ar. 10 i fir st ant. oloc:r of t'he ~ 1 fr -A:-1er can poetr:1" to ce r~.tur:r a nd t .e first e v er to 1Je p It ·was a_so e 1'~ _is " ed lis ._ ed in I:n:::;lis•-- One can safel:r s a:r t:1a t any seriou s st, d:" of .,l-flac1 critic ism 1as to ~:i e:::;i :: i:-rit~~ Ja ..1es Ueldon ,S say Lis s · L,itle (1-itr on the lle re Is Creative Genius )~ uc:;, s ted the _, di me nsions of' t e o._ nson . 01'::nson ' s co ncern in the a.nt~olo;::;:r . ari ous Llfluences on t e t :::e r.re ; ~e .t · f-!. oets, noted dist ;1 ctior..s ·~etwee, _ .@ �rootr :r . Di ~c 3 po ts : Wh at t ':1 e colored poet i n t je United States needs to do is sometb i n; li ke what Synge did for t t e . Irish ; t e needs to fi nd a form t h at will express {j) t h e racial spirit by sym ols from wi t .. i n rath er t . an b y s~n~ ols fro m wit. out, s uch as t ~ e :IBre r.mtil a.ti on of Ens l is h s pc lli nc a nd promm ci~ at i on . !:e :-icec.s a f or :1 t.. at is ::.'r3er a nd larcer t~ a n d alc c t , b ut u ~ icb wi l l sti l~ ~ old t ~ e r acial f l e vor ; a for ~ ex pressi n3 t ~e i c a c er~ , t h e i d ions , t h e pe e liar t ur ns of t :.: ou 6l'1 t, a r;.d tl1 e d isti ncti~.9"e l1ur.1or and patl1os , too , of t :~e a ., so '"'c· c r-i a'~., c o-" •· oi· c1.· .L~,., .:;,,.. - c_ L_, - ~ ,i t .. e d ee pe s t a nd ., i sl. e s t emotions a nd as;;,ir atio ns , and al lou t ~e 1ide st range of s •½j ect s and t ~ e w d e s t 3 cope of tr e atment. It was a gi g a ntic c:-i allenc e . it? Eas any s ucceeded? W Q Did a ny / lac k p oet rise to meet ~ 4..ll!-" Witb _ is broth er, J. Ro:Jamond, Jo .nson also co$ dited The Book of American r e:;;;ro Spirituals (1925) a nd Th e Second Boo K: Bot': cal arran(se ments b :r J. Rosarrtjqd . ~olu mes carried mu s i i Jo.in.so n htns g tried to meet �~~~allenge with God 's Tro m½ones: Seven :i.Ter:ro Sermons in ,,rcrse '-" 1 } lack preac~;er s • (1927), a rendering of t b e works of the ._.1 old ~time __, His pamph let 1927. Native African Races and Culture was pu½lis!·~ ed in A study of Harlem, Black :1antattan, came out in His auto io t rap.1y+ Alon6 T~1is Ha:•J app e ar ed i n 1933. A:1<3. a. social/political commentary, Negr o Amer icans, Wbat Now? publish ed t h e same year . 1930 . l ms His selected poems (St . Peter Relates an Incident of t .e Resur re ctio n Da:r ) can e ot:t i n 1,3 . Jo'~nson hfd 0- esta lished i mself a s ~ rol ific and exe r.1plar~ r:1.a ?:1 , a co:;:~-- i ~ nation of formidable talents, b:r t he ti:ne 'h e was ki lled i n a.n automobile accident in 193 8 . Aside from t h eir literary and soc ial value, t b e sermons in God's Trombones 1a ve , in t h e years since t h ir pu lication, 0 brought deligh t and instruc tion to many ~ ~ r i o u s6 '::',"J:;f,r ,,. ..._ which t h ey h ave been presented. t-e1d s¼,13 " ~or oth erwise dramatically I ~ ~ m classes.J we assi 0 n a sermon per ~stude nt and , allowing days for research and preparation, stag e t e works for a larger.J campus · or comrnun i t ~ audience. Just . ow muc~ of b is own ch alleng e (see a b ove ) was atte mpted i n God's Trom one s ~ ~-,A lie►«= is indicated by Johns on's Preface1 la I ,'h e b riefly r.-ives the history of_)3iack preacher s and explains w~y h e ch ose t h e trombone as t he central symbol in t h e work: / He ( the preacher] strode t h e pulpit up and down I in what was actually a very r hyt hmic dance, and h e b roug:1t into play the full gamut of .. is wo r l ( I der.ful v oice, a voi ce 'Mwh at shall I sa"t1'?--not .J of an organ or a trumpet , M Jut rath er of a - �tromb one, t h e ins trument possessing ab ove all oth ers t h e power to express t h e wide and varied range of emotio ns e nco~passed by t h e human voice J /V\ and with gr eater amplitude. _Ie intoned, b e moan ed, h e pleaded- Lh e blared, h e erased, h e t h undered. ,-'\ I sat fascinated; and more, I was, perh aps against will, deeply moved; t h e emotional effect upon rrry me was irresistible. /}, Th is s cene occured at a church Johnson atte nded in Kansas City. /\ \~1ile t he preacher was s trutting and deli vering, Johnson recalled t hat h e f jotted f down note s for "Th e C eation. '--' 11 God's Trombones -..; c ontai;:1::i seve r. ser .. ons a:1d one pra:-er$'\ "Listen, Lord. s er mons , each ta ken fro m a text in t he Bible, i nclude Cr eation, 11 11 "The Prodi gal So n, foah Built the Ar k, 11 and nThe Judgr.ient Day . 11 11 T.. e 11 Tbe Go Down Death 7r- / Fu neral Sermon," "The Crucifixio n, 11 11 11 "Let 17 People Go" Ilk Cor.ii ng as it did at t he h i gh point of t he Renaissance! ~ /\ 1927;;;- God ' s Tr omb ones was rath er odd in t a.t a less t h an osf' tensibl y r eli gi ous verse was be ing written by oth er poets. There were r eligi ous t hemes i n rnuc'l:l of t h e poetry - but none of t he poets di pped into t 1e same reservoir in t he same manner &,i as~Johns on. J o. nson was, h owever, able to fuse some of t h e jazz and blue s patterns of t . e day into h is work/4 t hough .aev pt ~ not t ha t noticea l e . The sermons are not in lack dialect) si nce Johnson said t hat t he Afro-A:-!erican poet must transcend t ha t for r.i. Tbe language is ,3e nerally t at of a ny w.1i te �American or Englishman. Wh at Joh nson does is instill racinl ◄ -~f:Jh ngJI' feeling and drar.iatic (ethni c) touch es taneity, btl@!! l • ~ repetitiont and forms. "~~IOOS l o;i;j ~,..free:: . verse erst Har garet Walker, ~B _, Bte:iw Hughes I Y,1"t-~r sponi eLemeJJ13 1 I and ~±1:::.S Brown ~ place~\all t h ese DM 1/\ in a more secu_ar contextl"'\ a.lth ou g~ Brown ....._ i nterpolatec!N I ~ A,. clamations I J I reli g ious expletives and ex-l, r~ ~ --/ . s-eme b is work. ~t e doub le nesa.ti~1e , 1a1.. ich cf 6're6.1"' Johnson makesNlse of, is not an exclusively/'3lack product. But we do find him interspersin 0 ~ lack sayings, usac es and ot :er idiomatic npices into t h e text;s\ of t h e sermons. It was the first time t h at a)t.l.ack poet b ad undertaken suc h a task solel~r for literary reasons. So t h is alone makes t h e wor k i mporta nt/4- not to mention its anth ropolOg ical and sociolog ical •alue.fT .e over riding achi e vement of t h e sermons is their e;rap., ic, full- low:1 images and t be ir inferential 11 lackeningn of God (see Cull en, 6 Toomer and others). ~ -:i.,,;i:b ~pe Th'5 analog:.r is more obvious i n "T':1 e Creation/ Go~ Li ke a ma mmy b ending OYer ~1 er ba by , Ct- Kneeled down in t .. e dust Toiling over a lump of clay Ti 11 ~e s:1aped it in &is own i ma gej It seems only natural t h at Jo!1 nso n would pay t h is tribu te to t .e )!lack mother;}- mostflack poets writing since, say, 1830, b ad done so. And b e 1ad earlier co mplained of Job n We sley Holloway 's "Black I-Iammies II in dialect, saying : for better poetry t h an t h is.Tl 11 Tbe b lack mammy is material From Johnson's nmilk-wh ite h orse, 11 ~ �t h rough phrases like long plunge, 11 11 0~ i-Ia.r y 's 3 a b:ri , 11 "sinners in t :1eir liead~ and "Blacker t han a hundred midni gh ts, of t h e drar:iatic / lack sermon can oe seen . 11 t h e power Th ere are t l~ reats - ~ and warnings, admhnishments and pleas , fire and brimstone, , V for ce and1 even wors ~ fury. , 11 The Prodig al Son II is warned: Young man ~ Young man-tYour arm's too s h ort to box with God. The incremental lines, t h e spontaneity , t he witty turns of phrases , t he colorful and sometimes 0 ombastic langu a c e-l all ('I\ g i ve God 's Tromb ones ~ auth entici t:r. Joh nson does use s :;m'::) ols t h at express fro m 11wi t h in] II rath er t 'han fro m "with outJ II t h e p,,(lack experience. For Aas b e noted in h is Preface,.; 11 The Negro today is, perhaps, t he mos t priest- g overned group i n the c·ountry. 11 The old.:: time preach en\knew the "secrets" of ancestral oral and ge s tural power, Joh ns on says; t h ey knew t h e 11 secret -._,.,of oratory, t h at at b ottom of it is a progression of r hyt hmic words.'- • 11 •• 3 J rf The preach ers h ad inh erited innate grandiloquence of t h eir old Africa n tongues. t he pulpit, t he minister fus ed t bese 11 11 -+~ ~ Once in tonGues 11 ~ : / iblical language) because this "gratified a h i gh ly developed sense of sound and rhythm in h imself a nd h is h earers. 11 These were the concepts and ideas under wh ich Joh nson labored in God's Trombones. Doubtlessl~, the volume is one of t he most precious in the annals of Afro-A merican writing . Th ere is hardly a person wh o cannot "feel II t h ese sermons -and yet t l1 eir power and t h eir intuitive {V\ �embracing of a world of emotions and temperaments ma ke t h e m la.sting as classical literature of wh atever defi n ition and ::m e . Johns on's Saint Peter, following a traditio n of Dunb ar's nThe Hau nte d Oak , 11 Hughe s !s "So ng for / Dar k Girl," ::cKa:rt s 11 Ti-~0 Lynch ing ," and Culle n ' s Tbe Blac :r Chri st a nd "Scottsb oro, Too , y Worth Its Song~" ," atte mpts t o place t u e dese cr ation o_0lack h u manity wi t h i n its proper co ntradictor:r c~~r istian co ntex t . In each of the poems , t:1e lyncl1i ng is co nn ected ~ to a 1~ i G~er order l - l s ually the C1-:r i st i an God . f"\ Usi ng a 11 -;,risio na ry t:rpe of ima.;ination , n Jos1::1sor.. applie s ~, ,. .:_ .~. :t. t \.. \. ~ '\. ... ..... \. ~~rn:!~-E~ \ i '%'o ld= tar '- parents to visit t}~eir sons ' gra ves, t .e ~Jar .i.,epart:-::ient p t s )flack mothe rs on a fou l , crowded boat (re ::1:t:1is ce nt of a sla ve s hip ) and u}']ite :-:1oth ers on a modern li ner. Johnson, in t½e poe ms , imae;;ines t h at t!1e Unknown S oldi er arri res i n 11eaven ,........, and is dis co vered to , e $lack . 1 arious patriotic a nd terr fo rist --- organiz ations (tt e ·a . A. R., t e D. A. R., the Le g io n , t h e . la n, and ot ers) want -:i i n 1.)ur i ed a gai n .~ 1 -------------- -~ For r.-:ore cri ti ci s : -,1 of Jo}m so n_, see Da·.·i s , 1.!acne r, SIJIIL. Bontemps (i ncludi ns note in A,;1erican Necro Poetr:~) , !3ro m, Redding , EugGi ns and ot 1ers. Lanc sto n ?: gbes ,;.ras at t~ e opposite e nd of tl-'! e poetic spectrum fro r.1 Cullen when :~e wr ot e, i n ": Iotber to So :; ," \ TTell , so n I'll tell ~ou: Life for ~e ai n 't been no crystal stair. For while bot!-1 men ach ie ved reco g nition a')ou t t h e sa:ue tL1e, �Eu[; •. e s 1-1as a f o l k tro 1:: ad or with l is fi n 6 er on t ,e " puls e of t h e pe o le . n !:e was also fr e e fro n t .-ie r e strai nts of co nt t a t d o~ i n at d v ntio na l ~ ncl i s~ v ers r a ctical l7 all of Cul l en r s poetrJ . orn i ::1 Jo pl i n , :: sso 1 ri , !! z; es b ad pt ""'~s e v e ral oa ks of poe try l s ._ e d ore t . a n v olumes of prose and plays, .. i s o ·m dram.as staged a_ l o · r t . e co n try, ,. y t , e t · of :.-: i s de at::~. Of t"!-}e qu art et of first-li n e Ear_em Re naist s anc e • o t s , !!u.::;:.: cs wo l d b e t h e o nly o ne to re ai n ac t i v e u . ti_ t h e lac !;: Art s :-_ovement of t _e 196 succ 1m1J ed to ~~i .:;.- -'rs. I-Tc:,.a::- a nd c, _le::1 lo d pr e ss re i :1 t!: e fort i e s1 a n d Too~er, as en r.:arr i ed to oue of t 1~ . l!'3 -, 1 ~; : r t C L-aurenc c , at er, t '~c fi :1i ~J'-: od :~ i ::;1 • s c oo:'.. a d 1-ro. s ele c te d class ,. ,~i · -1-- " d ~ -'L,-- a.i..V e <:! ~-· v V - -.... ave .;.. c..n oet. 0 8 ': ,e .d " n ,... Upo n . , 0 ....,t' 1 L .. of Cl OS s c,_, Cc.nar:- ! 'J la nc.s , t 1, e L zore s a nc tl• e :les t Goa.G t of Africa. Re ~ t ur n::. r..c f or a ~h i le to l;ew "York , ,' e left t·1e co ntr:r o r. .1 i8 @ birt~~c: a:r o. n uent to ?aris , a ,:;t'.i n worlci ns odd jobs, o n s �to Italy and Genoa, and afteI' a r..urao er of varie d exp er ie nces ( see Tbe Bi 0 Sea and I ~·onder as I Wa nder) , returned to. ::e r :ca. Ee then spent ti me in Washington, D. C. ~(i-i!.1ere 1-iis ;-- i_ ot:~er '·1 ad moved)/ workinG i n t 1a office of Dr . Carter G. Foodso n, editor o:f the Journal o:f l!ei:;ro History) and later, ~ If _. . . ass - ;p; S 1. · +.1.. 0 0 ·,:. ... u~ V l..i" I rr,I a. ... + V bu~ t .,., 1 ra-.-•d.,.., ~n u ,., .,., - u o.,_ ,., , ;_ .;, ,_; .. .. , .. t,...I,. .I,. - U..L .: ... -- t.J - - ..a At • y ( see -~ la+ter V ) I II .1 he had a c ance to s.i ow some of 11is poems to Vachel I ,, ..)+-" ,, Li ndsayM thus launching ~ s "career" t hr ough t h e newspapers . His · olun!es of poetry include Tli e ,.re ar:· 3_ u e s ( 'J/'2 6 , Negro ilfother and Other Dramatic Recitations (1931), Scotts1::lor o A6liiJ~Cl938); Limited (1932), The Dream Keeper and Other Poems (1 932),~S~ akespeare in Harlem (1942), Freedom' s Plow (a long poem, 1 943 ), Jim Crow ' s ay Ticket (1949), Last Stand (1943), Fields of Wonder (1947), Montag e of a Dream Deferred (1951), Ask You ---------------______________ _____ for Jazz (1961) and The Panth er and Times (1967). ....;;;;.. ms of Our :E:u.;b es also ~-rr ote s ~ ort s tories a nd no·.re_s (incl ding col_e ct ed stories fro ~ t ~e Jesse w ic _ :-:e ori gi :.1ated ). Prose -r. ~ e St m le serie ~ T -,..,.,_er .ua u ~-v or Ks a re . .rot ": (1~3n) - I , , Tbe 1·la:rs of ~·Jh ite :?olks (1934) , S mple Spea ks Eis : ;:i. d (l , 5 0 ), Laugh i n 6 to I~eep fro m Cryi :.1 0 (1952) , Simple Takes / ;•i fe (1953), • S i nple S ta ke s a Cl ai n ( 1.,57 ), Ta~1'::o rines to Gl ory (195~ ), S ometh i ng in Co mmon (1963) a nd Simple's Uncle Sar.~ / ~9jf)£. ? i ,:e 1 Plays ½:~ Lancston !!u;:-:es ·Tas p · lis~1ed i n 1963 . m ~ a ls o either wrote ( or collab orated,1' wi t .1 others ~ usuall:r Bonte;nps) many ½o olrn for yo un~ readers as well as works of cenera.l a nd spec fie i nterest on f lac k culture. �In bis earl:r :rears, Hugh es was L'lfl 1en ced and Dunbar. :" Walt 11':.., i t r.ia r: I n h i 0'::J sch ool, a teach er introduced l1 Ln to t:1e poetr:r of A;-3.y Lowell , Lindsa:~, :.rasters and Sa nd ur .::; . especiall:r i ndebte d to Sand ur.::;, of wh om T e Big Sea, as ~is Hguidi ns star. 11 .10 !~e was would spear, in Fento n Johnson ha.d een the only poet up until ~ugh es to sustain sue . an ener s etic poetr:r of )3lack fol k life . Hughe s i mproved on what Johnson b e gan, addinc fres~ portraits J t b ough n ot t .e ri di cule somet , times appearing i n Du:1. ar/4- and actually usi ng music to ins pire 1is writing or accompan:r b is live readi ne;s. He made recordi ngs with Ch arlie !~ngus, a ~on G oth er jazz s reats. And h e is g i ve n credit for ori c inating t~e pra c tice of readin~ poetry to jazz . Interestine;ly eno ;h , t i s interweavin 0 of r.iu sic and poetry • {discussed in C.... apter rr) -: eco mes a v t rtual ½ack.:; one off lack arch itectonics. aldwin , for example, speaks of liste ninG repeatedly to t he re cords of Bessie Smit 1 to 6 ai n r hyt m in b is prose . Certainl:" t :. e same fusion of st:rle a nd sp irit ca n Je found in Elliso n , ·Tri 0 '~ t_ Tolson, Baraka and Crouch . 1 r oet Greenlee x ~ 3 7· n ovelist:: i n a b iograp ical note to tftAM .is~ lues for an Afri can I1:r ch ief literary influences are Ch arlie Parker, (i Lester Younc , ltlles Da v is and Billie Bolida~ . As a writer, I co nsider m:rself a ja zz musician whose instru:::1e :1t is a t:rpewri ter. Ilic:1ael S. Harner, a J lack. poet who ca me to mat sixties , also a ttri;)utes :;mcb of ~ is st:rle and poetic p!-:i loso{;- phy to jazz musician7 'L,o h elped h i m understa n{ pain'(and- make �s it "arc:1etypal." Pa.rt of Hu;;b es '~ L 1pa.ct on t •is a.re a o "' filac LC poetry is docu~i1ented ~):" ~ 1ard ell i:1 T~e Foll~ Roots of Co n te m.porar:r Afro -Amer ican Poetr:-. falls into thre e st:rlistic cate~ories : dialect (.ri ~raril~ of _is an ur b an sort), blues and traditionallltf'ree v erse. t se of dialect is seen in practically e very ½ook b e pu lish e . ~is blues and free - verse forms are especia._17 ev ident i n T~e ~·. ear:,Blues. S ea.ks of Ri-11- ers , 11 a u::Ju a Redd:.DG, is n I! ch 1-;:ore effectiv e a ve .1icle for purer -erse f orms. t e deepJ dee . well of T!~is for ,'.1, accordin 0 to :r..r 1::.;'~es _ 6: es cot, es t 1-:ro-:..1.::;:- , Redd i ~: feels, t an dialect or · lues. i n t. e The Te 6 ro writt en ri g1 t after 'h e fi 1is.1ed ":, i t:;1~ sc .. oo a nd publis 1ed in T.1e Crisis i n 1 921. J1 11 One of b is most fa ous free- v erse poe ms is I! ,/1-ac In 11 1 • .1.. .R . i• v er ~ II u__ ;::;.1es reac.s es invo !-: istor:r and stru gsle, 1 n i ti ,:: i : -1 spirit t he Glo½al African: I ' ve :n1own ri ers: I 1 ·.-e CJ 0 t{i1 01·m ri i er s i:t.- c ::. e nt as t~-: e ,1orl older t~a . . t 11e flow of l :.: ,~:an a. ., -::).:.i0.n ·11ood i n 1 rein • s o •l l: as Gro..,, ~ dee) 1:.~rn t :: e ri -ers . . . .. .. J, . . !' 73 .now 1 ri vers: Anci c~t , d 1 sk:'" ri v er s. The use of worc.s li ke ns oul" a nd t h r ou.::;1:/ 11 ri ' ,ers 11 ~ ,1 >ic r n l '·: e spL, e3 lac !r fol d ore and literature, o.l~ows rr,-1,:::,...,e s to ton e'~ �t ,c de pest lon.=;in.:;s a.1:.d s p:!.r i t al wel 4s pr:!. :-:.::;s of ~,j_s people . I n "veins , 11 11 c.eei) , n nflo .-1, H lo~ n.:; of a c tuai plo.ce ( 1a ,1es nd slr:·, '' "a nci ent !' a :J .:.t. por ta nt t e loncevi t:r of life a nd struu.::;le , ~ to Blacks, 1, e esta1~lis~; es put into 11 Poe r:1, 11 ~ ~i :uilar jsa g Fl d/,.j/ strenst s o.nd longevit:- K t~"}e cat ~ 11 ...._,, ..;:: Te c;ro, TLe 11 a L.d E G--es ' • dialect and b l' es - orie. ted poe r.1s were not 1 swee t ' '-- to the ears of some Harlem / lac intelle c t uals of t ._ e twent i es . , Just as ~n-y of tl: e~, ~ ad sou ~. t to c ens ure Cul le n for not ·w riting more . . , latantl:-- a'Jout,/'lac k strugc;le ( in .)n ack idio,us), t!-1e:r c riticiz ed Eus!~es for deal i n 0 'Hit. t h e "lower strat ~ " or ' nder+ side of / lac le life . 1 ~ie l: idde n and ro': ust ( "ta -:: 00 11 ) aspects 1 of? -a c k life 1ere , e g inning to come to t _1e fore i n t ~e wor rn of p.. a c .rt (1:c:Ka:r) and w~i te ( Van lfec _te n ) writers. And Eu;::;~ es joi ned t _sis ;:;ro ·1 ir:c tend enc:.r in speakins fra nkl y a . out "Suicide, npo r , o:r Bl es , 11 5 ard Dadd:,., 11 1 "=~u latton ("A little :rel loi /'Jastard '; o:r." ) , aJu y rown , 11 a nd riore s, c~, experie nc es a.:J. s .. 1)j e c ts. Te 1 1 es for r.1 cal _s for t '!-Ji-•ee - lL1e f stan za s: ,,_tl~e seco nd li ne '-' re peat s t: }e first , a nd t _ e t ', ird • ...,... :; D rece dJ.. ones • ~ 1~ r h :•,~1es lli t b t : .e t wo ,..,. d -'l,- . , i· s ""' 'To ro.e l.u.e d :!.."u.c f or :·~1 ..,,_c'.--:. of \ ~,,1h-- at it • ,.... i.c, . These ~.~ario ,s f orms also '::: elped .. is .Le, ,. . .t ime., s esta".J _ish I! ,~:1es , . t :.e mes and su1Jje cts . ~i n 0 u istic freedo ~ u as 1-rort l tra;ed:r, ·,-:_ ole :}ce or co::1p assio :1 . I :1 " a :::r of ': is poems, ~-! u 0 b es is a ~le to de velop a dialo p,_ etween t b e 1 w:i i t e ruler . 11 lac k u!.lderdo z; a nd t ''.' e 4;~l J T.. i s occur ::, in "Brass Spittoon ~ " wh epe t~: e '.J ul b o:r �int erlace s a portrait of a co:-nmo n vhyt':} r,.s of c!.urc:. , wb ite lac :<: -1or ke r wit,-: da zzli r:: e n ' s ord ers, }tla c ': pa r t :"' an ' ni : 1~t life a nd t h e s h i ny s _ittoons Blac ks rust ~ee p polis~ed . ~e see it tech nically, t h ouc . n ot racial-~ , in " J azzo ni a" i ::1 the call-and-re s ponse patter n cou pled wit J c a refull~ rearr a nged chordal stru "t ures: r_ f Oh , ( '/) silver tree! Oh , s h ining rivers of t . e soul ! Three stanzas later, t h e sa,i1e idea r,ppe a.rs i n t l~ is for r.1: I Oh , singi ng tree! e_: s; ining ri v ers of t , e s o,,11 nd fi ve stanzas later, it a pp ears t hu sl?: ~ / Oh , s b ining :bree ! Oh , silver riv er s of t ~e so, l ! •~11-ti---... This rilliant , s e of t h ~ me i ntricate pa tt er n o all-and-re sp ons e continues in "::ulatto." dialo~ nd 1 ~ e '.,ta.dtard , o:"" _/ is re j ected first b:- t .. e wb :!. te fat !'} er o. nd later ·.J"" t ::'.'. e w'1i te . brot .. er, ~J oth repre s e nti nc p ( t sJ rough t . e i nter j ection of dialo;: ) ~ differe nt t yp es a nd c;e nerat :.o ns of wh ite me nJ - or:.e o' 5e c tin: to fV\ t h e existe nce of an 11 ille c;i t mate II sO::1 a nd t :.e ot er ( t~e for n er ' : : off t spri ng ) refusine to exte d a h and of hroth erl :,. co ncer n . ITugh eds ~~emes , 1-r'h icb re r.1ain ed wi t 'h !·1:t m t b rou 6 h most of ~-i s l i f e, ar{~~.;;;:;:.~~':,l ·•ifiii ~] p ack worn~ 5 .....,. t bl ne 6eauty and t n1t,, , rac e r i de 1'•1 ,!I 1 U, •fc ulle n or : ic ?:a:~ ), ~ stre ngt .,s), jazz, ~ ''.)l ue s/ a:811 reli g ious mt s·ic, v iolence a s ai nst Blac k~ a nd i nte c ratio n . �Iughes 1f ,ie.si.e-1t:½ac '.1 :) spa ce s.,.an of t 1 especially And .1 e often relis}~e c. t' .e co ..:.-non prof und it:r of Blac ks at dance, play, worsh ip or wor l{ . J . }Iord Allen ' s 11 In 11 .,_Te s ro Da ncers,'! ,e recalls Tb e Squ ea k of t h e Fiddle II a nd James Edwi n Ca , pb ell ' s "Ho ile Bue k . 11 Allen Lints t h at w:"} i tes ca nl1 ot d a nce. And Campb ell re produces in poetr:r t e r 1:,-t_ dance k nown as t e satio n , clai ms t h at II ck. re 11 Q.. of/\.co nte mporar7 ,is Hu [; .. es; s ':1 owi ng off.J'lac k i mprov i a nd __ is 1Ja. : h a v e -..;,,, Two mo ' ,; a y s to do de Ch arlesto n ! -L~ a pop lar cont emporar~ dance . Eve n if wh ites 11 1a · .;~ 11 fV1 "---"' a nd 11 pra~'./ " Bl ac ks ca n ta ke satisfaction i n t ,e kn owled[;e t h at t h ey can ~p t b ei:1 own reser v o _r of spo ntanei t:,. and creati v ity wh e n t h e:'" want to side-step or a nnoy t h e mec11a nica ~ wh ite t Luf"J":.es also wrote poe try a b out b ei n; "alone II at vorld . 1 ni g~1t n a nd a -'- r a i a . Th e re a,Jv ~ c:,.nicis m a nd sarcas :n a nd t ra3ed:r in t .. i s poet 1-!1: o o·Js er ved . i s pe op e t .. r o gl, a deep a nd creat ".T e affec t .:.. on . s Huc __ es 'f perso nal life , of cotrs e , was a ti n g as l-:d s poetr:,. . Ee ro· 41itliiiiliirn111:ill?S•--•"'••11121a11-•■ 11 0 1-r 1 Jt-1 s t as fascit n 1;i;.er o s awards and wr i ti :.12; ~e fi '2. le d a car tru n - wit at ~ l a c! c':"- :rc!: c::: a::.c co '2..: c _::c ::; . h oo ks and ~ e r u')1Jed s:-:. ou_d ers wi t :1 t'le .ranki ::"l::::; ·Hr i te r s a.:1d i..t ell ~c t t•.a '2..s of '-i s da.:- ~ t re ::r.ai ne d L l �Pa::1-Af'rica . li rar~ a~~ artistic t i cs. ~ - C cs uas one of th e o:..der states :-1en of } iac .1:. c J.t re at t 'he F irst ~·!o::r'2.. Fes ti ~:al of . . .ccro ts, :--:e:..C: e:.e:::;a:1 L1 l S' 66 . Ka:::1 , _;1 I) T.,. e ., also e it ed ant~oloci as of A:'ricar: prose a ,. countr:-. -~e H d e C -ca.,.., ec.· t .. a.._u .,_u ,Jr.>1 n..,-o _. , ..., '" u :!3,:ro artists 11 wo L t .. eir " nd i v idual dar :i:- 0 -:i,1::ec. se:·-es ." ex ress I :' e t'.:" er :3 lac::s er · . it es a.. :ro·.-od s ~ ~-t o:·! C:' CS a. rai se f r o l. ~ 3 d i ~1: , TT a: t ::o ,~\-. ~e di ~1: tel_ ectuQ_ stat re of ot~ er s a:> :-:a 1.ss ai.1c I\ s f lac1: cri t :!.cs J s ai .. / naiv ete. " It 11 c oe s n ot t ": i!1k 1 b u t to sa:r ~;C intellc c a uJr.mastic i r.telli ;:;e words . 1 tlu __ ._,.., fe els s true t :~ at TI \_,1--:c :J .'1ai ::1taii. ed a ., ou ";.it erar:· profi_ e a nd d d ::ot aspi re to loft~r tji e a 1 d n:; of ritcrs . is 'C.~t r .A ,,u .. i:J poetr:T pro·.:ed to t iJ~:.:J~~;P~~:e~f:uL t'n ~ \.S ' AA ve\",~ - CC ~ ~ e:we >as a ::rai ~ a. nce and a f• r cus p o. er wit': e irresisti~J .. e a.::c. to al. ost a ,.alf c e nt~r ~ of co nt e r:ip orari es . ::spiri:-1.:::; �to , c a o 1t a 11 Dr o.rn Def erred . n q e stj_o n: in an a3~re~ate analogy t ~at lencthens to : ~ And .:. .. C Or does it exp_ode ? l · "t",ec. to se e t _, e explos on i n Hatts , 1"'.'ewar c, Detro t :fg() ~ a nd otl-:e r places . ,rr iti nc-s ar e ~... "'., all anth olo 0 ie::; of Afr o-Ar.1erican l t er ature . Fro t 1 .e j)ar :..: Tu-i-rer . • 't or~ _s ""':r Brown, \,., 1.. erl i n , Red 1n~ pilations . Detailed c ri ti ca- Ee is also assessed : n o.- .::. c ent r :r J Jo ,nson a ndf\p 1 .1erous ot:.1er st ud i e s and cor~ 1 Jar.1es =:r:ia~1 ' el ' s . ,_, io rapl-::T of -~ L ~ (La n~ston i .;:;-- es) 0 was pu lis~ea i n 1 , 67. Other i mportant source ite ms on Hu he s are Fran9ois Dodat' s Langston Hugh es (Paris, 1964), Ra:rmond Quino ~ Lan1sston Hugh es (Brussels , 1q64), Milton :i'-i eltzer's Langston Hughe s: _ / Biography ( 196·9 ), Elizabe t h P. ; eyers ' Lan gston J Hughes : ~ Poet of His People (1970 ) and Ch a.rle mae Rollins' Bla~~ Troubador: _ Langston Hughes (1g70). steadily pouring out ~ Of the plethora. of material Hughes , a most valuable b ook is Langston , Black Genius: /critical Evaluatio n (1° 71 ), edited by B. O'Daniel. O'Daniel includes a selected classified s (.Jl;-a1:.;.x., bibli ography detailing Hughes'f lengt hy career as ~writer in all w 0,J-- enres, /\ anthologist and/\ criti~. Hughes inspired generations of j 'lack Africans and Americans and also edited t h e followin g ~Q.t:l / -;.; ~ �a nthologies: An African Treasury: Articles, Essays, Stories, Poems Jf:y New egro Poet s: _U. . . A. ( 1964); and Voices: ...,A Quarterl:• of Blac { Afri cans ( 1960); Poems from Blac -r AfricA. ( q63) ; Poetry (Negro poets is sue , wi nter I II I I . 195 ). �or Second , Echelon Poets of the Renaissance ~oz e ns of poets helped to ma ke up t he varie gated atmosph ere of the New Ne gro ··-:ovement. the 19601's cannot ~ ~ ,, •/ And just as the )(ew pack_}'oetry of racterized in terms of four or fi ve indi v iduals, so t h e ~Renai ss ance cannot be understood unless t h e a'ornoL.ei-e ~ poetry scene is examined. Yan~r of the so -cal led mino!j or second ~echelo~ poets writing during t h e peak of t h e_jenaissance ad already es tabl ished re putations be fore 1923. d ~ hese wer e Arna Bontemps ) :II . ,t,{/ ~ Principal amon g I Angelina Gri mke, Gwendolvn N ...., ~ Bennett (1902~ ), Anne Spencer, ._,Clarissa Scot t Delan~Y,8 (189~\11', ,.. Frank Horne Allen (19 05 1 Georgia Douglas John son, Geor e Leonard _ 35), Donald Jeffrey Hayes (1904J ), Jonathan He nderson Brooks (19 04; = 45 ), He lene Johnson (190 7~ ) , Waring Cuney (1906 1 ), r Lewis Alexander ( 1900i _.. 45), and Lucy Ariel Williams Holloway I (19 05N ) ~ poe ts, to be ment ioned at the end of t h is unit, can be f ; sper ecd rather widel_ alon ficance. a spectrum of relative sign!:/, Nany of t h em won prizes and places for their poems among t he pa ges of The Crisis a nd Opportunity and then disappeared e a t½s M -'- •b · 1e yet ot ers c, ose d i fferent careers or l e ~ cd i nto t~e freed om fi cht . C llen's fro t he c c3De. Ot}_,)ers n:o t un t nel-.:r 1 ~ Carol n; D sk (1927) co ntains thJ , est re resentation of Afro = Ac. er ic an poetr:r 1-rr · tten , etwee n 19- 3.!.1 1925 . Jo __ ns on ' s of . ~er!can ,s gro Poetry (1 : 22) presets poe ts ~etween the ti~e of its l as t editi on (1931 ). h e Boo .{ nbar a:1c =~ !or and minor poets are also to ,-:, e fo nd in Kcrl i n ' s !Te .:;ro Poets and Their Poems (1<)23, ... 35) . �Hughes and Bont emps made ma n~r of these lyricists a7 a i lable ~ in The Poe try of the Negro (1949, 19 70 ). .... At least b lf a dozen of the les s e r known poets are incl'd ed i n Alain Locke ' s The New Negro (1925) . Randall (Th e Black Poets, 1971) dis lays work by Horne a nd Bontemps, but only Bontemps is i ncluded in Randall ' s Black Poetry (1969) . Henderson d oes not list one of thes e tra ns itio nal fi gures i n Understa nd i ng the New Slack Poe tr7 (1973). And only Cuney and Bont emps are included i n Ros ey Pool' s Beyond the Blu es (1962). ~ t he anthologi e s fo r co nt ent . we are ~ ra nd oml r samplin3 See the b i bl i ography for more = Sf ~ e tailed listin 6 s :t/-Th e best co nte mporary a nt ology of ~ ntury )'{lack poe try is Arnold Adoff I s The Poetry of Blac 1 (iq1lJ Americ ~ 140 poets and practi cal ly all which lists of the minor ones of e naissa nce , alt jou 6 h the omissi o~ \ ~ ~Pp «.U\·tl, ' of Cuney and Edward Silvera heron .. fl ii t ??il1 11 t. Unfortu nat e ly, nojlacr a nt h ology of t he ma g nitude of the Norto n series has appeared. ' Tbe Hes;;rg Qara '-1 ( terli ng Brown, et al.), a comprehens i v e anth olo y p l i s . ed i n 1941 and res)- ssu ed ( nrev ised) in 1970, contai ns near...,:r a do ze n of t . e rr. inor v oices . I n "Fra nk Horne and th e Second Echelon Poe ts of the Earler.1 Renais s ance 11 (The Harlem Rena i ssanc e Re membered , Bonte mps , y 1972), Ronald Primeau launch es an i mpressi ve ~nd i mp ort a nt d isc ssion of~ ese lesser known fi gures . ·• i le ~a gne r (Black Poets of t~e United. State s , 1973) makes a partial effort to dis cuss t~ese poets , ~e seems gene ral l:' to dis r::i ss theL a s cli ~ Africa n past . see!cers after a n So1 at t h is wri ti ng , SEEi A s Brown ' s "C onte mporar:' ,.______...,,. �•eL a ns the "1--)est cr i tical o~.- r -i e~r of th sc poet s . .,,,,. Bontocir c · s on e of t'. ree i m orta nt%e na i ssa ~c e fi ;; re s 0 (alonz r t . !! ghcs and up ro,rn) to s •rvi ve ;;{;i_7 cre e.tive ;• calls ont er:: s "o ne of t~"' e most -c t s :·Tofa ::1cr t . c "Fiar_en Rena i s sance a nd ro nt l t o 19 6Cf s . ".)r lliant _, i nor lysi<All~ nd 6 , ~ o" ( ~ ~ ~~-c ..~ ·m n al so ha s ~i ; ;-, "'ra s e cf~) 1 s ~o tr:~ and f ic t i on . ~ Dav i s ) sees a n "a lien- and-exile !T theme c ont i nuing . /4 ~ from the najor trunk orJnaiss a nce poetry i nto t h e work of Bonte m s. p With the notable exception of Geor gia Douglas Joh nson , the i mp ortant mino;:.{enaissance fi gures d id not publish b ooks ~ of poetr~ until t he 19601s . This fact alone tells us much ab out '-' Bontemps !.,s/seeming poe tic ob s curity e t ween 1930 a nd 1960. But _ more i npor tant, for t 4e re cord, is the fact t ha t Bont emps'J eff orts ere i rec t ed to ard fiction , drana, c~ ildr en ' s liter ~ t r e , -· story, c1ir oniclin,.,. the develo pmen t of ot er / la.ck poe tsJ and : round - r ~aki ns ibrary 1ork. orn i n Alexan ria, Louisia na, Bonten s f.____;,a~ilv mo~ d to California fuen he was still a ch ild . He attended Pacific Union Colle ge a nd t he University of Cl icago. s di vc~s e ~-ri tin g outp t , almost as prodi gious as Eugbe s !!, includes numerous books, pamph l ts and arti c les . Hi s novels a.re God Sends Sunday 0-931; dramatized as S t . Louis \-loma n, 1946 ), Black Thunder (1936, about t e Nat Turner ~ at Dusk (1939). Bontemps also c o edited, wi t h rev olt ) and Dr ums t'So;iI, Hughe~ the very influential a nt hology The Poe t ry oft e N'egro (1949 , 1970 ) , and he brough t out American Negro Poetry in 1963. Other anth ologies �Reade r s ( 1941), ook of 1'Te5ro Fol k l ore ( 195'~, wit,,_ T.: :::., es ), Great Slave Narratives (1 9 69), Hold :?ast to Dr ea::.1s: ,_.,,Poe:-:s Old and Te1-1 ( 19 69) a nd Tl e !~arle m Renaissanc e Rer.:e,,.':;ercd ( l C: 72 , a collection of articles). ~ ont e r.1ps pu' lis 1--: ~c. Addi tionally -!."•• o~ e @ ::odd works of 1:'l i .Jl ioGrap _.::- ( usu a l ~:r on~ l ac ir >c roes), juvenilia , c ltt re a nd 1 is tor:•. at F is - for nore t _,a n @ !:e scr,·ed as ni7crsl. t:· 11 f '•raria,: ye ars a nd was a t11e r.1:er of t'~e fac' 1 tie:: o:f t l e Un i -ers it:" of Illi n ois a nd ~~alc ~ W17ere ~~ e -ra s L: c - r .::;e o:f Afro-Ame rica n j tudie s at t _e ti me of ::1is dea t . • 1924 a nd 1 931 ont e .1ps 's{poems wer e p 1)lisb ed wi del:r L. ~.- ario s magazines a nd pe riodica:s a n The Cri sis a ::: Bet1-1een Opp ort ni t::,r .. Personals , die. n o o ,t co:ie :-e i:,ro n poetr:r priz es fro r.: ',ot....., !:is o nl: pu Jl is hed 70 - t:.:::e 01' '.:)octr:r, n ti l 1964 tNor~ _;j;'-s aiili,i,-=.., -~~ Q'aP: . re ,_an). • "1Jrs o nal s p octr:r . '70 11 af ~or t: re t) ms 'P ,.. c~., of int 0 1 s of on-'.;e n ps !s 1 !I or or Comte att ~ C ::o :: ' s a~1d :::-1:--ar: ,{ !To:r::: .... 1s . _ds _ o ::: c :::i:- s ,.sfI o u:.. 1 :- _ c o:.lfcrt2:<:_::L~e:::::s :: o -" ._-:... _- ~_ cf ::c :; c. ::::::::u ,: co, u.... or+-v , ,_ ·t + " ' 'co ~:.... ::ita')i lit:- a n . . . co.ref , _ 1- or .c :a m:~ i p . ?e i:-ras a mo,_r: t os ccts C, ~b) �,... J- .. .,l U.,_ '- . . , ___~II' . ...., ., J..1 ..., r- """"1 L, ___; -• tre.c iti on o f '"!.. r;.c!r. 1a½or 11 f c c d o . ½i tt er f r uit . 11 .. ._ I • co ncludes t _J at t 1" ~ -:1. a ~)or ers • c' ' ilc.:,e::1 ,u.fLed on Bil l i e Io i d a:· wo l d _a tc r"-llll : a 2~~, _, ang i ns in t he S out:: a nd write t at since Jam s 1'i:1itfi eld , ~ 11 St1"'a nse Fru it . " ack poe t s And we recall a v e po i nt e d to t ., e co ntradictio ns i r: Ame rica n C'hristian:!. ty a nd tr1e h arr e_, =. 7 ers s~ ~ b carinG t ~ e~e . tH~/\ ~ Bonten:ps als o fo llowed cizing a pa g a n~ t : naissa nc e pat ter n of ro:~a nti t y Afr o-American or Africa n . Wi t b t ._e taste of sl a v ery a nd t h e dial e ct tradi tion still b itter on t ~eir tons~e s, t h ese poe t s lea ped another clime . ac kward s over slav er:r to a.notb er place a nd c l osely reser.1.b l e s Cull e n ' s 11 __ 11 remcnbered rai n , 11 ~ (£) 1-Ic Ka:·. "th e friendly gh os t, "d ance of ra i n , " " j u ngle sky, Tbe Re tur n~1 w_1i c 1 e r i tag e II a nd some of t b e atav istic p i e c es of L ~ Hu 6b es a nd of 11 Bontemp s d oes just t h is i n n 11 11 Bont e mps spe a ks 11 lost n i ~h ts, 11 ;.1uffled drums , " a nd t h e n su m;ests : Let us g o b a c k into t h e dusk a gai D© .•• Dusk , ebo ny , jet , ni e;b t , e veni ng s , pur ple , b lue , rav en a nd ot e:- such synonyms for Blac ks are freque ntly e mployed to gre at effect a nd power b:r Afro-Ame rican poets . Likewise, symb ols or i ma ge s of invisi' il i ty a nd b lindness are al so pr ev ale nt in;(lac k w!'~ Bont emps er.iplo:rs a nd i mplies sucb states in se v eral poe ns ~ ere be achieves a surreal qua li ty-J;,_ a drear.1J. )- ike lo n:;i ng for anotb er time and a noth er pl ace (agai n , a pattern i n t h e poetry of the period ). If y ou "Close Your Eyes , " Bonte mp s say s, y ou ca n i:;o · �back to what you were, and may e t h e son c , as wit will "in tin e return to t hee . n 11 allow one to Toomer, Closing t '!Je eyes will also walk brave ly enou gh . " Away fro1:1 t 1e d aily lime ligh t and without tbe constant pressure (c+f· { Cullen) to succeed and b old up the li gh t of thl race, Bontemps de veloped strong statements using co nvention:poetic patterns wit free-verse experimentation . occasio na_ Personal and powerful, Bontemp s's poetry looks ahead to a similar stamina (th is ti ~e in a neN dialect )~ .e.1h\~q 1-2? u:i:msd by Sterline; Brown in Southern Road. t hough Bontemps tells us i n "Golg oth a 1 !s .rj. Hountai nM F or e ven ~ lt, One day I will crumb l e._, we know that t he dust will fossilize and "make a mou ntai n" : \i, I think it will be Gol g oth a. There h as been very little critical assessment of Bontemps rs poetr:r. But brief reactions to h is work can b e found in The ~ r xznr ~.- -~ Harlem ~cnaiss ance Reme r.1 ered (,;, h ie . _ e edi te ) , at ii_. B r ot,J'1 ' s study, Barksdale\ and K~ nnamon' s anth olo g;r, Robert Kerli n rs cri tical t anth ology , ~ ] T1:. e Ue:;ro Cara.van . pub _is .. ed ·H or c~ see !3 Davis' t From t 'h e Dark Tower, a r.d onter.ps 's For a ne a .J1com lete listin.:; of l ac k 1.orld J : '(: (Se te::- L er l , 71) ft,12 tJ 9. ......t,. '/ Alo n3 -iri t' _ Angeli na Gri:-·1ke , Lewis Alexander, An ne Spen cer, ~ Bontemps , Ge or 3ia Do .:;las Jol~nso n, a:-id Ee _e ne Jo~:. ~so n , Gwendo_·:r n Be nnet t 1-::e~ped to fill o , t t 1.~e list of lesser lrnow::1 Hor~ It na ;_ssan c e poc t s wh•• o appear e a in · Tl T ~ .· 1 ~e ... Je _,ew _.T e ::;ro ( see ...L , 6" e a i· ..,:1..02 :: ''4b~l'1 with a preface ):r Ro ert Ji a-:rd e n ). Unfort unat el:.-, :~owe ve r , •H■l•• ennctt ' s b est foot was not put forward in t h e "Son !")' " wh ich °I �A Alain Locke accepted for pu lication in t h e a b ove :: named antholo gy . :? m:YHm~ ..Mitt. "Song " is not representati ve of r;enerally bi 8h craf'tmans _. ip; it is flawed by imb alance a.nd an ;too attempt to sayf,[r.any t h ings in one poem. Characteristic of t h e poetry of the period , "Song " reaches back to "forg otten b anjo sones" and Clinking chains and minstrels~ but ~ ...A.k.. h ;:;,.na11UJ:.t,J,w interpolation of dialect lines does not come off wi t L t . e ease and power of ◄J@ _ §Sa Brown's similar efforts. On the oth er b and, b er s h arp1 cris p and precise i ::-mgery employed in poe:::s s 1 0i•T ..B. appeared in r:mgazines and ot.Jer ant:i olo :;ies b cr as a poet with ma ny g ifts and resources. Gwendo l yn Be nnett was born in Giddine s, Texas, to pro~ fessional parents . After graduation fron t b e Girls ' Hi G. Sch ool in Brooklyn, New York , s h e attended Teac _ers Colle g e, Colu~ ia Uni ersi t ~r, for two years and studied in t ll e Fine Arts Depart~ ment ~ t b ereaft er e stab lis n in8 a dual career as poet and artist. Sh e l ater atte nd ed Pratt I nstit te, ta g t i n t e Fine Arts Department at ~: oward Uni 7ers i ty, a nd t h en recei ved t h e ;/h o sand .:: f ollar Forei.sn S c~: o_ars 'l ip of t a e Delta Si ~_:t1a T~eta / orori t:, u:1 ich enab led !1er to so to Europ e,, w' ere s h e studied for a year ✓ / i n Pa r i s at t b e Academi c J ul ia n a ~d t '1e Ee le Pant'ri eo n . Ila Sh e r) York at t .-:: e 'c:e i ~~~ t of t , e A naissance and for ,, ~ /4~ a ,;-1:: i_e was a :::em1:1 er of t 1e editorial staff of Opportunit:r ) \l@ er e-- r e tur ".1.e d to :Te 1 s everal of h er poems a.ppear e . In reading h er finest poe ms, one recan{1epth o:f} -ack wo,~a rL1 ood re 'ealed i ~ t ~e poetry o:f - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - -- - - - �Frances Harper, Geor g ia Joh nson a nd An:;elina Gri m.kl . Dark Girl n is a r.1edi t a t ion on t h e sist0r 100d £ "To A. retains We recall t h e word nfort, a s pec ts of nold for g otte n queens . n g otte n n fro m 11S onc;n; b ut it a. ) Otrnd s i n t ~ e poetr:r of t.)i s ~ He" ,,.--. period . XJ;,117Fi? lb,, "brown ;irl 11 ~ {9ullen ! ) is "s orrow ' s r~a.te 11 b ut if s h e for £1;ets h er sl a v e b a c k grou nd s . e J :~~ s ti ~.ll "laug.1 at Fat e ! : •· 1 .. g Mm u s lol.M±&.Hlits Qi£rj m 2O0&1s22lll3L& distills 11 ~ mt ng :~:i= :: ; : ~ : :: ~~ ~ gls zb.:bhxtM![l&C. 1 anJu: tTR1U• "Noctur ne" dista nt l augh ter" and "Sonnet J -2 11 re c alls "He groes M r.1c lod ies . 11 _J__Js _·_____._. "Heri ta; e II is a.bwst iden~ tical, in t .. eme and tone , to Coun tee Cullen ' s poer.1 of tb e sa~e name. Just as Cullen laments t ue di sparit~ ~etwee n 1is "h eart and ..ead , n t h is poet sees t .. e s ame duality in b er "sad people ' s s oul 11 ' Hi dden by a minstrel - s n ile . Finall:r , "Hatred " is s l1 arp a nd sting inc < Like a dart of si n: i ng stee ~ and we ar e reminded of t h e poen.s of ~:1 e san e t ~1 er~e: - D+ ois 'S ,.., "The Ri ddle of t e Sphinx• " and I'IcKay ' s "To t h e vJh ite Fiends" "-- a nd 11 Tl1e lu ite Lous e . 11 ,..., F or Claris s a S cott Dela nf y , "Jo~" see~s to c ont ain the 11 emotio na l i ntensit::! t h at Hatred" h olds for Gwendolyn Bennett . Tb e dau gh ter of Emmett J . S c ott , t ~~e t o Book er T . 1.lasb ington, 11 - - - - - dis t in_cuis .rnd se c retary i-~s . Delan~ r lived a t!'ag i c ally s h ort lif e and died at t h e peak of t h e - - ~- - - - - - - 11 fglJR. j e naissance . "Joy" is �what sh e v ows to t he troubling 11 11 a ba do n II h erself t o in an effort to a void r.iaze" of life. Her poetry is quietly power + ~ ~ ful and seems to co~·.1pl l\ment t ,at of k I 't' Bonte ... ps1 si nce it is deep and flows from tradition , stamina and endurance. Born ~ Tus k e gee Institute, . -:-e A1 a ama, s h e attended Bradford Academy in New England and t h en Wellesley Colle ge, after wh ich s h e taugh t t hree years at t h e I'amous Dunbar Hi 6h S ch ool in Was h ingto n, . (l~ri.1SO.. ""' According to • • • Kerli n , 11ii& Delanfy also 't tudied ......___..... " V delinquency and ne glect a mong Ne gro ch ildren in New Yor City ." D. C. Her poetry reflects a perceptive and analy tical mind. Init i ally, s h e appears detach ed and metallic * deceptively , like Gwendo l y n Brooks, ut t h e poem usually winds down to a grippin g messa[;e on pretense, lo neli ness, j oy or despair. T .e ni gh t in 11 I nterir: " is a "gracious cloak 11 used to conceal t h e defeat of t h e soul. "The Hask 11 i mr:1ediatel:r brings to mind Dun' e.r' s I-1ask . 11 11 We Wenr t h e Exc ept for t •. e differences i n persona and dramatic affects, t h e two poems are qu ite similar. Re readi n 0 l!The IIask, 11 one is rer,1i nded of Smokey Bill Rob inson's rece ntly nopul~~~t Tears of / Clow~ "# wn ich c arries t _ e t _ e ~e of duali t : a nd scb izop_1 renia so often fou nd in7J-ack t h ousb t a n~ :~.:,tin~ C ,fhile a11.,;tiack artists do not d~ pla:r t h is "twoness II wit 1 t h e inte ns i t :• of a e::::::,: Cullen or Il I JI: Ellison, it is almost alwa:rs present in t l1 eir wor ks. / Especie.11:; is t h is true of t h e lack America n 1i1riter, forced to use t .1e c O t?h-nu nica ti on tools of t h e over. seers to speak ab out t h at wh ic - - -- - ---- - 1 is closest to h i m. \ �This particular as pect of f lack poetry c;i ves rise to :-.:uc .1 speculatio~ since poems dev oid of racial or et .. nic flo. v or take on added si gn ificance wh en we kn ow t eir aut :.1 ors are fa~c~ Such is t he case with Gwend olyn Bennett's "Eatred 11 ( "4el!e "you" of t h e Sph inx 11 e wb itcs ) a nd i · ~E .............._ 11 ·F· nf o is •s!"T!1e Riddle t b er:i II prob a bly r.:eans wh ites). '#Fra nk Horne, who won a poetry contest i n Th e Crisis in 1 925 , ut did not pu lish a b ook r (Haver straw) ~ ntil 196J , fits into t h is context. Hor ne was public sch ools. or n in New York Cit1 where h e atte n ed As a s t udent at t he Colleg e of t :-:e Cit7 of New York, he won varsity letters in track and wrote poetr:r. He later graduat ed fro ::1 the iJorth er n Illi n ois Colle ~e :of f OphtbalmoloGY with degree of Doctor of Optometr:r. !:or nc o. wor<ed in Cb icab o : ew Yor {, tau c:1 t in F ort 1 all e:J Geor 0 i ~ and uas for s ome ti ~ie e mploye d Aut ority . y t h e United Stat~}Iousi· c ~AIJ_~ ~ d'o lll14/. 1-ornet, "possesses t'he aut .. entic g ift of poetr:r, ._, 11 . accordi~r·- to Ja , es foldo n Johnson;,· ~rid 'i t a J; • Drown ,:entio 11s ~ "i ntellect ual ir ony . !t I ndeed Iorne i s c:-rni co.l, s ~w pti i al , "- r· rei served and alr::ost . are i :1 ~ is s :10rt l ines a nd eco n o:1 &f"~an -::ua.::;e. The c orpus of . is earl:,. poetr:r re ·ol es arou nd !!Lett ers f Ol nc. °'near a suicic. ~ 11 for w__ ic½ "'e 11 0~1 Cri sis awar • :-:o t of t. e poer.1s are addressed to ind i ··idti.all:r t na.,_ec. erso s ~nd recall sor:e point of co i.-;t act ( co:1tontio n ?) ·..,etween t 1: e a_ le_: v ict i!. and t 11e perso n acc.re s s cd. s 1 ic ide .\. s :'lot 3c earlier , :· a ,.:· of t 1~ e po e n s !: a,· c to he plac ed t ::-:. t,1e co ntext f ~ _ac !s.: ~ '--'" o -- t::-:,. if �t, c c __ortnons of lire, c o. tradictions i ~ C~ risti anit7. ~c tr a~a l, de ath, .:usi c, scientific L1q i.ir~r ac: a t ed to t 1-:e rac ia_ in~tstic e , and v i c tory as fa c t or idea . oet ' s qu estior~i n:: ~orne 1 s vers e is sanc uine bu t, for t he most part, a roids tbe ro ma nti c treati, ~ ""''y, I/CJ.& ment of' Africa found in ?•rnti as? 3 _ aiBtl\.~•i:s □ ~a 11 :Iis Ti c;ser ( Chant fo r C i _dren ) n catalo{s -,. }tlac ~ pe1 :f naissanc~ :""' eroes: "' Lannibal , Oth ello , Crispus Attucks, Toussaint L 'Ol erture , and adds Jesus near t he end . A ch ora l i ter a tion, a nticipatins ii J ■'@, _Br01·m and compl~ .. enting ~ Eu g"h es, /\includes: SI ~ "ITi1:sGer • • • n i c;::;er • • • ni g;er. ..• "To t "!1 e Poe ts 11 recalls Cullen ' s 11 11 Scotts oro, Too, Is 1forth Its Song" ; b ot"_ poems c"h ide oth er poets for sin _in c son ~s 07er Hron~ causes . Ior ne 11 7elled yell:!.ng r;ot b i !;;. nowh ere . for Baldwi ~ vL!O, as 11 (ITe itier did yellin g n ove mou~tains as a b oy f preacl. er , quic ly saw t :1 e c ontradic tio n in s in,;ingJ "You can _orne ' s osannas 11 intc t tJe e r:ptiness , ":lut a ve al l dis world hut ~i , e me Jesus. 11 ) rnowled c e of science i s p t to 0 ood use i n sue: poems 11 To __ enr~ " and ~ - Q.• E.D . surfaces as in "To Yol}" whi ch is t .rou c:;1.~ 11 Your 11 11 uAnd b is skepticism co nti nually i~t/er~ h e ~ examines t11e road to salv a t i on, +eT (c 1rist ' s ) ....__ involved in a uorldl:· experience wi t :.1 body . 11 b e:r/ But later b e i s and wb en h e re t urns to t h e a l tar to eat and drink of '~our" splendors Le c an t h ink "only of her . 11 Euc h of Horne ' s poetr:r employs t b e symbolis m and v oc abu lar:r of at_ letic contests ~ princ ipa lly foo t b o.11 and trac k . �~e. oC He also uses language associated with,_playingAmusic or singing. "To Caroline" and "To Catalin~' merge melody, harmonies, pain and ecstasy. "Caroline" plays ,--- "skin" as well as the piano. "Catalina" is warned (and ,ru<:.e) that the piano will give4joy and hurt. "To Chick" reca~ahe days of the "Terrible Two" on the football field. ~ ~ 0 The ~ signal ~in football is anal•gous to the "signal" called in real life. In both instances the poet crossej the victory- linej "fighting and squirming." "To one who called me 'nigger"' is a comment on the white man's ability to do everything but face America's race problems. Continuing his theme of skepticism, Horne presents a "Toast" to eyes, lips, heart and 10dy, even though the person fJ addressed h; s an "unborn" soul. though sparl e _ .....,_ .-/ His poetry is solely in freer verse and, his language invariably operates on multiple levels. "To Persistent Phantom" is an excellent example of Horne "complicating" the meaning of words through the use of repetition, ~pses, and the strategic -j:/j use of/\words e . "tears," "tangled," "deeper," "charms" and "buried," If the language and action of athletic competition influenced Horne, ~~ it was melody that ~pturedAGeorge Leonard Allen, a poet who lived only Go) Slu,wJ.j tn•d1 \loo k+L•,... nl «g 01 It~ ,o(J;.yJ years. /f(,llen achieved wide recognition before his death: his "To Melody" won first prize in a 1927 state-wide poetry contest sponsored by the North Carolina Chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederacy. His poems also appeared in Opportunity, American Life, The Southern Christian Advocate, The Lyric West and Caroling Dusk. "Pilate in Modern America" employs what is, by Allen's time, a traditional theme in / lack poetry: equating p ack suffering to the crucifixion of Christ. The "Pilate" of America pleads with God for redemption, claiming that "one man's voice" �(pf dissent) could not be heard in the din of the lynch mob. But God's voice (the white man's conscience) tells "Pilate" that his guilt is as great as the crowd's. "To Melody" has no racial import. It simply praises song and is imitative, in language and theme, of poetry. ,: century English As a sonnet, it only remotely suggests the work of McKay and A:!.l:Eii was born iR "Pilate" is well handled in iambic pentameter. J urnha rt1a; Ho t th CJibliha; where ne accead@d a pubht §titbbf§--\Clater cbilip±ecliig /1, A certain formalism also marks the work of Donald Jeffrey Hayes. Hayes was born in Raleigh, North Carolina; his education, which was quite e,i., ,(/~ I"' I ~ tensive, was gained primarily through private stud~ whare he pursued his interests in singing, directing and writing. During the twenties and thirties, Hayes appeared in several Broadway productions as a member of a singing chorus. His poetry, much of which reflects his interest in music, was published in Harper's Bazaar, Good Housekeeping and This Week. "Appoggiatura"M a musical term -draws sustained comparisons between a woman's movements and hodiso aai I sounds of water . and w:~ It is a towering poem full of surreal image)~ mysticism low. Ultimately the woman seems to become a mermaid. He hearJ the "indistinguishable sound of water si l enceJ' and then the woman disappear~: "Sea-Woman- slim-fingerell-water-thing II ( This theme of having lost something or someone pervades Hayes s r oetry . And while he never mentions Africa or the lost / lack purity lamented by other f naissance poets, it is possible that he h a ~ _______________ ...._ - -- - - !~!'!:t me. "Benediction" ~ ~ �is for the departed rather than a prayer to end a religious service. pursues Horne's theme of life's briefness. the poet's "kiss was sweet." for time before death. "Poet" A eulogy, the poem notes that "Prescience" depicts the poet trying to stall His concern is not for his own physical and emotional well-being, but for the "you" addressed in the poem. The speaker cannot bear the thought of his loved one being alone after his death. "Have~" death haunts all of Hayes and conventional forms. 'Jranthologized poetry. Except for He writes in free f verse "Poet" and "Prescience" make the most of careful meter and rhyming couplets. Another poet, Jonathan Henderson ~rooks, writes with allegorical el~ His work is deeply religiousJ ~ :t , s not a canned religiousness • .......__,,. "'''' ' He takes Christian symbolism and makes i t work for the / lack cause. I & quence. Ll. Al SO , neA~quates f lack suffering to the sufferings of Christ. And like Phillis Wheatley, he ensconces his deep and t r oubled feelings in religious fervor. " The Resurrection" is a poetic narrativeMlemploying dialo ~ racial concerns can only be inferred. doubt as to its intent. and my disgrace' ""'- But "My Angel" leaves little Freighted with both hope and doubt, with "Despair the poem depicts "my angel" attempting to lift the burden from the shoulders of j iack Americans. But the angel, who struggled "All night," is unable to lift The heaviest load since Lucifer •• • • Carefully and startlingly, Brooks weaves in the relatively new lack poetic o.P theme of indifference toward• (and distrust of) Christianit v the angel intervenesj••••••t _________.. but after the all~ he wearily flies off (t) "To angels' resting placeJ 3tJtf necessity" ) �/ hus leaving the narrator with his despair and disgrace. poem, one 1.m- ~ It is a chilling cF !1 blatantly carries a doubt more subdued in otherl\!3rooks-S)pieces. Alternating between iambic tetrameter a n d ~ trimeter, and using six-lin~ stanzas, he presents an exciting technical achievement with an ab c b db rhyme scheme. Brooks was born in Mississippi, on a farm "twelve miles southwest of Lexington." After his parents separated, he stayed with his mother until ,~~ ~ saved. ---,te went to Jackson College for four months on money his mother At Jackson he won a prize for a short story and later completed ~f.~!:1:dJ1!!ttssour · high ~c; : - : ; at {1."1it1 dot"J. 4Mduafisfridy1.t ~, Cl,t,, ' at Tougaloo, Mississipp~f\Though religion is the o He then l) 4 ~7.,~~ .. , standing influence on his poetry, he is nevertheless unconventional in his use of i S and his poetry is always wellt crafted. His over riding achievement appears to be "She Said) •.• " a poem dedicated to the memory of the first J lack soldier from Alcorn County, Mississippi, to be "killed in action in the invasion of Normandy." Again using Christian symbolism and terms, he imagines the response of the soldier's mother) who wonders if her son screamed when he was shot, if "unhurrying Death" was called, and if he died in sunshine, rain, or night. The mo~her finally equates herself to "Mary of Galilee" and notes that the two women must have felt the same emotion. This is an irresistible idea and theme inJ iack poetry. The searching~,skillful contemporary poet Raymond Patterson presented a similar situation in his elegy on the death of Mrs. Martin Luther King, Sr. Cot'\ c.-et-ri ' 0 f! ("All Things Abide," Black World, September 1974). Patterson echoes A-lheatley, a..mon u.s-- Du~ois,/ McKay, Hughes, Cullen and Dunbar when he as s whol~......~. .•aa.a._ ~ - t ----=--- "e..tl-{ ~ can ~ ay how Jesus' mothe1 ~ '-f'-' / MJ esus, , crucified? _ �The question mark aids in calling up all the gore and grief and passion and terror that engulf and interlace lack existence as it is infused by Christianity, Africanisms and the An) eican experience of slavery. there again. hauntingl Was Jesus really crucified? yet immediatet requiem by ~ anticipating 4iia Skepticism and cynicism are In his poem, Brooks achieves a ing the soldier's death to the cosmosM Dodson's "Lament"r/4-and relating placet names of importance. He establishes other associations: ~the stars and stripes (of the flag) are connected to the "sun's shining," the sunlight and moonglow are associated with the "stars forever," bullet and death and days and hours and sunshine and night and rain and battleground~-all set the stage for Mary and the "Garden" -Hie.. ~ns oi nd the su LastlJl\the narration • fho.t · d C,.rf, OCCVr 1'n -#, € frl tn Helene Johnson's small output should be collected and published in boot ormJ m,nor because she is an importantt.eoet. Born in Boston, where she attended local public schools and Boston U n i v e r s i t y , ~ $~rrived in New York in 1926 to do additional study at the Extension Division of Columbia University and to become one of the important "younger" figures of the ~ / enaissance. Her poems were published in Opportunity, Vanity Fair and several other periodi-lcals and anthologies. and language. Her poetry is terse, emphatic and diverse in form, style She is at home with the sonnet, free verse, conventional rhyme t:[;, pieces, with what James Weldon Johnson calls "colloquial style- a style ------M which numberless poets of this new ag ~ ij910 193~ have assumed to be easy." &t' ornJ.lf.t\T~a - ( (Johnson sounds as if he is~d Jtf g ts some of the poets of the current "new· -=+- f ag)_:' 1960..!. , . ) . she / And Johnson is right about Helene Johnson when he says aware that a poem written in dialect, colloquial or street language �"demands as much work and workmanship as a well-wrought sonnet." Helene Johnson's dominant themes are cultural reclamation (the African heritage), the ludicrous (sometimes peacockish) dress and mannerisms of J1-ack men, J'lack beauty and love. Almost always she expresses longing, either for personal love or a return to pre{ slavery Africa. In "Summer Matures," "Fu1ffment" and "Magalu" she invites lovers both literally and metaphorically. "Magaltiv) like "Sonnet to a Negro in Harlem," "The Road," "Poem " and "Bottled," suggests that the )fl.ack American is better than he thinks he is~ that exam~ nation of his African past and his innate rhythmic richness will allow him to maintain both his past glory and his present sanity. The hint that whites -, are crass, immobile and inhibited ( _,a theme recurring in writing) also creeps through these poems. lack thought and "Magalu" is told to ignore the teachings of the man in a "white collar" who carries a rble. Poetry, or ~iv) ~ ancestral and cultural worship, is better than Christianity, the poet says. Here, of course, she advances an answer to the riddle of 5iYRilM2 Cullen, who appears to have wanted to "dance" but could not throw off the cloak of Western education, sentimentality and respectability. Helene Johnson asks Magalu: Would you sell the colors of your sunset 0 and the fragrance Of your flowers, and the passionate wonder [J of your forest For a creed that will not let you dance? Continuing this theme in "Sonnet to )('Negro in Harlem" (and recalling McKay's "Harlem Dancer" as wel 1 Harlem ~as 20 d~.';l~~oem~· ~ h e depicts the dimJ-ed r.. P-...otn~e ~ being psychologically and religiousl:r~ ut I �environment in which he or she lives. Somehow, thj l 'lack American has remained untainted by crass, Western ways and inflexible thought. All this is embodied symbolically in the Harlem Black,e who, in his dtvine hart barism, stylistic richness and refusal to imitate those "whom you despise," is "too splendid for this city street." Helene Johnson seems to direct her poetry at Cullen and others who are unaije to E.:Jh--~1:cmsulew ~ the clash of - "pagan urge." "Christian" training and ,.._ is the answer an e : one. '1urt.. M • tbw For despite all th~naissance proposals calling ~ \ Q:J for spiritual or physical return to the essences of the African self, the writers had no concrete suggestionjto offer. Except for nf ois, Garvey and a few others, they simply explored romantic declarations and yearnings. ~~ This mood is evident also in Helene Johnson's "PoemJ' where the "Slim, dark, big-eyed" boy becomes a prince like the "monarch" laborer in Fenton a "Rulers." Yet there is important immediate social commentary in "Bottled," which ridicules a ~uperfly-type character of the ....... 1920# s. s Her "Negro dressed fit to· kill" refusel to dance the Charleston or the Black Bottom since he is too "dignified." Instead of a cane, she says, he should be "carrying a spear with a sharp fine point." spear should be dipped in poison. The tip of the And the rest, of course, is obvious. Finally, the poem laments the apparent internal turmoil of a / lack man who is "all glass" ("plastic" in today's language). J "Bottled" is typical of much of the thematic focus of / lack writing in all ~----~ of the period. --- ante anticipated the continuing satire that would be found in the writings of Frank Marshall Davis, George Sc1Jler, Hughes, and others. A young cont temporary woman poet, Barbara McHone (Black World, August~ l974) assesses a character similar to Helene Johnson's in "A Sea of Brown Boys."- o/' e �~'1 ~- (A.~>JV'r\ the boys for wearing high~heel shoes, purses, and /\ patterning their lives after Shaft, Superfly and Sweetback. After stating -ll•IIN!PPl!.,...l•ieMl■ la1~11~•1\.chides the urgent needs of the times and implying that/ lack masculinity is being undermined, she asks: J. where did our love go? Helene Johnson seems to make her most cogent statement, however, in "The Roar ~ N' 1 1v,,/l WRQ~e,- ✓, she links into a theme longTassociated with , lack struggle: ~"Keep on moving." fight. "The Road" encourages Blacks to see their beauty as well as their ,, ,, J t'<"(',. "Trodden beautyf " is still "trodden pride." Reminisc t off\ Johnson's "Lift Every Voice and Sing" and Fenton Johnson's "Children of the Sun," she adl vises her people to f Rise to one brimming golden, spilling .C cry! -HPerhaps not coincidentally, Helene Johnson's work is similar, in language and wtLLi41Y1 ALL(n /./ill theme, to the poetry of Waring Cune~ who (along with Hughe8Jfnci Edward Silvera) belongs to the group sometimes called the Lincoln University poets.3 born Ge Cuney was ca. haU ofAtwin!_ in Washington, D.C ~ where he attended public schools andJ -:l.a.te.r studied music after Howard and Lincoln Universities , at the Boston servatory of Music and in Rome. Coi The twins had similar interests: ..... Waring's being singing and his brother's the piano. After his poem "No Images" won an Opportunity prize, James Weldon Johnson stated that Cuney's work held "exceptional promise." Howeve~ Cuney never became a prolific writer of literary poetry. Instead he divided his time between writing lyrics for songs and his other numerous chores. His protest lyrics were set to music and sung by Josh White on the album Southern Exposure. r f ~ - -- - And his poetry was not published in book form until 196 when the \ 3 / See Four Lincoln University Poets (Hughes, 1931) and Lincoln University ~ (Cuney, Hughes, and Bruce McM. Wright, 1954). Hughes called Lincoln University (Pennsylvania) "a place of beauty and the ideal college for a poet." His assessment seems to have been correct. Raymond Patterson, Larry Neal and - �ibliophile ~ociety in the Netherlands brought out Puzzles. r s _ _,1 ~ free -rverse and maintains "great economy of phrase." He usually writes in His poetry surveys the whole of the human experienc~ but most of it carries either a racial or a folksy note. There is also cynicism and skepticism of the sort found in Fenton Johnson, McKay, Heavily influenced by Hughes, Cuney's early work depicts frank Cullen and H~e. pictures of.Jiack and general life and often uses ~ a major vehicle. _,:,tuA plain, direct folk speech as 0,. / This trend is seen 1~ poems-Hke "Hard Times Blues, 11 "Crucif fixion," "Troubled Jesus," and "Burial of the Young Love." Though his poems were published in several magazines and antholo gies of the era, his "No Images" l.which won the Opportunitz prize ties in with a general poetic theme of if~e~ aissance: that pack beauty and creativity are too good to flourish in the decadence of Western civilization. The/ lack woman in Cuney's poem is similar to the Harlem Negro of Helene Johnson's poem, the dancer of McKay's "Harlem Dancer," the ravished and tormented narrator in Cullen's "Heritage," and the split personality in Toorner's "Kabnis" (Cane) ..!.. they all seek to be whole in a world that denies and caricat -- M (y tures their humanity. J: Cuney's woman figure . . . thinks her brown body Has no glory. But if she had an opportunity to dance as her natural selft "nakedJ" perhaps* in her natural habitatf'J Africa/4-where her "image' would be reflected by the riv~ then she would "know" how beautiful she is. ..,,_..,.~~-- - But civilization corrodes the idea of trees and naturalness and, consequently, deprives Blacks of their own beauty and their healthy s e lf-image: (f) And dishwater gives back no images. Dishwater is a kind of deathJ -a spiritual and moral death-~for Cuney whose work M M J Gil Scott-Heron are only three of the nejer poetic talents nurtured at Lincoln. 1oLse>(} CA'--5o 4"ffe,1ded lt ntoln, �~ - -- - - shows him to be preoccupied with death. Several of his poems ("Threnody," "The Death Bed," "Crucifixion," "Burial of the Young," "Finis" and "Dust") react to, anticipate or contemplate death. For Cuney, who seems to place a strong trust in the folkways, there is an irony in the fact that the God who protects the oppressors is also expected to protect the oppressed. cism makes it~ meet' dramatic ~.C?P.~~ This particular brand of/ lack cyni} wi h Dunbar and remains a dominant theme in pack poetry up until this very day. ."El '6 In "The Death Bed" the dying man sends all the praying "kin-folk" away from his bed. The praying ones, of course, think strange and continue praying against his will in a room acf ross the hall. "e,_;------.:----. ailing in an attempt to sing a final song, the dying man la'f>ses ....,.. and, knowing (1'I is i~nent, wonders . I! What it was they cou d be saying. talks about drought, hunger, de pression and general bad times in the South. The refrain contains this paradoxical plea-assertion: Great-God-Arnighty f) Folks feeling bad, Lost all they ever had. The indirect association of God with the misery)coupled with an oblique prayer for help is different indeedi though its antecedents can clearly be seen in the 1 coded;s'p irituals, blues, jokes , and oral epics of t he folk. A similar paradox and irony is contained in "My Lord, What a Morning" S ~he speaker is ecstatic ) over "black" Jack Johnson's defeat of "white" Jim Jeffries. Admitting to the "Lord" that "Fighting is wrong," the speaker nevertheless exclaims: But what an uppercut. Making God a colloquial personMp ack, that isp in several of his poems, Cuney - - - - - �kt- µ recalls Johnson's feat in ,God's Trombpn~~ ,uhaPe God is likened to a "mammy." 1 Another important later achievement of Cuney's is "Charles Parker, 1925 11955." The legendary jazz musician is given credit for reshaping the blues idiom in music/4and hence revitalizing the..Jlack aesthetic. The poem is made up of lines 1" of one~three words and includes phonetic renderings of saxophone sounds. And throughout the piece, the reader is advised to "listen." ~ Lewis Alexander apparently also wants us to "listen" to his "Enchantment/ ' which embodies, again, the theme of the exotic and beautiful African. the "body smiling with black beauty" is wearing "African moonlight." divides his poem into two sections: the "Medicine Dance." \,,. This time Alexander "Part I" which is "Night" and "Part II" J - - - -1 , Part one gives the setting, moonlight in Africa, juice gushing from over ripe fruit, palm trees, silence. In ! art ~ llAthe medicine dancer is placed in relief against the "grotesque hyena-faced monster" who (seeming to represent whites) is driven back into the "wilderness" by his own fear and the spell cast on him by the medicine dancer. The poem is in free verse and features several exclamation marks and single-word lines. Typographically, the poem works wel.7 with its depiction of dancing, mystery, suspense, fright and anticipation. There is a quickening here, a stalking there, finally a resolutio~ and the black body now dances with "delight" as lf..· erf Alexander Terror reigns like a net crowned queen. was born in Washington, D.C., edu;ated in public schoolsi including the celebrated Dunbar High, and •:.:.:.::!SI Howard University. His interests somewhat paralleled those of Cuney and Donald Jeffrey. Haye, and he acted in the Ethiopian Art Theatre Company; for a while he was a member of the Playwriters' Circle and the Ir !IOI'. of the Aldridge Players. I\ =- Many of the major themes and experimental techniques ~~~ naissance can be found in Alexander's poetry) .Jhamination of the Black ---r . 3il �anatomy to nature. Hughes says the faces, eyes and souls of "my people" are beautifu~ like the night, stars and sun. that the heav6 Alexander finds, on the other hand, anging sky, the curved scars of the moon, the twinkl,~f stars and the trembling earth all parallel the ?I; brow, tears flowing 4ilam C'an aging hurtt:~~ ~H)w~,,. tears A For Hughe "' '-l • 111 • ~ burdensome hair, wrinkled {eY~ ci?l.9.uiv,.~ , and cupping nature is a partner to / lack beauty; for Alexande~ it is a companion to agony, suffering and historical pain. possibilities of color and shade symbolism. when night falls black." Alexander also probes the "Dream Song" advises one to "dream In "Nocturne Varial" shadow (Blacks) becomes light (beautiful, aware) and the deeper thej iackness gets (spreads its influence) the more changes (the greater the impact) will occur among whites. In the deepest core of the night, "Each note is a star" but the light emitted from that dar~ ness is not blinding. Then, after this searching contrast and overlay of what painters call chiaroscuro, we are told ~ti'ra't:"!'I came as a shadow, To dazzle your night. The idea of transfiguration and change weighs heavily upon Alexander's poetry. Significant changes occur in "Negro Woman," "Enchantment," "Nocturne Varial" and "Transformation." After having arrived as a "shadow" in "Nocturne Varial" the poet (or the persona "I") decides to "return" a bitterness that has gone through the wash of tears. through the years." The bitterness becomes "loveliness" has been ~ rnished Announcing that the bitterness has been worn from the taste of the past, Alexander implies here, as he does in other poems, that he is a forgiving person. Indeed he may be saying that Blacks will hold no hatred (for whites) or desire for retribution. Alexander's poetry is concise and neat, mostly - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - -- - --- �in free vers nd conventional language. Neat also is the only anthologized poem by Lucy Ariel Williams Holloway. Found in Caroling Dusk (Cullen), The Poetry of The Negro (Hughes and Bontemps) and Johnson's The Book of American Negro Poetry, "Northboun'" garnered the coveted Opportunity poetry prize in 1926. We mention it because it shows great talent and feel in the employment of_;n.ack southern speech and it embodies not only ~~/~but historical concerns of Blacks. The world is neither flat nor round, the poet tells us: H'it's one long strip / Hangin' up an' downJ - M and there's only "Souf an' Norf." The foregoing is part of the chorus in this song-poem which comically predicts how people "all 'ud fall" if the world "wuz jes' a ball." challenges ~ ~ __.., ! hose who brag about the city seen by Saint John, Lucy Holloway to see Saginaw. Opportunities for Blacks are good in Saginaw (heaven~ and pretty women are plentiful. The poem restates the belief (developed during slavery and abolition efforts) that the North is heaven compared to the South ·(hell). Lucy Holloway emotionally chronicles the feelings, anticipations and oral narratives connected with "moving north." ',\tl~ Such a preoccupation can be seen throughout the literature of the period, in the stories, the poems, the plays, the novels, the articles and the songs. ughes, Ellison, Baldwin, C aude Since Norf is up, An' Souf is down, An' Hebben is up, I'm upward boun'. ----./4h.l.3 ; "-tells us what we ~uo,nc-e Finally, v. nd St mp refute: �Lucy Holloway's poem is interesting for another reason: '-'coming, as it did, at th/ 4 1 ~ thrust of thef naissance, it represented a throwback to the dialect and min ~ strel traditions •-.-t-'7'~ most of the New Negro writers were trying to break. And , ~ ,t)J Lwr ,, ~ although/\Johnson ~ and fl ughes worked in dialect, their m~or efforts were decidedly different from those of the Dunbar school. Reading ~Holloway's poem, however, one is immediately reminded of Dunbar, Campbell, Carrothers and ~ D 1JI Hill Davis. YetJ a final reason for using the example of Lucy Holloway is to lead into at least a partial listing of the poets who published in magazines, regional ..., anthologies and newspapers during the Harlem Renaissance and afterward • • among the dozens of lesser and unknown poet~we mention the following: From Gladys May Casely Hayford (born in West Africa), Allison Davis, Esther Popel Shaw, 1 1f' J. Mason B r e w e r ~ ' ( M~_,, .,. { enneth W. Porter, Harvey M. Williamson, Eleanor Graham Nichols, Corrinne E. Lewis, Mary Effie 1 ~~ , Edward Garnett Riley, Albert Rice (a member of Georgia Douglas Johnson's writin workshop), Carrie W. Clifford (The Widening Light, 1922), Marcus B. Christian, Winston Allen, Mae V. Cowdery, Tilford Jones, Adeline Carter Watson, Will Sexton and Edward Silvera. Some of these occasional and newspaper poets made temporary "splashes" and moved on. Mae V. Cowdery won a Crisis poetry prize in 1927 and published a volume of her poetry in the thirties. and Silvera are the most important. Of this group of poets, however, Christian Christian (1900~ ) was born in Houma, Louisiana, an{~rimarily self-educated. For a whil 7 he served as supervisor of the Dillard University Negro History Unit of the Federal Writers' Project. later rOeived a Julius Rosenwald Fellowship to complete begun on the project before V - af He historical study going to work in the Dillard Library. His poems �appeared in various anthologies and magazines. And his available work has both general and racial flavor and shows him to be a skilled wordf handler. Craftsman" is about artistic excellence. The artist~ presumably the poetf must work with "consummate care" and be "free of flaws." above everything else. ever. "The This is so because art is The poet knows that if he writes well, he "lives" for{ I I Christian employs a form-;\the sonnet/V\that is consistent with his high calling. Another sonnet, "McDonogh Day in New Orleans," is a celebration of the beauty of Jiackness. Detailing the difficulty a poor ,ilack girl has in trying to get the kind of clothes she needs, Christian finally has her attired "Like some dark princess" wearing "blue larkspur" coupled with "yellow marigold." True, she looks good going to schoo l, But few would knowt or even guess this fact: How dear comes beauty when a skin is black. lived a productive, if tragically short, life. He was born in Jacksonville, Florida, attended local public schools an~duated from Orange High; he then went to Lincoln University in Pennsylvania where he participated 1 in sports and wrote poetry, some of which was included in Four Lincoln Poet • His poetry also appeared in magazines and anthologies. i s quie t and spari,ei reminiscent of Cuney, his friend introspective poets of the period. Much of Silvera's poetry Horne, and many of the But his work does carry the prevailing themes M~ t :aissance poetry. "Jungle Taste," for example, celebrates the_ Africa of oldM I\ ;:.. ~ .-,lem1 ,. ' Africa before the appearance of the "civilization" Fenton Johnso~n_, The "Coarseness" in the "songs of black men" does not sound "strange" to Silvera. Neither does the "beauty" in the "faces of black women" seem unusual. men alone can "see" this "dark hidden beauty." Yet lack In "Forgotten Dreams" only a "heap" of entangled thread now lies where once a beautiful dream had been spun. Here, �Silvera seems to be lamenting the loss of something -maybe viewing his approaching death. Likewise, in another poem, "On the Death of "spun" image . Child," he again uses the The child comes without a "voice" to announce its arrival. lark sings, but "shadows" have already "foretold" that death is near. had been "spun" and the end comes. Hughes and Bontemps anthologies. The The "shroud" Silvera's and Christian's works appear in the Silvera's poetry also appears in Kerlin ' s Negro Poets and Their Poems. The dominant themes in poetry of the Harlem Renaissancel -cultural reclamation, M stylistic experimentation, romantic engagement with Africa, a presentation of the rawness of p ack life/\1\ can also be found in the fiction, drama, painting, music, criticism, and Efles ~lett§ , of the period. is Locke's The New Negro. Bu t we 1 The best documentation of these items € ) ·sb t t o rnont i a~ S ome of the major names in • prose (fiction and non-fiction) •~ --• ••½;::::::----••l~1 also wrote poet rJ: ~Jean Toomer, Eric Walrond, Jessie Redmond Fauset, Rudolph Fisher, Nella Larson, Zora Neale Hurston, McKay, Hughes, Cullen, Walter White,~) D~ ois, Charles S. Johns on, Carter G. Woodson, Bruce Nugent, John Matheus, Cecil Blue, Montgomery Gregory, Arthur Huff Fauset, James Weldon Johnson, E. Franklin Frazier and Arthur A. Schomburg . ~ n-:u C Renaissance Fallout: N~gritude Poets and Pan-African Writing Claude McKay's influence, as a novelist (Banjo), on leaders of African nationalism has already been noted. But McKay's impact was not the first of its kind, nor the last. and During the centuries, Africans in the Western Hemisphere had exchanged ideas and made pacts with each other and with their fellows of color in Africa. In Chapter III we noted this pervasive influence as seen in documents, the establishment of African societies and the African Methodist Episcopal �Church, the founding of Liberia, and the daring and courageous example of the West African Cinque. of West Indian, We also noted the arrival in the United States of a number ------ ~ t.r1 . and ~ unabated up until this very day. Russwurm, He:5 American Blacks/y\a flow that has remained We call innnediately to mind such names as .!illlll Garvey, McKay, and Stokely Carmichael. The poet John Boyd, dis cussed in Chapter III, was a Bahamian. '::l It was during the 1920~, however, that the Pan-African flavor was most dramatically and thoroughly demonstrated. H- Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association~which claimed thousands of followers and members, was in full swing by the time of the 111 ,n ~ - naissance. - D,.fuois was the driving force behind four T Pan-African,Jfongresse~ whi~h met successively between 1919 and 1927 (in Paris, London and New York). And the predominant themes infenaissance literature were ~ reclamation of the African heritage and celebration of the beauties and talents of African peoples. Consistent with our study, however, is a consideration of one of the most I ,fl'"{ttt, Svd, Q.-tA,Jic:t.S important from the Harlem t'enaissance: ~ the Negritude school ot"f ~, _ ____, --------- - - -,.. , Paris, Dakar and Algiers. As natives of French=Cf<oms•' young / lack students and intellectuals were trained in I French schools and 'l 4"-""""1-i.. dual citizenship • • (This practice represents a throwback ,.,/ to the Creole poets, many of whom were educated in France.) the Negritude poets' activities here. '/ of Martinique, Leon Damas (191 (1906 ) of Senegal. But we only summarize Chief among them a r e ~ clsaire (1913 ) ) of French Guiana, and Llopold sldar Senghor " More information, including examples of Negritude poetry, an be found in Jean-Paul Sar~'s "Orph:e Neir" ("Black Orpheus"} which prefaced Le'opold sldar Senghor's anthology of ; ifca_n and West ,Yldian poetsi l,i1 nowell ,ie ,U'l,jlr$ et Anthologie de !!'algach' ~~~ t!;ii.llljil~~ (P~ris, 1948) • Although .__/ �the important preface has appeared in various hard-to-get translations, it appeared in book form for the first time in C·f •f · Bigsby's The Black American Writer, Volume II: Poetry and Drama (1971). For further study see the works '--" of Fra1 Fanon, writings of Senghor (see also, 1/opold se'dar Senghor and the Politics of Negritude, Irving L. Markovitz, 1969), and the numerous anthologies Ml\r>I e CoLL ,"5,, of African poetry by Langston Hughes , ,\Keorapetse Kgositsile, Wilfred Cartey, Rainer Schulte and Quincy Troupe, and Mercer Cook and Stephen Henderson's The Militant Black Writer in Africa and the United States (1969) _111'/t)J .f.1.,t Is m 1if'e.xl,11ustr11e • N~gritude has been eloquently and illustratively defined by S~re, Senghor, Cook, Paul Vesey (Samuel Allen) and others. The term (roughly corresponding to ;aiack American)l'oul) refers to the mystique o~ ackness -W'tl½>ett actions, creativity and general life style of some Africans. pervades the thought, Senghor calls it a philosophy of humanism; Vesey finds elements of it in the Afro-American church and in the works of artists such as Baldwin ~ fib Haiti to Cayenne, there is a single ide~ ~, is evangelic, it announces good news: \ Ellison; Sartre notes: ~h~ "From eveal the black soul. Blackness has been rediscovEed : ." I/, ' first creative work to emerge from this French-speaking sector o~ / Black poetry fluence was Le~ n Damas ~ rPigments {1937). The nai ssance Like t h e ~ works that followed, Pigments extolled/ lack beauty and lamented / lack suffering . The influence of ~ Hughes is more evident in Damas than in other I )(~gritude poets. Damas \ freely admits in conversation that he (and his compatriots) owes much to Hughey who offered prizes to African writers and helped expos e African literature to the world. Pigments heralded the arrival of ,J(~gritude. Its style, reminiscent of Hughes, is "sharp, slangy, tense and fast-moving" and was revolutionary to French poetry when it appeared. / Cesaire published Cahier d'un retour au pays natal (Return to My Native Land) in 1938. Senghor has published Chants d'ombres (S06 ) �of Shadows, 1949), Hosties Noires (Black Victims, 1948), Chants pour Naett (Songs / fo, NaGt~, 1949), Ethiopiques (1959) and Nocturnes (1961). Both c: saire an? -+M ,J Senghor have been heavily influenced by jazz, blues an Apoetry of" ,-.-,, 11 \\ i Qrio.'$t;a.t1 Eirt ·y \ \ C~ ~ ~ posed to these forms in the salons of Madi moiselle Nardal between 1929 and 1934, they found Afro-American expression liberating and "fertilizing." ~ r an a fforded them similar exposure after 1935.) (The salons of Also contributing to this convergence were the efforts of Mercer Cook; who, as statesman and scholar, played an important par t in bringing the works of/ lack Americans to their African and Caribbean contemporaries.fsenghor's great poem about New York has immediate ties to both t h ~ naissance and the impact of Harlem on him. As in many of his poems, Senghor de ignates the instrument(s) to accompany the piece. he chooses "Jaz·z Orchestra: solo trumpet." For "New York" New York's beauty at first "confused" Senghor, but after a couple of weeks in that city one grows accustomed to buying "artificial hearts ." He is ecstatic about ([;' Harlem Harlem! I have seen Harlem Harlem! ••• Senghor writes of the African landscape, warriors, love and his admiration for ) 'lack women. As president of Senegal, he presided over the First World Fest i val of Negro Aj.ts, held in Dakar in 1966.,Damas deals with problems of color and class in his poetry and def ines i~gritu~ freef verse. - in a series of rolling, vigorous stanzas in ✓ ;- His ot her collections of poems include Poemes ne gres sur des airs africains (1948), Graffiti (1952), Black-Label (1956) and Nevralgies (1965?). Like other ~Efgritude poets, Damas read the poetry of ~ tiualteJles~cJ,- ll[ r:J N ..t14i)tsaat _ k (critics seem to a gree, however, that the Africans and Caribbean poets surpassed their American brothers and sisters) Damas ~(cynicism and irony can be detected in the following titles: "Almost White ." "Enough," "s.o.s.," "Position," "Good Breeding," and Damas satirizes the J lack middlet class and the / lack habit of .rr" �straightening hair and using bleaching creams/similar themes can be found in ~/ the poetry of Cesair7 who also employs free verse and makes great use of irony. ~ ,. Return to My Native Land catalogs all the scientific things that Blacks have not -th e. l"lu\l. invented, but later gives them credit for being the backbone ofAbumaTI;\eriat e-... rJ..,Cv Cesaire has served as mayor of Fort de France and a deputy to the French National /\ Assembly, representing the independent revolutionary party of Martinique. He quit the French Communist Par ty in the 1950~ and has since been active in African '-- nationalism. His other collections of poetry are Les Armes miraculeuses (1946), Solejl e⇒ (1948), Corps perdu (1950) and Ferrements (1960). c / saire~ mas and Senghor have also written drama (mostly about } lack historical figures) and essays on )(egritude and Pan-African liberation. Washi ngton , D .C ✓ where he teaches literature at Howard University and Federal City College . / ~he /~gri t udy I in Norma Damas is currently living in K) ovement i n poetry ~ best recorded in / I / Shapiro's Ne r i tude: ~Black Poetr s4re'j articles and from Africa and he Caribbean (197 0)~ encompassed ~everal other important / lack areas and figures: Ernest Alima (Cameroon), J oseph Miezan Bognini and Bernard Dadi¥ (Ivory Coast), Jean-Fernand I/ Br ier re and Re11e Depes tre (Haiti), Si riman Cissoko (Mali), Dav i d Diop) (Senegal . a great poe J killed in an airp l ane crash in 1956 t Jocelyne Etienne and Guy Tirolien ~ (Guadeloupe), Camar a Laye (Gui nea) ad Emile-D~sirJ O ogoudou l (Dahomey ), to name jus t a few . In other J ha.ck French- spe aking t errito rie s, t h e }.(~gri tude , · concept took ho l d unde r diffe r ent hames. In Haiti i t was calle d Indigenism~ </I' The_ Harlem Renai ssanc e and the s ubsequent concept of7-egritud~ influenced t hese poets in various ways and t o greater· or ~ fi~ i,-.uem,, ~ . njJt' and .q, emotio UW\ ·IIPt..'f? ~ Afro-Ame ican" than and thinkers of po 1 i· t i c __-::r,rw. n ___. s tyles a nd tech ees. But t he influence i s there. 7 This interchange among writers the;/i-ack world has~••ill~~~_j ts current rich and i mportant tide (more on thi s in Chapter VI). ,,.~,ft oets b ear greater resembl ance t ~ ;,t1;hl6r.. 1 �✓ ~r L~ (!;/ l THE EXTENDED RE~AISSANCE: ,3Qls, ~ ,40:,J,S, ~ ,sols ~ c;::-- Some critics ~ h e Harlem Renaissance ~as simply the peak of f near i;kJ and consciousness-raising . And, as observed earlier, there is also divergent opinion over whether an actual 7enaissanc~ occurred. But, arguments aside, the stock ., a ket crash of 1929 is PeNN (U"ff\e Ha J generally~ i as the official end of theNesignate~Renaissance t-r\since white 11La.clc. patronage ended and th~writers had not developed followings among the grass roots. Important here also are positions t aken by two £ 5t ot-wkont critics Kw~ k-entntJ.. of the er~f~ Sterling Brown and J. Saunders Redding/ )f!othAfeel th~~m,a6i,er 7 ~ ~ was primarily a fad; Brown C . d/\.4::e- Harlem~ a "show-window" and Redding claimed the writers mistook Harlem for real..)'lack life: First of all, Negro writers, both poets and novelists, centered their attentions so exclusively upon life in the great urban c ent ers that the city, especially Harlem, became an obsession with them. Now Harlem life is far from typical of Negro life; indeed, life there is lived on a t heatr ical plane that is as far from true of Ne gro life elsewhere as life in t he Latin Quarter is from the truth of life in Picardy. The Negro writers' mistake lay in the assumption that what they saw was Negro life, when in reality it was just Harlem life . (To Make ,;{Poet Black) 1 }I 'V 1 By way of parallel, it is instructive to note that a leading contemporary / iack critic, Addison Gayle, Jr., accuses / lack write rs of the 1960s and~ of being similarly remiss. In the September 1974 issue of Black World, Gayle discuss~ €) �"The Black Aesthetic: ~10 Years Later" and for "Reclaiming the Southern Experience." a"tempf Iii ;I$ P new; (lack literature is rooted in the South sho recent~ lack writing than he should be. to lay out a blmifJrint claim tha t hardly any of the him to be less familiar with (See, for example, the works of Dumas, Alice Walker, Pinkie Lane, Arthenia Bates, Alvin Aubert, and others.) But, generally , his thesis, derived from John Oliver Killens' ~ statementj, "We are a ~ outhern peoplel;' is solid and :"ell taken. Gayle's and Redding, s comments ought to be measured against Donald Gibson , s vie.J/of the \INew''/Poe try as an\''urban'' fn roduc The works of .,.Zlack poets in the three decades following the 1920s vu .,bc,.,..V\(H.~'-1 e.~ ~o,..:, .C\. ...lC,~ - -,.;..C.ros-s~~e~m,! cP technical by ,~ and thematic a. k The Great Depression was felt world-wide•p111M•2~2®naaB lacks and rich. . whites, poor The droughts , referred to in Cuney's "Hard Time Blues," the ravages ~tia.•■J?~~:nionization, J5t f@ i of the/ oll_jeevil, the plight of the sharecroppers, the workers'p~ and the attraction of the Communist Party (with its c~f o of racial unity and equality) , all inspired and informed Afro-American poetry of t he thirties, forties and fifties . So did lynching, unemployment, )ilack history 8cultural reclamation and protest; but the tendency, in general, was to seek the deliverance of "all men." _,,/.ttl. .1nd thirties: seeking McKay, Hughes and others (in the twenties 32jgg]wJI \ti; @J to~t ~~ i3 / Ji I · riag tft!' eee < ,,,-. err racism1 ____. / ommunism . istJ C (>.. I, Desperately • Afro-American - - ~o.iN~Te.s J artists, intellectuals and writers-.. not only bec~me Communists, but.4i rt baisbs ~ . t egrationists, . . pan- Af ricanists) . . ~ . Drea~._. -... in 2~- - n ~Ssee k ers o f t h e Am erican 7 re,le civ il servants or model citizens. example of Richard Wright Wt:t-eUsW:~lt.E" Gi1:,Cast ~ P \I -o,; W.E , B. Few of the writers, however, followed the acfuo.Llv ~\I~ Dtfoi~ who~oine& the $ arty. -illb w~~ hak:cs against ~ ~ the Depression in the thirties, jj/J//ai/\in the forties, and Korea and McCarthyism in the fifties. Compared to the first three decades of the century, relatively little,11ack \!j{e e h is Mo dern Bla c k Po etsr J ~ "Introducti on 11 ) . • �poetry was published in book form between 1930 and 1960. In a 1935 article in Opportunity Alain Locke lamented the low quality and quantity of postJtenaissanc e poetry. d<ff!.,. With the exception of Hughes and Cullen, most of th~pens were silent during the thirties. Several -;,:n~Woets, however, made their debuts . Frank ) and Sterling A. Brown (1901 ) made m~or i-~,-a(li> ~ ~ ~ . t i , ~wo.·, i ntt\e 4.~ ~ t"o" Jat o.~ ll"ewll wtl> no-1- ~eo.,-dy .. oh-1 "'' " ' ' • aM th n •~H• 1111 t 11eltr.1 · P'!'e1tt•ftik!ep:."1z.li A ~ / \ . Robert Hayden (1913-V), Har~all D~vis (1905t-7 Melvin B. Tolson (1900 1 ~ 66) and Margaret Walker (1915f ) also made first appearances in the thiFtie~ but they sustained roductive careers. r,, Fiction writer Richard Wright (1908J Mf' 60) wa 0,e-1~~~ -±'- poet who joined the '-" thirties group. "transitional," A second wave of poets, Owen Dodson (1914{- appeared in the forties, fifties and early sixties: 1 '"' Dudley Randall (1914N ), Gwendolyn Brooks (1917NL (1915;/ - V ) , Pauli Murray (1910-f w ) ,. Bruce McM. Wright (1918,;;- Long Nadgett (1923-'tv' Lance Jeffers (1919p ) , May Mill ) , James C. Morriss (1920t - I ), Naomi elen Johnson Collins (1918N~ ) , ), Raymond Patterson ) , Oliver Pitcher (1923/r _. nnt""be,..,. ).••••••17fMostj.of this transitional ,J Sarah E. Wright (1929 j ) , Myron ), Gloria C. Oden (19 23N- ), Russell Atkins (19267v- 1§ ) , Ray Durem ~ (1915;;." f.J), M. Carl Holman (1919~ (1929t{ .,,.a a 11 ), ~ argaret Danner ~ Paul Vesey, 1917-I ), Samuel Allen(~ " I O'Higgins (1918-~ • ), ), and 'C/ group did not s et a real hearing until the sixties; j hey will be looked at as a group in Chapte r VI. of DozensA,others published or wrote occasionally. the poets writing in the thirties ll .__ Brown separates o~ ______ ......._,,,,, i nto "new rea~ists;; l'\'l~Ultf and "romantics." \ The ( ord "romantic" seems to be anall gous to "l brarl;\11 l and both are used to speak - - - - -- . - Yj ~V somewhat disparagingly of poets thus categorized. The "realists" and writers of protest included Welborn Victor Jenkins (Trumpet in the New Moon, 1934), Frank Awton9 Marshall Davis and Wri ght. ~ose concerned with "romantic escapes" were -- �Alpheus Butler (Make Way for Happiness, 1932), J. Harvey L. Baxter (That Which Concerneth He, 1934; Sonnets for the Ethiopians and Other Poems, 1936), Eve " ) Lynn (No Al a baster Box, Marion Cuthbert (April Grasses, 1936) a~ ~ t Our Voic~ ae ~owdery The romantics wrote about nature, delicacy / lov~J qu ntnes ':I and their work reflects vI more ..._bookfat learning than anything else. ____.., said that Jenkins' work deserved "an original pl ace in Negro poetry:" but Trumpet 'l in,jlhe New Moon is out of printi and Jenkins' poetry is absent from every anthology of Afro-American poetry. His poetic s ketches of thej lack life encompass praci tically every important facet. Though owing much to Whitman and Sandburg, Jenkins' work is still important enough to be reissued as well as anthologized. Wright, often called the father of the modern,,t1ack novel, was a poet in (l No other American writer ' s personal od4yssey has been so bleak his own right. ~ and difficult.• • • • • •""':. ~ From poverty, orphanhood, educational deprivation and racism, he emerged as one of the most influential and dominant forces in American literature . Not only did a so-called "Wright / chool" of t riters result from his efforts, but countless white writers also imitated1.,Hlli~••· most discussed novel, Native Son (1940), th1 1h u ii ems e Boe1r s f His cs l!Hl.ihl2i it - sunnned up the emotional and psychological history of p ack urban America over the preceding @ t"" years. • l m112:::,1!:tst1:•v .,,.rr;. ~ chr"oT"icle! the hopes (and - "Northboun' " to seek the Promised Land • ---- $ (1:018) ; p&bliShtd rte@ disillusionment s ) of Blacks ..Jiiiifr11211·01thhiat•1•l•-,fl!I! . llitlliJIB!'mlk1111ed:nxl!'!aamcm1111e•••ea9_ !!ll'JII!.■-- As a poet _.~•1111111• Wright deserves more than•passing interest. ) He joined '-" the Communist Party in the thirties and remained a member until 1944 . ~ His poetry, protest coupled with calls f or u n i t y ~ Blacks and whites, was ~ - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - .. - - - - -- �published in various journals and news organs of the period: Literature, New Masses, Anvil, Midland and Left. Much of International ia:::::::: J~~s quoted in Dan McCall's The Example of Richard Wright (1969 ~ and his poems appear in » The Norton Anthology of Hodern Poetry (Ellman and O'Clair), The Negro Caravan, I\ _T_h_e__,P~o~e_t_r~y_o~f=-B_l_a_c_k_Am_e_r_i_c_a, American Negro Poetry and other anthologies.,.) fl ( 81 t ..,.. ~rn near Natchez: Mississippi, and experien, an erratic educatione, and Mciltzv home life/ 'D'ffl~~:., ~ nsarl u a dnn di ffernt 11\~ J b I . JdC SJ HI I I d l1 l I L Y ~Y s-e.#LeJ in :<(k,·c.&.~9·wher-e he.-1"1Ceci w~'Nt ·r · 1 . l\:ederal Writers' Project during the Depression (becoming a friend to Davis, Margaret Walker and others). Ha. ii 1 ll I .• & II I zft 11 g 111j tiPlii - He died in 1960 in Paris where he had settled (at the suggestion of J Gertrude Stein) and joined the Existentialist group of writer, led by Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir. His poetry is in free verse and the Japanese haiku form -which he discovered late in his life. His haikus are harmless elliP, 1Fteri tical statements, as haikus~re. -,I,€)/ Aare . rarely racial in flavor. But his protest poetry of the thirties show.{him to be a poet of unmistakable talent and sensitivity. "I Have Seen Black Hands" owes debts to the American school of poetry developed by Whitman, Fento)l Johnson, Masters, Sandburg, Hughes and others. -ft...ct po,ep,,.I In ,;,,..AWright catalo s the services rendered and corresponding disservices received by Blacks. He announces) ~ I am black and I have seen black hands, million., and millions of themk and that these "hands" have reached na·i vely, creatively, harmlessly, softly and with strength, out to each other and to do the white man's bidding. Despite their stamina, vigilance and dependability, these same hands are the last put to �work and the first idled. They held the "dreaded lay-off slip." They suffered from "unemployment and starvation." And they grew nervous and sweaty, and opened and 9 shut in anguish and doubt and hesitation~ Iand irresolution . •.• p Wright continues, as in his prose works, to develop a psychological portrait of the abused and dehumanized Blacks. There is a drive and an incremental swell reminiscent of Margaret Walker's "For My PeopleJ'.," as he recalls having seen "black hands" grip prison bars, knotted and clawf like under the lynch rope, or "beat fearfully at tall flames." ButJ1ack hands and white hands will someday merge as "fists of revolt" and create a new "horizon." 41 ;.at zS5iJens Blacks and whites Here, of course, ~ W r i g h t ~ ~ to become Communists. "Between t he World and Me," however, sustains a different angle of the theme begun in ."I Have Seen Black Hand : " A )flack man has been lured into a wooded area and seduced by a white prostitute; the narrator becomes the l ynched body whose remains are ••• dry bones •.• and a stony skull staring in O yellow surprise at the sun. • •• Making use of awesome, horr~ fying images and clashing, brilliant -~ olors and jhJ#"HJ'fll1d'1 I i IJ sounds, the poem recounts the most insignificant details of the events andJ\ i,J( of the lynching: And the sooty details of the scent rose, thrusting Q themselves between the world and me . . •. There was a design of white bones slumbering 0 forgottenly upon a cushion of ashes. There was a charred stump of sapling pointing a 0 blunt finger accusingly at the. sky. ll'J~ �There were torn tree limbs, tiny veins of burnt .0 leaves, and scorched coil of greasy hemp; And upon the trampled grass were buttons, dead ! matches, butt-ends of cigars and cigarettes, , peanut shells, a drained gin-flask, and a whore's lipstick; Scattered traces of tar, restless arrays of feathers, and the lingering smell of gasoline. The poem continues, as the narrator , who "stumbled suddenly upon the thing," becomes one with the victim. technique. It is a fascinating and highly appropriate poetic Owing much to the psychological school of writing, but indicting t he cosmos (as Dunbar does in "The Haunted Oak"), "Between the World and Me" states that the lynch victim is every Black. And the world (through the recitation of usually passive components of the natural landscape) shares in the guilt, the revulsion and the horror of the act . Before God and the world, the victim .•. clutched childlike, clutched to the hot sides fJ of death. In Black on White (1966 ~ David Littlejohn calls Wright's poem and Robert Hayden's ''Middle Passage" "the two finest poems by Negroes." Sterling Brown's poetry also falls into the category of realism though not I in the political sense ~ .1'111 which it is applied to other writers of the era. Like Cuney , Wright, Davis, Hughes and others, Brown in Southern Road (1932) depicts the harshness and starkness of )flack miser~ but his poetry is "chiefly sov~e.~-, an attempt at folk portraiture of our @I] &~characters." A highly respected critic and scholar of/ lack folk literature, Brown approached his "portraits" as a student of the linguistic and thematic materials with which he worked. He was born and �reared in Washington, D.C. At Williams College, he was elected to Phi Beta Kappa in 1921 and in 1923 received an H.A. from Harvard. Since that time, Brown, the son of educatorf parents, has had a long and distinguished career as writer, editor, teacher, and professor of English at Howard University. He has also taught at New York University, Vassar College and Atlanta University. 193 ~ he was Editor oJ. Negro Affairs From 1926 for the Federal Writers' Project, and in 1939 he was a staff member of the famous Carnegie-Myrdal Study of the Negro. The recipient of numerous awards, Brown is the author of The Negro in American Fiction (1937) and Negro Poetry and Drama (1937). In 1941, he served as senior editor of The Negro Caravan (with Arthur P. Davis and Ulysses P. Lee), probably the most influential and definitive anthology of Afro-American literature ever published. In the twentie 7 ::::Ji of publishing articles, \,\b ~ ••M L - ' ~ ~ Brown began ~~rah.,,. t _ reviews and criticism in various journals, newspapers and periodicals. Perceptive, relentless and seemingly always in focus, Brown performed important surgery on/ lack folk culture and its manifestations in the poetry, music and language. His f indings were published in Negro Poetry and Drama, where he also ,...., concluded t hat the New Negro Movement (1914,7~36) produced the following five "major concerns" among the poets: .Q (l• )'. p, rediscovery of Africa as a source for race pride ; (2 t /use of Ne gro heroes and heroic episodes from American history· J P"ropaganda of protest· / (4 • -k' treatment of the Negro masses (frequently of the folk, less often of the workers) with more understanding and less apology/ • (S t )rnd franker and deeper self~ revelation. Brown's own / poetry revived interest in / lack dialect from a vigorously different l e,. ftJ,,t angle '~ r,Cullen ~1 before~ (Caroling Dusk) and Johnson (The Book of American Negro �Poetry) had for ecast t he doom of dia lect poetry . ) ,, Cullen said it s day was over \\ and Johnson reduced it to two stops: humor and pa t hos. '-" (Int e restingl y , Art hur P. Davis, in From the Dsu:l& Imxey, r epeat• Johnson's pos i tion!) However, Br own ra..nd took the ~ 1 & @r\that dialect has limitless possibilities if poets a nd writers only have the courage and t he ingenuity to work with it. Of the debate and con flict over dialect poetry, he said: Ii ' lnialect, or the speech of the people, is capable of expressing whatever the people are. And the folk Negro is a great deal more than a buffoon or a plaintive minstrel. Poets more intent upon learning the ways of the folk, their speech, and their character, that is to say bett e r poets, could have smashed the 'Pie'/ mold. But first they would have had to believe in what~ere doing. ~ And this was difficult in a period of conciliation and ~class striving for recognition and respectability . Brown himself used his knowledge of f olk culture to interpret the people through poetry . ,._, And he considered t his ap proach "one of the i mportant tasks of Negro poetry." Some observ;..r s see a contradiction in Brown's dazzling academic achiev~ ments and his poetic work in the folk materials. poets could learn much from ~rk But current young scholars a nd example . (_ Wagner (Black Poets of t he United States) points to the irony and humor in Bro4 sking Johnson to write the .!:ntroduction to Southern Road. For, in doing so, Johnson was literally forced to take back much of his own criticism of dialect poetry. Indeed Johnson had to admit to Brown's formidable achievement with the folk forms. Before Southern Road, in The Book of American Negro Poetry, the elder poet and critic acknowledged that Brown was "one of the outstanding poets �of the younger group"; for the '.'best wor1:,'' Brown "dug his raw material from the great raine of Negro folk poetry," thus expressing the folk idiom with "artistry and magnified power." Kerlin (Negro Poets and Their Poems) ranked Southern Road as a first volume with Cullen's Color and Hughe s s lThe Weary Blues. f □ J M Even from ..C. Senegal, Africa, \h._as comifp""raise \ ,-,t;,._Brown in the form of '.fii",j'"?tr Senghor's assertion that Hughes and Brown are "the most Negro" of J lack American poets. There is always the temptation to compare the two poets but, as Wagner suggests, Brown is the "antithesis of Langston Hughe~' since Hughes is the poet of the city and Brown the bard of the @ In his closeness to the soil and his serious studies of / lack folk culture, Brown has been compared to Johnson and Zora Neale Hurston (see Jonah's Gourd Vine and Mules and Men). The folk idiom, coupled with drama and word\ portraits, provides the meat of Brown's work; though it must be mentioned that he also writes in conventional English with marked success. His poetic universe is generally drab ~ with occasional flashes of wry humor. His is the poetry of hard times and suffering. He expresses skepticism in .,face of religion and God; and ironically there is no ~ reference to Africa as is the ease (almost thematically) ~ '11'\ period. most poettl'{of the i+me~,c~,.i Brown seems to be saying the fight is her71 not in an Africa of mind ~ - or fact, and that the f lack man is pitted against forces of naturc. -wmi::s,k alter~ , nately work f or and against him. Writing during the pression years, Brown was concerned with the deadly cholera, the boll weevil, the ravages of the flooding Missouri river, the plight of the sharecropper and tenant farmer, and white racism. It is clear that, for Brown, the hope (if it is there) for the/ lack man lies in his own stamina, his own historical endurance and strengths. " f uses the poet in ~ ½iii@ Consequently \ ~ 1 strengths and defianceSwith folk rhythms/4especially the dramatic narrative and the contrapuntal pattern 331 incorporates italics �for emphasis and the various sounds of men at work, play, prayer, dance or battle. "Strong Men" is perhaps the bes t example of Brown's style. line from Sandburg~ Using a "The strong men keep coming on"f.A.he actually borrows exact phrasings, aphorisms, bits of parables and parts of secular and religious songs from the folk culture. The formal English narrative is set in dramatic and musical relief through the use of the technique described above. Steeped in a µ); tradition that spans Whitman, Fenton Johnson, Hasters and Eliot , Brown catalogs '/I the numerous injustices Blacks have suffered; he interjects "The strong men keep a-comin' on" or "keep a-inchin' along" or "Walk togedder chillen." Even though Blacks were "dragged" from their native land and degraded in every possible way, they kept "Gittin' stronger\y.) (\...,,"t/1. ~ · ~ same messag~in "Strange Legacies, 11 "After ~inter, 11 "Southern Road" (a near paraphrase of a work song), "Ma Rainey," and the six-part sequence "When/e Saints Go Ma ' ching Home ." is what Brown gives his characters. to "stagger" but none to halt! Wha t D~ ois called ~ "dogged streng t h" As Hargaret Walker sug8ests, there is room Reminiscent of "The Weary Blues," "Uhen / e Saints" depicts the "Trouble, Trouble" deep down in the "soul" of a/ lack singer. But that trouble, like the "weariness" of Hughes , is a collective trouble! the weight, the fatigue, the burden of the folk . We hear it everywhere in / lack expression, from Bessie Smith to Mari~ Anderson, from Paul Laurence Dunbar to Paul Robeson, from Fenton Johnson to Harvin Gaye (Trouble Man), from the "sad" and "sorrow" songs of the slaves to the blues singers of the river towns and jepression years . After the singer in Brown's poem had played his various sad and sin songs, he alw~ys '- played one in which he stepped out . of the role of "entertainer. " would then give forth nts." He Anticipating his arrival in heaven and others who would be there, heAcarefully describel what each of the entrants _, �~-) .:.wiJd be wearing. It is a gala affair f'l\ initiation into heavenM and most of the The sinners, of course, are not allowed in heaven. 1 They include portin' Leg , lucky Sam, Smitty, Hambone, ' Hardrock Gene and others. Brown also wrote in the ballad form ("He was a Man"), conventional verse ("Effie" and "Salutamus"--a sonnet) and the blues form popularized by Hughes in The Weary Blues. His lack men are on the run (from a mob or police), in trouble with whites as a result of an arrogant act or response, getting killed, trying to figure out how to feed the household, or being assaulted by natural disasters. In a large number of these poems there ~ orrow, devastation, catastrophe, violence, death, tragedy, social disruption, chaos, ruin, need, pain, skepticism and the paranoia inherent in ack life. "He was a Han" depicts how a f lack man -::: beat a white man (who drew first) to the draw but was lynched in the tradition of handling Blacksg Despite the fact that "strong men" keep coming , "Strong Hen" is a poem replete with negatives. "Sister Lou" is a longing for heaven as a respite from the hardships and racial injustices suffered here on earth. is the portrait of a/ lack man "ragged" as "an old scarecrmf "After Winter" whose "swift thoughts" are about the food, drink and space he must obtain for his family. "Ma Rainef' (".fother of the Blues") is therap~tic in her words and her delivery. But she -w • bcL. ~ .l-ii!l!e~ Fenton •• m •"' merchandise . Johnson's "monarcl!,' ' who presides over sacks of The people come to Ma Rainey to "keep us strong." and feel sad when she sings. But they cry And on goes the Southern Road with the exception of the Slim Greer story-poems and the lover-man theme~ which nevertheless feature men who must either love quick and run or those reminiscing about their loves while they swing the hammer on the chain gang. predicaments. ,.___ _ --="---- - - - - Slim Greer finds himself in various Most memorable are his visits to heaven and hell ("Slim in Hell"), �his absurd effort to pass for whit e t hough he is dark "as midnight" ("Slim Greer") and his bout with the Atlanta law tha t requires Blacks to laugh only i n a "telefoam booth" ("Slim in Atlanta"). Brown's really great achievement, however, is s een in t he brilliant "Memphis Blues." Here the poet asks what difference is it to Blacks whether Memphis is destroyed by "Flood or Flame." Memphis, Babylon and Nineveh are all the same: fl) De win' sing sperrichals Through deir dus'. Forecasts of doom can be seen in much American literatur \ but '1.ack writers have 1hTh1:So.1-ie.ct. / · ca rved out a special place for thernselve,r- This allows them to place their racial predicament in relief aga inst Christianity or Christianization. i4e have observed t ha t this concern runs like a spine through j iack poetry: _])unbar, Fenton Johnson, " Cullen, McKay, Hughes an'Jl certainly Brown~ and white. J~ Par 8 ✓-, God is alternately ./'lack And here, of course, is the contradiction} ~ ,Because the God of the whites (the oppressot cannot be truste1-and the/ lack God seems somewhat hel¢, ,, l ess a gainst a white power structure, of which Brown sayJ A,N\. \j.., l otd I A " i...c.M : They don' t come bx £P~§.. Having published only one boo~ which (1974, withtnew Introductio bel:'L'l:g- reissued by Sterling Stuckey), places Brown in a rather . ( fnaccess .ib d i f f icu 1 t a n d sometimes l appraisals of his work. 7 Ju/ A:s just position. ~ But there 1-~been good, if few, ~ Jean Wagner takes a long look at i~-•(Black Poets of the United States) , Brown takes a short, but helpful, look at himself in Negro Poetry. So does 3 I it& Redding in To Make a Poet Black. Also helpful is Stephen Henderson's "A Strong Man Called Sterl ing Brown," Black World) XIX �• Benjt'mAn Brawley (The Negro Genius) assesses Brown as (September 1970) , 5 12. poet and criticJ a s does Blyden Jackson in Black Poetry in America. Charles Rowell, a young critic-teacher at Southern University, Baton Rouge, has prepared a yet unpublished criticism of Brown's poetry. See also Black Writers of America (Barfsdale and Kinnamon). in mos t antholo i Brown's work .ttW""VU..~ lite c'J ne C aracter1st1c of Blacks and whites. O was a cry for unionization ac( poetry Brown 's "When,/e Saints Go Ha 'ching Home" allows room in I I I heaven for a handful of whites who befriended Blacks. According to t he Marxist / ol Counnunist-influenced thinking of the times, downtrodden peoples~ of whatever color 11were in the same boat. ~ Their strugg les were . . . the same. One finds this feeling in Frank Marshall Davis'• ....,, "Snapshots of the Cotton Sout~" which pain~ a rather pathetic and' depressing picture of voteless Blacks who "lack the guts" and "po'" whites who "have not the brains" to fi ght the rich plantation owners and the police. The poems also reek with irony and satire~ a Davis trademark. Even ~ though racial "intermingling" is "unthinkable," syphit#,is is passed from the \.:., "shiftless son" of a plantatio n owner (a lynch-mob leader) to a washerwoma~ who gives it to t he chief of polic~ who g4ves it to a young mul atto cook) who gave ~ it to the mayor of "Hobtow9" who gives it to his wife . Currently living in Hawai~ where he is a salesman, Davis was born in Arkansas City, Kansas, attended local public schools and studied journalism at Kansas State College_,where he was the first recipient of the Sigma Delta Chi Perpetual Scholarship. He later left school for Chicago to do newspaper work. In 1931 Davis went to Atlanta to help establish the Atlanta _paily World . Ri turning to Chicago, he worked with the Associated Negro Press until the late 1940s_, when he moved to Hawaii. I In 1937 he received a Julius Rosenwald Fellowship �to write po et ry . He has published f our vo l umes of poetry: Black Man's Verse (1935), I Am t he American Negro (19 37 ), Through Sepia Eyes (193 8), and 47th Street _., (194 8). Dav is est ablished himsel f ear ly as a social'~ -minded poet who combined his journalistic training with an innovative free-verse form to create interesting l yrics. (Gwendolyn Brooks later developed a form known as versef journalism . ) Stephen Henderson (Understanding the New Black Poetry) notes the similarities - between Davis'.poetry and that currently being written by Chicago-area poets . The influence of Masters and Sandburg can be seen in much of Davis '# work~ but "--' his poetry is hi ghly flavored wity lack themes _and (sometimes) idioms. Hughes_, he is t he poet of the city. But he . renders believable pictures of /lack "society" and t he hard times of southern living. Like In "Snapshots" he warns whites that death~e bol l weevil do..;'not n i b b l e ~ "nigger cotton." Ironically placing the "Democracy" of death and natural disas t ers alongside a hollow American "Democracy, " Davis is able to turn the poem into a piercing sword of ~ ul..v' . social criticism. I ronies also spinel\ poems ~ "Robert Whitmore," "Arthur I Ridgewood, M.D., " and 'Giles Johnson , Ph.D . "- bourgeois Blacks destroyed by status- climbing . Whitmore, having reached the peak of social and business success, dies when he is mistaken for a waiter. Dr. Ridgewood, forced to choose between the life of a poet and a doctor, dies from a nerve disruption caused by worry ove r reject ion s l ips and money problems. do labor; he d i es of starvation . Dr. Johnson will not teach and cannot The great tragedy, in this stream of poetic ~ i deas,~the story of the poet• "Rooseve lt Smith." !M+ Smith could be Davis himself or possibly Count ee Cullen or Melvin Tolson--orAany number of / iack poets who wrote as they were directed only to end. up having "contributed" nothing t o ~ ~ v ' ~ ation ' s literature." -------- Smith's first book is attacked by white critics for imitating Sandburg , Masters and Lindsay . His second book, writt en after he had done �Allah, Buddha/,'l and so on. .l!~ Everyone can partake of the happy-sad sound being played by the "black boy." ,z:::_v11±agtbh woaid 1 ter ca JJ biwseJf an "ernwspj ni / 4rd Pmcis seews o<).,, ·_ ) to bra sad ct a tMd---;i:;;--11 u pt close study o f ~ work has yet to be done. for his work: ✓ one It rre¢ Unfortunately , a il'dt f)avis had many things in mind poem is designed to be read aloud by eight voices. There is a brief, but good, assessment of him in Wagner's book; Sterling Brown sets forth poiql\aY.T r,.,_ • crisp and ~~riticism. Benj~m~n Brawley discusses Davis' ! poetry (Negro Genius)(!) but he appears all too infrequently in anthologies. ~ For a current look at Davis see Dudley Randall's interview with him in !Um !:l,o.l:l.g, XXIV (January 1974 ) ; S1~1./f, Robert Hayden has one of the longest poetry~writing (an4 ~publishing) records of any living American poet. His poems have appeared in numerous anthologies, newspapers, periodicals, books and pamphlets since 1940 . Born in Detroit, Michigan, Hayden attended local schools and Wayne State University, and in 1936 " graduated to the Federal Wri ters' ProjecS:' heading research into local Afro-American history and folklore. He· resumed his training in 1938.,when he enrolled at the University of Michigan, where he received a teaching assistantship W ,r, Auden, whose poetry his own sometimes reflects. and did advanced work In 194~ his first book of ~J poetry, Heart-Shape in the Dust, was published. t\)l'e joined the faculty of Fisk University in 194~1 involved in a series ·of a ca 2112 §i +ring the sixties he became "meaningful encounters with proponents of a black literary ~sthetic" (Barksdale and Kinnamon) which resulted in his leaving Fisk and joining I the faculty of the University of Michigan (1969). Hayden has received Rosenwald �study in the South, is criticized by Blacks for being too sordid. Critics dist missee his third book, an experimental effort, as not being consistent with the V depth and breadth of the philosophical material treated by Stein and Elio t. A / lack man has no business imitating the "classic" works of Keats, Browning and Shakespeare, they sa ~ He ought to use his rich African s Of his fifth book, critics ~ suspicious: ~since it contained' background. of his fourth book. no traces of anything done previously by a white poet, then it must be "just a new kind of prose." O ,J ,t tf S The poet then becam= \a mail carrier) wher e he hal time to read in the papers thatfa ack writers har contributed so "little" to American literature. Davis also wrote freef verse utilizing themes of love, night, and the stark life of Blacks in Southside Chicago. sculp~ ,\ . His poems about love are quiet and we11\ Ji g They are placed in the category of "mystic e~capist" by & ,1),1, Brown. In his first volume, Davis strikes vivid pictures€23 in~pieces cv')/ like "Chicago's Congo," "Jazz Band," "]1pjo Mike 's Beer Garden," "Cabaret," "Lynched," and "Georgia's Atlanta ." In "Jazz Band" he ant it, cipates the work of literally dozens of poets of the sixties (Neal, Crouch, Cortez~ Lee, Baraka, Harper, the Last Poets , Carolyn Rod gers). And certainly ~ one recalls Hughes' • "Jazzonia" and "Jazz Band in a Parisian Cabaret" when one hears a H11e like"" / lf, Play that thing you jazz mad fools! and the steady hammering of g) Plink plank plunk a plunk. Everybody and every place has the blues since Blacks brought the sound to town: Chopin, Wagner, Lor'idon, Moscow, Paris, Hongkong, Cairo, Dias, Jehovah, Gott, _______ _______ .__ ·- - - - -- �------was awarded the Grand Prize in the English poetry cate go--_............\ orld Festival of Negro Arts in Dakar, Senegal. In presenting Hayden wit h t he ward, the festival committee cited him as ( ~ . 1 r. a remarkable craftsman, an outstanding singer of words, ~ a striking thinker, a o~te ' He g ives glory and digt nity to America through deep attachment to the past, present and future of his race. Africa is in his soul, the world at Llarge in his mind and heart. ~~ fl In 1948 Hayden collabor ated with Myron O' Hi ggins in publication of The Lion and the Archer. His Figure of Time: published in 1966. Poems appeared in 195~ and Selected Poems was Words in the Mourning Time, with its portraits of violence 'T and destruc tion, came out in 1970~ ....__, I~ was nominated for a National Book Award (1972). ,_- The Night-Blooming Ce r e us, showing Hayden as nature and • deeply religious poet , was published in 1972 by f '-i' Bremen. has also written and produc ed play s (Go Down Moses i and during the forties he was drama and music c r i tic f or t h~ Chronicle. Hayden's wo rk a ppears ~ in practically eve r y a nthology o f Afro- American literature or poetry publ ished since The Ne gro Caravan. -- Hi s editorship of anthologies includes Kaleidosco pe: Poems by American Ne gro Poets (1967), Afro-America n Literature: ,An I ntroduct ion :z (1971, with Burroughs and Lapides), a nd The United States in Literature (1973, with Hiller and O' Neal). _The latter work contains many of Hayden's seminal ideas f as well as brilliant crysta\ izations of / lack a nd general poetry mo~ements in t he United States. His individual poems have appeared in Opportunity, Poetry and ~tlantic Monthll . Currently, he is poetry editor of the Baha'i magazine World �Although, as a poet, Hayden has maintained a steady balance between racial concerns and the modern poetic tradition, he is what Sterling Brown would call ~ arx poet. Classical allusions, obscurantism, surrealism, and complicated syntax go hand in hand with experimental blues poetry and muted anger. ~ Bontemps said that the term "Negro poet" was particularly "displeasing" to 4 Countee Cullen; and Hayden (a Cullen admirer), in Kaleidoscope rejected being judged "by standards different from those applied to the work of other poets." The/ lack poet should not be limited to a racial utterance, Hayden believes. (Ironically, a poll of/ lack poets today might easily show that a great many of ~ti ,, them feel the same way4 even though such is not suggested by the\ popular image of the contemporary lack poet) J,, ....... 1 • o'Bn.~e.ns Speaking of hi5\' influences in Knterviews with Black Writers' Hayden noteei /when I was in college I loved Countee Cullen, Jean Toomer, Elinor Wylie, Edna St. Vincent Millay, Sara Teasdale, Langston Hughes, Carl Sandburg, Hart Crane. I read all the poetry I could get a hold of, and I read without discrimination. became a favorite. his style. Cullen I felt an affinity and wanted to write in I remember that I wrote a longish poem about Africa, imitating his "Heritage." was pretty imitative. All through my undergraduate years I As I discovered poets new to me, I studied their work and tried to write as they did. young poets do this. I suppose all It's certainly one method of learning _s omething about poetry. I reached the point, inevitably, where I didn't want to be influenced by anyone else. my own voice, my own way of seeing. I tried to find I studied with w\a. Auden f �in graduate school, a strategic experience in my life. I think he showed me my strengths and weaknesses as a poet in ways no 1.5:ne else before had done. ~0~ Hayden thus establishes himself as a poet of the book as opposed to the raw EJl Hughes, E , .£!!tll r- I L}! Da~dis, Brown, k~ \S.QA!a.osu v,e,o. .. Margaret Walker, and numerous others _ ~ltho~h such a division~ consider 16 ~Al,A.AJ. ............./~tJw ~ , ....... OJt-lblJAJr.,,._w,, •. , J . ~ ) \..~ Jo-• many vari~t les. ~ --..,~cording to 1 I R Davis, in From the Dark Tower, = ~ Hayden has repudiated his early poetry-l lis ⇒, · :1 folk,fY/~l,cJ,..¾"iiie f"\. $'6ma,F- ,i' fn9; Crt·~~,_ ~ ,,,.. I'\. blatant protest and in i:-Lve!"l!.ed poetry shows Hayden as~itator of the older Harlem Renaissance poets and under the influence of the Communist~ Socialist thought of the 1930s and 19l•0s . aa In "Prophecy" he depicts destruction and the people r eturning to the "r-uined city" to rebuild a new society. "Gabriel" ~recall~ .f\tVOL+ Leodew--: P~ossfir, \> L,_s~the final moments in the L· l ·:Lf:e o :, flabr-1elA "Black Gabriel" 'lifllll>~ hanged for leading slaves l'f l! I From for go tten graves Inte~v•~l),...italfr) iL xust 9-e ~ I ~colloquialisms (like Sterling t~th· Brown), Hayden r ~ reates the terror and drama of Gabriel ' s ~ • nse. Black and golden in the air, Gabriel dangles from a noose abov03-ack men who £ Never, never rest~,._,.•.• "Speech" is just that j -af. harangue calling ) lack and white "brothers" to fight /V\- the common oppressor, presumably totalitarianism, fascism and greedy over seers. "Obituary" is a sensitive and paine<l reflection of a "father" who lived Prepared for wings. Among these early pieces (found in Caravan an<l Hayden's fi rst volumes) "Bacchanal" is especially interesti~or it collects the new dialect into the kind of social statement~ Brown~erfected. - - - - - - - -- - -- -- -- - - - - -- -- - There is irony in using "bacchanal" to �describe a? ack factory worker ge tting ® High ' s a Georgia pine to forget that the facto ry closed "this mawnin. II can never rest, is seeking r eal "joy" on earth. TheJ -ac k mar)' whot in "Gabriel" But, minus money and woman, his I " bacchanal" becomes a weighty blues statementM not the revelry of ancient Greek or Roman party life. One finds none of these fl!'~in Selected Poems. Instead there is the polished Hayden of "The Diver," " A Ballad of Remembrance," "Sub Specie Aeternitatis," "Hiddle Passage" and "Runagn t e Runagate." /41 '#Ml Neither does one find ....-rA. in •Words Hayden has obviously elevated his protest themes. ) 71 the Mourning Time. :ti: r---1" To be sure,~ • \ ·~ Q. II; & .. ~,does make his social comment, as does Cullen. ' u..-.~·•Cei nonef o t Hughes the vrq en ey" P (Mourning) ,( "Dream Def erred" ~ But his "Zeus )ffi!er Re~yel) or "Ask Your e Moel:," /lhul- "Runagate" and" Iiddle Passage" address with subt ty and allusion the concerns of...._, Dodson ("Lament"), Hargaret Wa lker ("Since 1619").._ and Frank Marshall '-' ' e,t ·~ Davis ("Snapshot s of the Cotton South").'(_Hayden brings a fine and intense in I tellect to his poetry7 regardless of subject matter. His output has been relatively small, considering his long career, but Words in the Hourning Time proves that his intensity has not lessened. And he must be admired for sticking to his ~ flrtiu,J, lt,v~ aone aesthe tic convictions and his unswerving devotion to poetic craftsnr1lri;hiJ>A )(and in hand with 5t!!__________·_ft , · his and general. enduring interest in history, racial His manuscript of poems dealing with slavery and· the Civil War, The Black Spear , Hopwood award. The idea fo r book-length series of narrative poems on/ lack historyk "from the black man's point of view" I_ came to Hayden after he read Stephen Vincent Benl t' s long narrative poeml John Brown's Body (1927). ~ - -- -- -- - ---- - - The Black Spear never emerged as a book, but remnants of �it can be found in s ection fiv e of Se lected Poems. Hayden ~ ~ ".I P vs,~lack h i story , h ·r8 sr~ mpions such persons a s Nat Turner, Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman , ~ Cinq ef ~artin Luthe r King and !1alcolm X. He also includes whites who 1iiiii' ~ sharecl1 the burden of the } lack strugg le: _,William Lloyd Garrison, Ralph Waldo L -- -- Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, John Brown, John and Robert Kennedy, and others. Hayden's history poems, however, reflect the complexity and disturbances jM '(,, inherent in man's continuing struggle. In a non-racial poem ~ o- "The Diver" there can be floating, plunging , piercing, blurring , disillusionment, wreckage, drunken tilting, "numbin{ /f isses," and other suggestions of dramatic tension /I. (\ between the real and assumed, between the shadow and the substance. same "feeling" come$ through in poems of racial flavor. But the "Middl e Passage" certainly bears this out, as Blyden Jackson notes in "F om One ' New Negro' to Another" µ(\--------....u,v-·~ I!,,.,, ,, La,.J lack Poetr in America,:I\Jackson and Rubin, K 974 Situated, as it were, "in the rocking loom of history ," "Nidd_~ : Passage" is at once Hayden 's and,lack America '.r achievement. ~ ----.:J'' ipening with t he names of slave ships/\\ Jesu's, Estrella, Esperanza, MercyM the poem criss} crosses the vast geographical, chronological and spiritual web of racial horror since slavery. the ships _________ d >ea and ~f'~.t.fe'e1'i:~C::,5.1lontraclict3", ,., 38&~ reminiscent of t he explet i ve "Jesus, have mercy&"' ~nd = &jueard daily i ~ l:S The names of ' - ______ ~erve$' 4iiJ 1 I 3b I~ zl l a ck communities. - g] I · But this,.__ _,,_ I Ii f Cl and ...... ~~o~.-.P~' tr ',II ·55Williii \I "'c::"- ~ 1 J as the albatross around the neck of Christian slavers. ~,,s Henc~~~lmiddll Any middle passage is exciting as well a~ dangerous~ since it represents the peak and the unfinished quest. passage sug gests both the horrible and brutalizing experience of slaves aboard ships crossing the Atlantic 2 · et and the incompleted "adventure" of Blacks in America. 543 - - - - - - The poem also (jfji) �satisfies ~ f the demands of modernistl poetrYi '- "Middle i ? Passage~ " in fact ~ t'sj 37 ~LA'ied J Jo s,t5tylistically ~~uch Pound's Cantos, Crane's The Bridge and t poems as Eliot's The Wast _and, ~ . Williams' Patf erson. ._______::.-,; ...., Especia lly is it akin to The Waste and in its use of allusion, fragments of obscure ~ information (old documents, letters, conversation, etc.), typographical vari} atio,and t~ea..a-n•t 1 ;°'"i"oc., ••n~> ~•,in: 13Ht1..vden s p6emJ ll g7C,~fter its j I $ sharp and arresting opening, weaves together objective narration, notes from a slave ship's log, sections from a ships~ fficer's diary, testimony a t a court of inquiry (into.· a ~ revolt aboard the Cuban slaver Amista~ ~~oseeaHM> bol\Cl ~ - - -- - - o8&ii.lie8 en 1 NLAQAiLfai&i @Hn ■ • .,s;- ~1839) , _the tale of an old sailor~e melted .. from the II i fever &.o.wt~I'% paraphrasings of a Shakesperean text and familiar expressions '!!:::!::Jtbn f ible and live religious services. The poem depicts every imaginable dis aster and conflict: .._ storms, rebellions, suicides, a plague that - )\ ' causes blindne s ("oPlthalm~ ia"), th lusty crew members>sexual exploitation of . ....J female slaves, ings' who sold the Africans into slavery, descriptions of the smel]Jand sounds of dying, and the hatred/respect t he slave shi~ surviving ✓ spokesman has f or rebellionf leader Cinque{ Gimost ~ years before "Middle 07 Passage," James M. Whitfield had honored ';his same revolutionary in "To Cinque.') The idea of t he r*ade man, a "voyage" ~~:.R takes one "through death" into "life," recurs in Hayden's poem: v'here, again, the sense of one mea ndering through a "wastela nd" in search of the right s oc iety, the sane environment. Indeed in muchjiack American writing, mirroring sometimes the literature of larger America, there is the assertion that the new man arrives only after paying the dues of being brutalized and oppressed. Even in everyday life, Blacks are often intolerant of others who have not "gone through" the fire and brimstone of depravity and ~ - -- -- - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - -- �alienation. Thus, f or Hayden, the "middle passage" is both spiritual ly and physically a "voyage" throu3h death i n order to achieve life. I n t he middl e passage the slaves a r e hal fy a y be tween their Af rican homeland a nd America. They will not be returning to AfricaJ and yet they know nothing of the life "upon these shores." Too, the middle passage s ymbolizes the initiation of evert an into the awesome awareness and responsibilit y of adulthood j -and his own mortality. The M middle passage is where we all triumph or perish, just as in t he wasteland one must create a new world or drift with the debris. However, the caretakers of slav+ hips crossing the middle passage are as acutely aware of their mission as are the reflective slaves (and poets). death. They are also bringing life through They bear f l black gold, black ivory, black seed. t All this occurs against the pervasive irony of the ship names Jesus and Mercy % and the doubl e irony of~slaver's spokesman who renounces Cinque!, for reb e lling against the crew: Cf) ... true Christians al1@ ···l While the "Middle Passage" places Blacks somewhere in the middle of things , "Runagate Runagate" continues the irony of moving through death to life. There is litt l e to be envied in the "life" of the runaway slave depicted in this poem. The hound dogs, t he slavet trackers, the auction blocks, the ~ wan t e_i~ signs, t he brandings on the cheeks, the driver's lashi all ref! ive the terror, the nightmarish nature of / lack ( life~ after the middle passage. For Blacks, then, the initiation continues beyond the first death (the enslavement) . The anxiety and "never, never rest" life of the slave is dramatically captured by Hayden, who empl / ,. tapestry of language, syntax, color, imagery, ' narration, an - ~ ·~ " liiil.. the symbolism a -------- - -- - - - -- - - - - -- -- · ~ mo ern poetry; added to this is the dramatic �use of italics. The poem celebrates the courage and endurance of escaping slaves and honors/J.a ck and white abolitionist leaders. Hayden allows the reader to re} live the experience of the runaway slave and the accompanying tension-filled hide-and-seek drama. We hear and see the runaway in the opening line . By a~ing the use of punctuational breaks, Hayden achieves a *rush" of language '-- very similar to the relentless f drive~ oy lack oral expression and to the "never, never rest" feeling he established in "Gabriel." ~f) ✓ The runaway Runs falls rises stumbles on from darkness into .Q darkness and the hunt is on, as the escapee reflects on the "many thousands" already channeled through the Underground ~ilroad. We see and hear the mi xed jubilance and fear of the slav:J who vows that he will never return to the auction block and the driver 's lash ; 11 And before I 'll be a slave '-.:. ------------ I ' 11 be buried in my grave ., , • Keep ing wi t h the trend of modern poetry, Hayden introduces incidental notices and data: an a nnouncement describing runaways (including age, dress, brandings, and a suspicion that they can turn t hemselves into quicksand, whir lpools or - scorpions), wan ted posters, and names of prominent abolitionists of the day . Typographically and syntactically, the poem is designed to be read~ithout significant pauses) so that the non-stop .hurt le of the slave toward freedom a ctually occurs in the text; it is, Blyden J ackson suggests (thoughf . ._,_ of "Middle Passage")J " as if it repeats history . " Especially notable is Hayden's treatment of Harriet Tubman, the greatest of \jlde r gro_und Railroad leaders, who was wanted "Dead or Alive" and who was known to level a pistol at a doubting runaway: �® Dead folks can't jaybird-talk, she says; You keep on going now or die, she says. - ... " "Middle Passage" and "Runagate Runagate" are only two of Hayden's magnificent poems. Other poems in the histo rical vein are "Frederick Douglass" (an ex4 perimental sonnet without rhyme), "The Ballad of Nat Turner" ("The fearful splendor of that warringJ "), "O Daedalus, Fly Away Home" ("Night is juba, night is conjot "), and "A Ballad of Remembrance" (a surrealistic, complex and erudite poem). Hayden poems (prior to Words) capture supernaturalism ("Witch Doctor"), folk life ("Homage to the Empress of the Blues ," "The Burly Fading One," "Incense of the Lucky Virgin," and "Mo urning Poem for the Queen of Sunday; ) r nd folk reminiscences ("Summertime and the Living .•. ," "The Whipping ," "Those Winter Days"). Wo rds in the Mourning Time , which we will return to briefly in Chapter VI, reflects Hayden's general and specific concerns as a poet. Again he judiciously handles the spectrum of themes, subjects and styles that assures him a place . 5w:J a✓ in the world of western as well as Afro- American poetry. ~ oems -±1:'ke "'Mystery Boy' Looks for Kin in Nashville," "Soledad," "Aunt Jemi1:1-a of the Ocean Waves ," Skew 1'i and "El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz," ..... Hayden ,in touch with the times and willing to share his poetic vision with revolutionaries, pacifists, cultural nationalists and }(lack~pride advocates. On the other hand,, he is at home with poems such as "Locus," "Zeus f ver Red eye," an<l "Lear J s Gay"t vi"'hich mirror his reading, travels, broad concerns and personal friendships. 9{ 599j55 is 7 159 9]935Jp tb?Min the 1960s jolted him. Hayden admits that the battle over aesthetics And while it is clear that the fight took place more �outside of poetry than in (see Chapter VI) , Hayden has not recanted in his position that thef " ack po • ~~ be limited to racial utterance. course, has his right to his own opinion. Hayden, of Bu t, like John Ciardi, Richard Wilbur, an~ .__, Robert Lowell, and other poets of the academy, his trek has not been easy or devoid of controversy. ~·A And despite statements Hayden makes oui A/ side -o-f his poetry, poems ~ "Middle Passage" and "Runagate Runagate" stamp .___,, A Si~t e he Alll _/JPro-~1r1S~fc.4~ pos;. him as a gifted handler of i lack themes and materials. ·f'.t'" ..-t:s not " likely 1s 1:1\ that he will be knowns; J 5 8' -------- for work that lies drastically outside the passage, pace or plight of / lack Americans. Much=needed critical attention is just beginning to come to Hayden. is treated in Davi s '.f From the Dark Tower, ~ He Gibson's Modern Black Poets 'Robert Hayden's Use of _____..,_Charles T. Davi ) , Jackso n and Rubin's Black Poetry in America, O' Brien's Interview with Black Writers, Barksdalef and Kinnamon' s Black Uriters of America, and ~ Phillips aa I -- Lawson Car ter S - 1972). ft!==:> I W .:i ~ g @_ayden, Judson See also Rosey Pool's "Robert Hayden , Poe t Laureat e," Negro Digest (Black World ~ XV (Junet 1966) , 39; 43; D. Caller's "Three Recent Volumes," Poetry) CX (196 7), 268, and Julius Lester 's review of Word s in the Mourning Time in 1971, p .~ . he New Yor Times Book Review, January 24, (:}) Dudley Randall displays good insights into Hayden in "The Black Aesthetic in the Thirties, Forties, and Fifties" (Modern Black Poets)) there is~ ensitive treatment of t he poet in James the Thirties. ~ M ~ l~o.1t ~ ~ ~ -;:~J re"~, ;.""i,fi1t . o. ~ Young's Black Writers of ~ ~~ ;,,....1/.J ]ta.&.c,V"'1-;_ ~ av: : elped make the Harlem Renaissance, Langston Hughes continued his vast and imaginative poetic output into t he thirties, forties, fifties and si{ties. He published four books of poetry in the 1930s, three in the 1940s , _ . two in the 1950s, and two i$6os, in addition to dozens of short stories, �essays, novels, plays and a uto biogr aphical writings . These things he accomplished along with his travels and his dedicated work on behalf of Blacks . s be "much too casual," notes Hughes 't friend Bontemps, simply to dismiss him ton Hu hes,,,__ Donald C. Dickinson , 1972) Hughes worked r apidly , turning out of writing, a fact, Blyden Jackson reminds us ~ 1 ~ But it would .,/. caused ~./ some to deny him a place alongs i de/\ "serious" ~lack writers -H:ke Ellison , Wright and Baldwin. Hughes always involved himself in "contemporary affairs"-Leven <luring t he fl/\ ;(enaissanc~ when Cullen, McKay and other~ roamed the Elysian fields of Africa '7t71V-endenc1 W4S pa.i-""t o fthe ,-e,uo~ t..uky or pined away in the "darl~ tower. 11 ,Jls=llll•• •,\Redding (To Hake f Poet Black) zc!s poet ry but little in~ ~ueJ h1'.s eo.1--Ly woi--i-._ 1-:, ~e.\"i m<rnTal l\.l'\d.ncft vnito'V'mLy ~ood; (.$ itcrpened 1inpor1arit new l"Oad~ mlll compla ined that Hughes employed rhythms in his - A· A,t"ld ~ the thirties and forties ;k-with their step,:up in l.e f ti.:. ~ 1 eveY' "-&ftd- radical activitiesM placed Hughes in the position of having to forge/\_newe"' tellect. protest weapons from his "weary blues." noted: ~a1:attug1:u:14£!_!!SS James O. Young "His poe try was popular because it could be read easily by people of all ages and backgrounds." new }'lack poets : In the sixties , similar comments would be made of the Haki R. Ha<lhubuti (Don L. Lee), Sonia Sanchez, Nikki Giovanni, /he5e.. David Nelson, Arthur Pfistez;,v ~ - , w?,T'1r.S <'.i n d. o1ne.t1-'; r.Jertt' oYU O~ Cl.ertheTic~ o...side (owi\-ibuTeJ im men.seLy,f"'e Bu9'1e.s e ~ (o..-~em I ~ ~ Q popu(O..Y' I 31n10 f j!uid~- puf;.y • 'rn ~~S early '(E.0.1--Sj ~ however, llughes 't poetry was cons idered "decadent" .....__, and 11 unacceptable ti J/) S~I t-'1 to Communis t critic 5 who wan ted him to ae1111e~from strict• and racial themes Slltffhampion t he fights of proletarians everywhere. I Hughes made ,/he/ v.10FtKs Lik.e · the sw~ h-ove~ andAScottsboro Limited (1932) showt the impact thought.l\ on him. 'I Communist The· ·pamphlet was dedicated to/ lack youths on trial for allegedly raping two white prostitutes in Scottsboro, Alabama. Hughes places the boys alongside such revolutionary saints as John Brown, Lenin and Nat Turner. The �effect/4- resembling aborted efforts of some r.1artyr-making poets of the 1960s was to make the boys , "ignorant pawns" though they were, "militant proletarian heroes ." The poem-play "Scottsboro Limited" shows "Red Voices" convincing f lack yo uths that the Communists are on the side of /pl I Not just blackj'v)but black and white. i ughe s pub lished wid ely during the thirties in Party presses . In Good Norning eµ,--,< Revolu tion (1973, fo • rd by Saunders Redding ), Faith Berry has compiled his "uncollected writings of social protest . II They give many clues to Hughes s \social concerns during the three decades following the Harlem Renaissance. He callffor a union of "workers" in Germany, China, Africa, Poland, Italy, and America.J- N\ throu gh the pa ges of New Masses, The Negro Worker, The Crisis, Opportunity, International LiLerature, Contempo, Africa South, The Workers Monthly , New Thea tre._, ...., and American S,pectator . he In "Good Horning, Revolution," :S Q tells pers onified revolution ~-e-hcrt" ( We gonna pal around to gether from now on. Section tit le s of Good .lorni the problems a nd needs o P Revolution show Hughes to be acutely attuned to " I t , ppresse<l peoples--long before Franz Fanon, Stokely (ti\ I\ Carmichael and El dridge Cleaver-~and in sympathy with Thir d World struggle : "" Section I, Revolutio; Section 2, / ~emo to ;:;;;:Whi t~ ooles; Section 3, ~ ( Ricila nd ,the Poor; Section 4, War and Peace, ~ Section 5, ~ \.,,_ 7 6, The Sailor and J he Stewar d; Section 7, e Christ; Section he Meaning of Scottsboro; Section 8 , Darkness in Spain; Section 11, China; Section 12,~ American Writers Congress, and Section 13 , Iconoclastic and s ac rilAgous, Hughes incurred the wrath of many / 1ack leaders �with his poem "Goodibye ChristJ' published in the Baltimore Afro-American in v 19 32 . Addressing Christ , Hughes noted: ~ Yo u did alright in your <lay , I reckonj("\But tha t day ' s gone now. And "Christ Jesus Lord Go<l Jehovah" is told to "make way" for a new deity, who has no religion, and whose name is (f; Marx Communist Lenin Peasant Stalin, Worke r, H~ • •• Religious leade s especially condemned Hughes's " blatan t atheism." But Melvin .s Tolson, coming to Hughes ' 4 aid, said that the young poet was simply showing that the Christian offering of a better world after death had little meaning for the world's s ufferin g millions . Hughes was never a member of the Communist Party , but i111-'(vf~ l,~11.ose.t oF I.,, (toca. many other p a ck writer\: Davis , Margaret Walker, EllisoTl© DJ~ his wotoft.~ s,...,., '1uuy pa-ol,TQ.WM. Tols on, Wright, Hayden , Frank Narshall · J_:::,. e While his poet r y and other writings of gommunist-oriented social pro test were appearing in radical publi,i__, v; ~e cations, Hughes continued/ ~ Sterling Bro~ developing and experimenting with J1.ack folk materials. He painstakingly po inted up t he contradict ions in the promises and realities of American_)'emocracy , a ssailed social inequality, lamented / lack and white poverty, ~ailed against double standards, attacked racial segrega tion, satirized the ,Aack bour geos i e, and immortalized the beauty of everyday Blacks. --- --µ>-..... ~uch of H~ "'SQ. ~ ~ * , : ; l ,e t America Be America Again," first published in 1936 in Esquire~ and included in A New Song (1938). reminiscent of Walt Whitmanf in its swee~ It is immediately and recites , in the manner of Hayden's "Speech" and Tolson's "Rendezvous with America , " the multiple ills and ingredients of America . µJ, Throughout the poem, as he catalogs the various ethnic stocks and ~rJ~ltl 'f\ contributions , he interpolates the haun~: .._,f "America never was America to me . "J.. �A"I $e·dt,_, 1't-1i"e.s Tf By music and folk materials was being worked more ;.;A)1~ghes's int artfully into kTe ► 'f(ecording hiS\-f'W'Qot'~ x He carried his interest i n_J. ues to his work in jazz his poetry with Charlie Mingus and others ~ and the j f.}op era is stronely reflected in his poetry and his writings (see the Simple stories). - ~-~c~ ~ ccord ing Especially is music evident in Montage of a Dream Deferred (1951 ~ to -ail --.__/' Wagner , "jazz has strongly influenced the tone and structure of these poems ." I It was from this volume , too, that Lorraine Hansber ry would get the title for her prize-winning play-t,_ Raisin in the Sun . The most famous poem in t he volume is "Harlem , " in which t11e_Jnack Ai:1erican is likened to a "dream deferred." Five precise similes help Hughes draw explicit comparisons between - e ~:er, raisins, sores, rot t en meat, syrupy sweets, heavy loads, and the .-.~ present " dreara . " Perhaps , Hughes notes at the end, the dream will "explode . " Hughes was not "per fectf,d @f I!_ t; ~ Jahn • I eria lu T he :MUt •■ .Gt1t11l? _9 "" II p 11 ined an experimentr r throughout his ==--~.=.::;~=-.:::;p.q.::..:..:...=~.:+--~·l~o~o~d~s~f~o~r~J~a~z=z (1961) was published after 0 years of experimentation in verse forQS, synthesis we referred to earlier: and themes. '-' that of jazz, blues and related folk idioms Contemporary white poe ts! E·f · chosen to place all letters in lower cas E:i capitalizing everything . It is indeed the attempt at the Cummings and Kenneth Rexrot1 ~ had Hughes did just the opposite, I Dedicated to Lo uis Armstrong~;( the greatest hortll blower I of them all"7q the volume is a n extension of ideas attempted in The Weary Blues, Shakespeare in Har lem, and Montage of a Dream Deferred. The driving social protest is there, but the indignation is mute<!J as in his earl· work . A recession in lar ger America 1J J!., IS COLORED FOLKS ' DEPRESSION. The wdrk is punctuated by the lin~ IN THE QUARTER OF THE NEGROES 1 'f nd Hughes continues �- the )llac k poe t's concern with history : ~honoring ,)!'lac~ s and race leaders: 9 displaying the beauty of }(lackn~ss and rec~lling the J:.ci.ghu. of pas sage . A g . ~ ~ a,l\o i"c..lu ie~ e-.Tt~H've liloTes on s~1n~ o.nd MIIS1ca.t. «ct..oMp"-n/me;,,f' (-'o r- n,,e po emi . Politician , organizer of sharecroppers, poet, dramatist, teacher and X raconteur , Melvin Be9-unorus Tolson was born in Heberly, Hissouri, to the Reverend Mr, and Hrs . Alonzo Tolson. Tolson lived his young life in va rious Missouri towns , publishing his first poem at the age of @ Corner" of the Oskaloosa newspaper . in t he "Poet ' s He graduated from Kansas City ' s Lincoln ,fP_ High School (1918~ where he had been class poet, director and actor inAGreek Club's Little Theater and captain of the football team. Throughout his adult life, Tolson ma intained an active interest in sports, dramatics and debatt He attended Fisk and Lincol~ iver_sities?\graduating from Lincoln with honors and winning awards in speech, deba ~ captained t he football tea lubs. dramatics an~ ssical literatures . He ~ J.;nc.olh . 1924 Tolson speech at Wiley College , in Marshall, Texas. poetry/ ' cl Ft N and directed drama~and; debat strea k . if Q_\l)FhL in l / group• ~ There he wrote prose and ~ i established a \2y-year winning Tolson interrupted his work at Wiley to pursue •~ • an :±3 1 ,1/.A • English and yampar'7l;ve / iterature at Columbia Universit)/ where he met V1F. l calverto~ editor o~lodern Quarterly. career a s a deba tft ~oach peaked when his versity of Sout he rn California, Later~~n 193,?_, at Wiley, To lson ' s eam d featedkational champions, Uni+ .eh --'~ be fore (!~OQ) people. 't--' ~z ~_.f7 And in 1947, the same year Tolson was appo inted poe t laureat e of Liberia by President v.f . Tubman , English and drama professor at Langs ton University , Langston, Oklahoma_; wfui.re he '-a.~ served as mayor for four terms . <./VI At Langston he directed the Dust Bowl Players and dramatized novels by Wa lter White and George Schuyler . A revered and feared teacher and organizer , Tolson became a legend in his own time . Hardly �a student at j\Yf eept i outh / lack college had not heard of Tolson' s work as poet, dramatist, deba • ft: oach and educator. His column+ "cabb~a and Caviar+ ' was a regular in the Uashington Tribune during the thirties. Tolson published three volumes of poetry: Rendezvous with America (1944), Libretto for the ·Republic of Liberia (1953), Harlem Gallery, Book I: The w;.oTe l'A.n1.1mber of='vnpubHsheJ noveLSQ.~ PLAyl. Curator (1965)1,,. His work .... appeared in The Modern Quarterly, Atlantic Monthly, Cll'lo I I' -.__;., Common Grouno, ~oetry.i..and other periodicals. He won numerous awards and citations, among them first place (1939) it;:ational Poetry Contest sponsored by the American Negro Exposition in Chicago (for "Dark Symphony"); the Omega Psi Phi Award for Creative Literature (1945); Poetry magazine's Bess Hakim Award f ~ ~ logical poem~ "E. ••'•sadc ong psych{ , i & 0~$~ O.E." (1947); honorary / octo ~ j etters, Lincoln Uhiversit~ permanen t Bread Loaf Fellow in poetry and drama (1954); District of <i'l,llt Columbia Ci ~tion and Award for Cultural Achievement in Fine Art~- - first ~ appoin t ~ t o the Avalon Chair in Humanities at Tuskegee Institute (1965); and& y award of the American Academy of Arts and Letter~ including a _, . ()V\,v, ,, )tf', 1 I' , 0 , (1966), the same year he died following three operations for abdominal cancer. t=;--~r :' ~e·-• As a / lack poet and intellectual in the mia~e • ~-~ 'm=-If and 1.J,llffll',,AJ century, Tolsonl \ ~ ~% ::~ 1 century predecessors '----' (Prince Hall, Benjamin Banneker, James Whitfield , Alexander Crummell, Frances the ~ w~ E. ~ f his ·a 1 I Harper anJ others) who served as teachers, abolitionists, revolutionists, def enders of wha t they believed to be decent in the promise of America, and character models fo r/ lack communities . Tolson's predecessors fought for the right to be called humans; he fought the battle of integration. As Tolson lay dying , other, younger poets were fighting the battle of self-<leterminationi albeit using the same tools employed by poets and intellectuals of the/---p-a:st two centuries. Si it is indeed ironic (and sad!) when a young writer like Haki R. ~ - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - �Madhubuti (Don L. Lee) complains that Tolson is not accessible to the everyday ..____..,,,.. Negro Digest 1TB J; t January 1968) • '-' J But Joy Flasch points out -(Melvin B. Tolson) 1972) that ~ o n readerf see review of Kaleidoscope~J aili 9!, JQ 94 . • was aware that he was not writing for the "average" reader but for the "vertical" o_.ll'rt a udience. In "Omega" of Harlem Gallery , Tolson asks if a serious~ ) ·t s ould " s kim t he milk of culture" and give those demanding immediacy and relevancy D a popular la t ex brand? Tol s on did n~ t ~,:::.;; d;Syden, othe rs , to make T't1sls~ t he 1960s. 1966 g Urown , ~i-~IWll-~i Redding , and -.ontact with proponents of the 'f lack of But some opponents have continued to rake him over the coals of responsibility. ..---, •v Black poet Sarah Webster Fabio (Negro Digest , • •. .• anecember 1 l -------- f H), challenged Karl Shapiro's statement (Introduction ~ Harlem Gallery) ...__.,,,. J I; that Tolson "writes in Negro." His poetic language is "most certainly not ' Negro,'" " she averd, noting that it is "a bizarre, pseudo-literary diction" taken from stilted "American mainstream" poet r belonged." 11 "where it rightfully and wrongmindedly White critics and writers joining in the assault on Tolson included Laurence Lieberman and Englishman Paul Bremen (o f the Heritage ~, erie~. Lieberman t akes exception to Shapiro's statement, saying that he teaches f lack students from all over the worldt who are steeped in J lack language . stan d To 1 son ( review o f Har 1 em Ga 11 ery) . Autumn "p but ~ do not under 22} Gil 1 1 # ~ The Hudson Review, 1965)<:i)i . Yet Tolson's publishers had high hopes that he might get the Pulitzer P;;:-;:r Libretto-i2nd,wer'ldol~n 8Nok.1. who sided i'n fJ J 4-Tt lq(,os 1 p;,,p 0 ,uriTs o F-:th•j L.Ad,.. !le>~eTit.1 f~,·• Jh@/h~119f,1 ~ ,o.1Leey shouLA h~ve retei11C(i-ih-e R~ writing and ref-thinking his poetry over a period of decades, Tolson wt-t\ ll.t.u~cbJ became more difficult as he made adjustments to fit modernist trends in poetry . The stars/of English poetry were Eliot, Pound, Yeats, Crane, and Stevens, and Tolson admired and patterned his work after them. Yet throughout his poetic life, �he maintained an "enormous lo; }...;.~ work as well as in his poetry. eoplej' which was re flected in his everyday 4 Rendezvous with America ~ title indicates r ......::____,,. Tolson's commitment to love and do battle with America. America has cancer and promis~ and Tolson performed operations while he feasted on his nation's delights. His title poem, "Rendezvous with America ," reflects the Whitman influence and Tolson's awesome word skills, technical virtuosity and musical ear. He enumerates the races and types of people who also must rendezvous with America. He sees how Time unhinged the gates to allow the beginning of America, noting such landmark~ as Plymouth Rock, (I Jamestown, and Ellis Island, which he juxtaposes with,.. ancient s i t e s ~ Sodom, Gomorrah, Cathay, Cipango and El Dorado. The "searchers" came to America; which is the Black Han 's country, (r' The Red Man's, the Yellow Han 's, The Brown fan's, the White Han 's. America flows, Tolson believes/b. a,✓-:l,,\..:.., I An international river with a legion of tributaries! " A magnificent cosmorama with myriad patte1i_s of colors! A giant fores t with loin-roots in a hundred lands! A cosmopolitan orchestra with a thousand instruments D playing J America! [ His manipulation of traditional f orm, coupled with what he called t he three S's-l '• /V\ "biology, psychology ..• sociology ," or the synchronizing of sight and sound and ~ in a poem~ yielded much poetic fruit in his long years of writing and riwriting his poetry. Rendezvous with America is not a great first book) but it marked him as an able handler of unique verse forms. His major themes (history , �/ l a ck pr es ence in the ~orld, religion, hatr ed for class structures, and the plight of the underdog ) are ,J; j~n a variety of forms: ...,sonne ts, rhymed quatra ins, ballads, f ree.:: verse forms , an<l special two-syllable lines . Known as ~ i cono~ st, Tolson used his poetry to dj =stool pomposity and those who manipulated everyman's sufferings from behind a cloak of high office. Music and art inform much of his poetry~ another reason why his allusory writing has been criticized/4-as in " Rendezvous" and "Dark Symphony," the most popular poem in his first book . In "Rendezvous," in addition to his musical structures, he lists America ' s melodies by associating factories, express trains, power dams, river boats, coal mines, and lumber camps with musical terminology: " a llegro," "blues rhapsody ," "bass crescendo," "diatonic picks," and "belting harmonics." "Dark Symphony," inunediately musical and racial in its title , is s e parated into parts along musical lines and terminology : Hoderat ; Part Part I: III, Andante Sostenut "Rendezvous" and "Dark Symphony" are patterned after the ode form (which Tolson would expand on in Libre~ and Harlem Gallery) . "Dark Symphony" carri es the same theme as "Rendezvous" ~ people pitted against their injusticesi but the latter poem is more r a cial in flavor and subject matter . - "'iA~ _£J.-. Located, temporally and spiritually, between the concerns of Whitman (the 1& and John Steinbeck (Grapes of Wrath), "Dark Symphony" ope ns by reminding Americans M~ that "Black Crispus Attucks"(c11ed for them\ (Boston €-oftl:Blo~ 1 ~ '- Before white Patrick Henry's bugle breath asked for liberty over death. A strongly masculine poem (as is so much of Tolson's work), it moves robustly to recite the deeds of "Men black and strong." Part II tells of the "slaves singing" in the "torture tombs" of ships in the middle "" and "canebrakes." passage, the swamps, the "cabins of death~ In the remaining �parts, the ) 'lack Amer i can, speaking through the collective "we," vows not to . paa "forget" that "Golgotha" has been A_-=-9 or that "The Bill of Rights is burned." Th<y<'ew Negro wears "seven-leag~e" boots and springs from a tradition that pro4:-, duced Nat Turner, Joseph Cinquet ("Black Ho ses of the Amistad Mutiny"), Frederick Douglass, Sojourner Truth and Harriet Tubman ("Saint Bernard of the Underground Railroad"). Grapes of Wrath and Native Son are invoked as ind~ es to the suffering and the breeding of slums . l) And, finally, the historical concerns of the / 1ack poet: Out of abysses of Illiteracy, Through labyrinths of Lies, Across waste lands of Disease We advance! Brilliant, esoteric, complex, innovative, and able to span the world of,J1ack /olk idiom and academic intellectualism, Tolson always punctuates his undaunted ~ l yricism with ribald humor and thigh-slapping uproarlmsness. However, Paul Bremen d~sparagingly referred to Tolson as posturing "for a white audience with an ill-conceived grin and a wicked sense of humor ..• an entertaining darky using almost comically big wor<ls as the best wasp tradition demands of its edui cated house-niggers ." Englishman Bremen.) s-.,,.-, . (Maybe, one might ,r-«, Tolson was "even" too deep for the Nevertheless, the poets of the academy apparently loved Tolsor, and mo r e than one of them tried to get him deserved recognition before he died. W, U.,im.s ,, William Carlos~saluted Tolson in his fourth book of PcJ# terson; Allen Tate wrote a now famous .~• .tr:&E!fr0" to Librett o; Shapiro introduc: d Harlem Gallery,:,\ seven Y launching Tolson into the same curious fame that Howells brought to Dunbar,\.• years before; Robert Frost, Stanley E<lgar Hyman , Selden Rodman, John Ciardi and Theodor e Roe thkel all tried to "bring Tolson to the general literary consciousness, but with little success" (Shapiro). �; , Tolson's severest critics usually have in mind Libretto or Harlem Gallery. Rendezvous has been out of print for several years and many of the younger f lack poets and schola rs ha~ ead it -J,.as ~ Road (1 932 ~ which has j-tts,t b~en reprinted. he case wit! iii SA i;, Brown ' s Southern Butt any casual look at Tolson 's work will confirm reports that he is not digestible in a single reading. Even before the erudition of Libretto and Harlem Gallery, Tolson accustomed himself to the allusion . Indeed , his strongest weapon is the literary or historical reference~ the mar k of the library poet, the learned person. the Bar" Tolson is at his finest as he ji,it'qeose.s •arak2222 In "An Ex-Judge at J. humor , allusion,\ ironyl with . _ -...:..- philosophy and social commentary. bar. This ex-judge is at a "drinking" And rich in oral power, like most of Tolson 's poetry , the poem surveys t he history of a white man who, after serving in the war and returning home to d,..., ·, become a judge, is" guilt-ridden in a taver1) where he discusses his life with the ba rt ender. The opening couplet: • t:'""___,_~ and ake it two Bartender, make it straa.-gut M One f or the you in me and in yout •.. ~ t he/ l ac k American's dexterousness with oral language and Tolson's rich background a s storyteller and debatA oach. The couplet contains the kind of musical, s eemingly non1 sensical statement that J lack men love to exchange during fierce verbal sparring matches I-even though the judge is presumab l y white . Drunk, the judge r ef i ves his war ~er·e~ces and, in a vision, sees the "Goddess Justic ~ ' f"'14Ulnw~, j~ whom someone 11 'l --- blindfolds';'•1111t,\the lawyers ~ "l:" a ilroad defendf nts before him. - But Justice " unbandaged" her eyes and accused the judge of lynching a / lack man to "gain the judge's seat," even though, ironically, he fought in the last war to "make the world safe for Democracy." The judge, seeking consolation and implying that no one is perfect, is finally moved to self-evaluation, repents and orders �another round of drinks: ® Bartender, make it straight and make it three~ One for the Negro .•• one for ·you and me. "An Ex-Judge at the Bar" i -with its ironies and doubl~ enten<lres in the very title /Ylis a poem that slips away from the reader. never sure, that one has the meaning under control. One thinks, though one is The poem refers to c{adsar, ct Pontius Pilate, the Koran , the Sahara, "September Morn" (a painting by Paul Chabt s), W' French Macbeth. ~ words, Flanders field, and Macduff in Shakespeare's ~ Certainly these are not the ideal ingredients for a poem directed to the "people." and world On the other hand, for the reader ready to do battle with history e, Tolson proves quite rewarding . Dudley Randall ("The Black ~ Aesthetic inl\Thirties, Forties, and Fiftie~" -,,f Iodern Black Poets) states, with a strained air- of seriousness; ~ "If t he reader has a well-stored mind, or is willing to use dictionaries, encylopedias, atlases, and other reference books,'' Tolson's work "should present no great difficulty." Randall had in mind, specifically, Libretto, a section of which appeared in Poetry along with the book's preface. In this long poemf, constructed loosely ~ . around tire ode formf Tolson celebrates Liberia 's cent ennial . According to Randall, "Tolson used all the devices dea r to the New Criticism : ..,,recondite allusions, scraps of foreign languages, African proverbs, symbolism, objective correlatives. Many parts of t1e poem are obscure, not through some private symbolism of the author, but because of the unusual words, foreign phrases, and learned allusions." Randall goes on to point out that reading Libretto is like reading other "learned poets, such as Milton and Ti s. Eliot ." However, reading Tolson is not exactly like reading other learned poets, for he placesr ack information in front of the reader. lle bends the ode into an �~t A""~rltt'O .f-: ~musical structure and celebrates the /'lack past. ~ l'O• Continuing a pattern set in J {)[~ poems i±ks. "Rendezvous with America" and "Dark Symphony," Tolson separates --;it:; Libretto along lines of the Vestern musical scale: ~ @ ~-Do, -Re, Mi, Fa , Sol, La, Ti, Specifically, Libret to acknowledges the c § birthday of Liberia, founded in 1847 by the American Colonization Society for free men of color. "Rooted in the Liberian mentality as fact and symbol ," Libretto traverses the kaleidoscopic range of African his tory: ~ the magnificent a ncient and/ edieval kingdoms, European exploitation, various theories as to the reason for the question-markl shape of Africa , the origins of fa ack stereotypes, Africa ' s contributions to the world, the impact of Christianity, Islam and other religions . All this Tolson does with what Allen Tate calls "a great gift of language , a profound historical sense, a first-rate intelligence." Tate also pondered, as did Emanuel and Gross (Dark Symphony, 1968), "what influence this work will have upon Negro poetry in the Unit ed States." Nore than slightly recalling Howells} in his endorsement of Dunbar, Tate says : l"For the first time, it seems to me , a Negro poet has assimilated completely the full poetic language of his time and, by imp lication, the language of the Anglo-American tradition." Relentlessly posing the one-word question "Liberia?" and reinforcing the nation 's existence in "fact and symbol, " Tolson opens Libretto with lofty erudition and color. The fifth stanza of ~ . after the initial "Liberia?" and accompanying recitation of what the nation is not, add resses its citizens thusly: Yo u ar ---t Black Lazarus risen from the White Han 's grave, 0 t::..J t,-without a road to Downing Street, Without a hemidemisemiquaver in an Oxford Later, in ~ secti f tave ! olson excerpts a chant from "The Good Gray Bard of <B �Timbuktu": ® "Wanawake wanazaa ovyo ! Kazi Yenu Wanzungu!" ~ Hayden has been called one of the most skilled craftsmen since Countee Jifl,/ Culle~ but Tolson without a doubt has sustained t moM powerful poetr '~ ~ ' ' l adheres ri gorously to the tenets of the modernists. ~ ' ' His Libretto is the drama of "The Desert Fox" and the German " goosestep" across Africa <@); of the snake, "eyeless, yet with eyes " ( ); of "White Pilgrims" and "Black Pilgrims" who sing "O Christ" that the wors'f will "pas fr} ( ol); "A white man spined with dreams" a; of a "Calendar of the Country" to "red-letter the Republic's birth !" of "Leopard, elephant, ape" and :il); and of ." a professor of metaphysicotheologicocosmonigology" also . . i n a c 1 oaca o f error a toot h . pu 11 er a/ ,p ltap h ys1c1st a ielly' s welf a skull's tabernacle a 1113 wi th stars 0 t-a muses ' darling a busie bee de sac et de corde tJ f-a neighbor's bed-shaker a walking hospital on D 0 the walip •·•~ _ The symbols, t t1e syntax, the grammar and the language tumble on placing / -Quai d ' Orsay, White House , L...f- Kremlin , : wning Street t in the catalog• while (!~ ' Again black Aethiop reaches at the sun, 0 Creek fI ( i 0 The histo r y of world wars, the gos sip in high circles ("f Duce's Whore"), AA.- the concoction of ~ merable languages and book-buried erudition, reveal Tolson as a complex and difficult modern poe t. The tragedy, Randall and others have �pointed out, is that as Tolson wrote Libretto and Harlem Gallery, white scions of the modern vers e were turning their backs on erudition for a more common, everyday language in poetry. for more than@ Trapped in the middle (he held on to Harlem Gallery years), Tolson continued to labor in the best tradition of the modern poetry to the disbelief of contemporariesf who , like Cummings, Rexroth , and Hughes, were influenced by f (l/op and a freer language structure. Tolson's sustained scholarship and complex allusions are reinforced by the addition of scores of footnotes..J which cite the works of such as Dryden , Shakespeare, Emerson, Lorenzo Dow Turner (Africanisms in the Gullah Dialects)~ J.~ . Rogers C, Race), unnar Hyrdal , Aeschylus, Bocca'1(-o, Baudelaire!.,and hundreds of others. I symbols The work ends <@) in a use of mystical and technological examine "Futurafrique" and "tomorrow •.• 0 .. . Tomorrow." Tolson's career is a terrifying example of the confusion that can occur in ther ack literary artist . When he first sent the manuscript of Libretto to Tate (who was across town at Vanderbilt with the "Fugitive" poets while Tolson was -tke Whi re poet at Fisl(), •#[ejected i Si saying he was not interested in "propanganda from a Negro poetf "1Flasch),' ..i__fl 1 1!j_ Tolson then dil_!i gently refvrote the manuscript · \:>•3"'_.rt to subscribe to the t~~intellectual, technical, and scholarly demands of the modern poets (Tate, John Crowe Ransom, Eliot, Pound, Robert Penn Warren, Donald Davidson, and others). it. He sent the manuscript back to Tat~ who agreed to endorse In 1920, Tolson had stumbled upon a copy of Sandburg 's "Chicago" but was warned by a professor to "leave that stuff alone" (Flasch). a poet, then, was stunted* causing him to spend @ His maturation as years searching for his own voice. Harlem Gallery (the first of a planned five-volume epic) provides another example of the chaos in Tolson's poetic life. In 1932, he completed a 340-page manuscript called "A Gdllery of Harlem Portrait~ ' which was turned down by ~ - -- - -- -- - -- - - - - -- - �publishers. When the deriva tive ode Harlem Gallery was finally brought out in 1966, Tolson had published two newer manuscripts: , -tt\-t Rende zvous and Libretto . roe.-t.!. Harlem Gallery had been placed in~• • & a !!II "trunk" for @ years-;;a period during which he switched from the Romantics and Victorians (and Masters after whose 1 Spoon River Anthology "Portraits" was modell ed) to the Moderns . -t1t~ US PT r . ., i itt,g -21!he::."2.& · I Tolson said he ~ 1 read and absorbed the techniques of Eliot, Pound, Yeats, Baudelaire, Pasternak and , I believe , all the great moderns . God only /" knows how many \J.1. ittle magazines\Y I studied, and how much textual analysis( (sic_9 of the New Critics." A staggering poem , Harlem Gallery " is a work of art, a sociological commentary, an intellectual triple somersaultt (Flasch~ It meet s the vigorous intellectual, scholarly, and stylistic whims of mode rn poetry , but at the same time is "impossible to describe." Yet it is Tolson's crowning achievement in more ways than one . First it continues his fascination with/ lack and general history . pursues ~ Jo;;,., Second, it intense interest in bo t h the psychof dynamics of the Afro- American /" character and the artist; he is particularly concerned with the plight of the ~o lllll!!ntie ~C.. century / lack artist (hence Book I , The Curator). Third, it prov ides one of the most powerful and authentic link~ between the Harlem Renaissance and the Black Arts Hovement of the 1960s a nd 1970s. The very title of Har lem Galler y gives it a / lack setting; and t he fact of itt s being conceived and initially drafted <luring the f ena issance indicates that ;olson labored over the years (from the stand: point of memory, technique and sub ject matter) in the afterv low of the ,, literary flowering watered by McKay, Cullen , Toomer, Hughes , Fish r, Johnson , and Locke. Finally, the characters in Harlem Gallery are / lack: the Curator, Doctor Nkomo (Bantu expatriate and Af ricanist ), Mr. Guy Delapor te (p~esident of Bola Bola Enterprises), Black Orchid (blues\ singer and mistress to Delaporte), t he �ha l f - blind Ha r lem a rtist John Laugar t , Bl a ck Di amond (ghettot promoter of t he 6,e.,~ Lenox policy racke t), and Hideho Heights (the light-skinned poe t of Lenox Avenue). I\ The Cura t or of the Harlem Gallery is a n admixture (continuing concer~~ egun in Rendezvous) of races ("Afroirishjewish") , an octoroon who passes for j lack in New York and white in Mississippi . He is a digestion of the humor and pathos Blacks s ee i n those of their race who attempt to "pass . " Tolson noted t hat sinc e t housands of light- skinned Blacks passed over, there is a standing joke ask~ "Wha white man is white?" Harlem Gallery, t hen, is desiened to parade the/ lack " types" (ultimately ~veryman types) thr ough t he gallery of life as it is shaped by the view of the l i t era ry genius: ...._,Tolson • Spec ifica lly , the book i s a hu~ answer to Gertrude Stein's charge t ha t the "Negro su ffers from no t hingness.'' ,J1-ack hi story . All of his poetic life, To lson wo r ked to reconstruct Now , in Harlem Gallery, he was coming with speed and poetic prei -- cision fr om his corner of the syntactica-J. and semant i c* ring to do battle with /Y)~ -., Stein ' s charge . In the Introduction to Harlem Gallery, Shapiro explains i n pa rt the reason why Ge rtrude Stein would herself be so i gnorant. Whites do not get a chance t o read about ;(lack ·achievement; since "Poetry as we know it remains the most l ily- whit e of the arts." the poetry of t he Academ~f ears." Libretto may have pulled "the rug out from under but "Harlem Gallery pulls the house down around their Assailing El i ot and others for "purifying the language," Shapiro praised Tolson f or " complicating it, giving it the gift of tongues . " To lson certainly gave Harlem Gallery the "gift of tongues . " He uses tidbits from the range of world l a nguages; but his work is more sust a ined and coherent than in Libretto. Both storyt line and language a re more accessible in Galleryt;, with its interpolation· of ricy academic language and form. ack speech and musical term.inology into stilted Set up musically, with each section bearing the �fa1ler offh ~ name of a~Greek /lphabet, Galler y shows Tolson again displaying his amazing technical virtuosity and his merger of ,~ ode form with rela ted / lack orally~derived structures : ~blues , jazz ,/ piritua ls, f olk epics and oral narratives &a e'Satchmo" in GmbdJ / n ___, The verse pattern in "The Birth of John Henry" Gallery owes some debt to (gg} in Libretto Jwith its - tapered typography and irregular forces the r eader to speed up or slow down to line organization catch the rhyme. ~ opens describing t he spice of Harlem as "an Afric pepper bird" before the Curator tells us; ~ I I travel, from oasis to oasis, man ' s Saharic 0 up-and-down. The grand sweep and intellectual storage of Tolson are gathered from line to line , between lines, in t h e marg i ns, around and t hroughout the poem. Recalling the verbal jousting in "An Ex- Judge a t the Bar," t he Curator assesses his "I-ne ss," his ".humanness" and hi s "Negr ones sj " and this recipe mixes with t he pepper bird ' s r eveille in my brain where the plain i s t willed and t willed iA plain . The academic stilts a re shortened fo r t he sake of unde rstanding <@): 0 one needs the clarit y the comma gives t he eye, not the head of the hawk .0 's4wollen with rye . Like Hayden's "Middle Passage," Gallery views the physical and spiritual pret dicament of th y lack man : ..,_what has he gone through , how much more can/will he take, how long? tl,w long? The answer is that man may have to endure suffering forever/4-but if he is doomed to suffer, he is likewise "doomed" to survive. The �Cur ator is t old t hat others have su f fered and survived . cr eate in th e ir suffering . The Afro- American and So t he " Af roirishjewish Grandpa" of the ~ shim ,.___, ~ : Cur £!f e t ween the dead sea Hitherto Q and the pr omi sed l a ml Henc e U looms t he wilderness Now : O a lthough his confidence :_i s often a boar bailed up ILJ on a rid ge , somehow , ].. t he Attic sal t in man survives the blow [l.c.J of Attila , Croesus , Iscar iot , ·r---a nd t he ~ tches Sabba t h i n t he Ca t a comb s of Bos io . 1, '1:certainly t his survi va l theme i s c l os e to t he hea rt o f the Afro-American and t he a rtist. Art ists ar e of ten among t he f irst to plee~ f or clemency , for free e xpr ession , f or t ru t h . The j pirituals and t he va s t body of ~ folk e xp r e s sion reaffirm the Afro-American's fait h in man and the quest fo r s urv i val. of} lack exp res sion and strength, Tolson (and Hayden : i ncorporates t he rich blast of ~ '-' folk mate r ials . Acknowledging this a spect "Hean mean mean to be freef ") In heaven ~==-=-= 7 , Gabr iel announces; ~ (P '' I ' d be the greatest trumpeter in the Universe , [J if old Satchmo had never been born !" And the b irth of John Henr y is an e pic birth -akin to t hat of Jesus, Bud~ °' }1C,hammtd , and others . an ax The nigh t Jo hn Henr i is born (V ,CJ of l igh t ning splits t he skY,,i_ the earth , and a hammer of thunde r pounds , �0 and t he ear,l e s and pant hers cry! Reciting a soul-food menu at birth , John Henry 1' I want some ham hocks , ribs, and jowls, _ a pot of cabbage arid gree{; some hoecakes, jam , and butter milk, a platter of pork and beans!' ' ~ ) Tolson remains at home in s ynchronizing the Afro- American and Western heritages . In Gallery his forte is still t he literary a llusion juxtaposed with history or religion (as in Libretto),;\ but he love s to ascend the stuJty mountain of academia ~ and then suddenly dr'Jeinto t he midst of ghettot-i'uri<, ~ ; : '@ tha t tilt like "long N,fp lese eyes" to a "catacomb Harlem flat" \ (grotesquely vivisected like microscoped maggots) ,b~ I from t houghts !,ya the "Elite Chitterling Shop" @ )1 wh ich contains the "variegated jukebox" (sin~ing the "ambivalence of classical blues") . ; : : :ra of Meanwhile, Doctor Obi Nkomo, "the alter ego" of the gallery, speaks Across an alp of chitterlings, pungent a s epigrams • . .. ) The _,P(,ctor returns to t he theme of survival and free expression: J) d/ 11 The lie of the artist is the only lie for wh ich a mortal or a god should die." 7r"olson's ever-present need to synt hesize (and yet separate) the t hr ee ingredients of man (biology , sociology and ps ychology/4- extending into the three S' ~ / si ght, sound and sense) recurs in t~e poem ~ ) as the a rtists paint the seven panels of man ' s trid t•mensionali ty - 1--in variforms and varicolorsJ IJ since vir tue has no Kelv in scale l---since a mo ther breeds J-no twins alike, ••. �and since no man who is 1$~ '.: dged by his bioso cia l identity OCJ I { ------ n tote Kiefekil or a fart re , rn Henc e Tolson extends, sometimes in camouf l ~ ge, his ideas about man ' s similarities a nd differences . To be sure , he is say ing that;('lack lilen and white men are di fferent "i\but that the differences are not significant enough to keep t hem from working together for the lilutua l ~ood . This particular stand, which l a ces the work of Hayden, Tolson , Hughes and early Gwendolyn Brooks, is not one that will rema in popular among poets who subscribe to the / lack/ es the tic of the 1960s . NEver theles~ Tolson dug underneath the hysteria and the ideological neatness to probe the tine- honored questions about nan . Gallery) finds •&h;e:z;_doing liluch-anthologized section of battle with anthropologists , the D.A . . , the F.F.V. (First Families o f Virginia), Unc le Tom , t h e Jim Crow / i gn, the Great White World, and Kant, in an att emp t t o ans we r the questio \" Who is a Ne gro?" a nd "Who is a Uhite?"'/lrolson ' s wo r k contains e reat satir~ satire. and great wisdom in t he To be misled by his incred i ble and daz ~ling wor, ~play is to miss the essential Tolso~ who warned t he c omin~ ,eneration t ha t, although Uncle Tom was " dead ," they should beware of his son : "Dr. Thomas . " Suspicious of fame and wealth .-, and des iri ng to see laced over ,mother (in privileiz e), Tolson remarked a fter J ohn Laugart ' s mur • \\ t hat amo nc those thin3s remaining D and infamy , t h e ~iamese twin -- (.! of fame . _____________________ ...__ ~wete 0- ba1tle ol-' git! �Are we privilel';ed , here, to see a sneak (@- y e a r ~ ) preview of Wa terga te? We do not know what would have been Tolson's fate as a poet had -he come to his own comfortable style as a young man in the Harlem Renaissanc e. He was nearly fifty when he sent Tate the manuscript for Libretto . , f t y .\ :· oU is quite an Aage for a poet to be still at odds with fl.is craftM or to have•++....___.,, ~ , ~'tn,n,jf 11~ tvoH over,f's een by aA.critic . Nevertheless Tolson , not admitted (as Shapiro noted of J'lack poets)~ to the "poli te company of the anthology , 11 had to get his voice CJtJ,,,. immedl4tt Ptninw:.kn, em;Tithlal "together" without the/\aid ava i l ab1J' to the "Fugitives" or those inl\molcling . $'1~ .centers modern poetry . ,Few,J(l a ck poets at the time were attempting Tolson's 1'n t•-S~ I l'l •. OJ;_~ Bl ac Ics flIha s!ri lj cl ec 1.rne cl C:::::: • I · ______ :~'.> 111 I! during the fo rties and fifties -and there is much eviclence that Tolson generally intimidated other / lack scholars and intellectuals with his vast knowledge and great talents. Like poets of other generations, he was a part-time poet, expending much of his ener g ies on students and school-related work. p Randall has pointed out that unless a ck poets imitate Tolson?\and thus keep him apparent and interesting~ he will not exert a major influence on Afro-American poetry. But, as Barksdale and Kinnamon note, a poet of Tolson's range and power carf):iot go unnoticed for long . Criticism of To lson is sparse . Joy Flasch ' s Melvin B. Tolson, in the Tw~J United Sta tes Authors Series, offers good insights int o Tolson's techniques. Barksdale and Kinnamon give brief criticism in Black ~friters of America. appraises him in t he article on/lack poets of three decades following the Randall ~ Renaissance in his "Portrait of the Poet as Raionteur," Negro Digest , XV, 3 ...._. (January 1966 )J S4t;, 7. ~· See. a lso 11 A Poet's Odyssey, 11 an interview with Tolson (conducted by M.lw . King) in Anger, and Beyond (1966) ~Lee. I ~ j\eview!. Joy lte.be .-mA.tt) f:a.bto ([J ~ Margaret 1-Jalker' s poetry and life provide a ~.ich and fl rewarding jolt in t he writing activity of this period : her For Mv People (1942) /,.., "' �was the first book of poe try by a jlack woman since Georgia Douglas~Johnson ' s volumes of th e t wen ties; the poetry departeJ in theme and technique from t he prevailing mood of poetry byfilack women; and she had t he rare opportunity to £.~~i1e, ineo~o"A~ le, years , Wright, Davis, Fenton Johnson , and during her mo st-~ ~ with such Chicago-based writers a~ &1 1 FL ~ -,-11;111 Hu~ :bilec ot:1'11!'1.· it ors 9 £... the e ~ ~her experiences inc luded the Depression, Wo rld War II and ::; McCarthyism-Lalong wit h various ra cial and politically radical perspectives on M contemporary life. Margaret Walker was born in Birmingham , Alabama , the daught e r of a Me thodist~ .,..., minister father and a school teacher mother, both universi t y graduates. She ~ . M.1ss1ss1pp1, . . . Al a bama , an d Louisiana . . 1.. ti;_ • ~ a t t en d e d c h urc h sc h oo 1 sin ceso•• receiv ~ her B.A . from Northwestern ~ .., stag lee• ~ ts r srl "1T'1e • next fou~yE!ar~Aas a t yp ist, newspaper reporter, edi tor of a short-lived magazine, ~d"-'"i4J..t and with the Federal Write r s ' Pro ject. (like Haydei in Chicago . In 1939 she entered the University of Iowa (afte r short s t ints as a social worker in Chicago and New Orleans} where she received an _·LA . in 194 0, her thesis being a collection of poems. She i~ ~ obtained ~ I \Ph . D. in creative writing from Iowa in 19 65 a, after submitting Jubilee , a novel, in lieu of ...,.Adisse rtation. Jubilee received the Houghton Hiff lin Literary Awa rd in 1966 and ha s been translated into several languages. Sc~ I qc.fO ~ •1 \o ~ J T ~ Hargare t Wal ke r (Mrs. Firnist IA, James Alexander and t he mother of four children) was~ professor of English at Liv ingston Coll ege in North Carolina , received the Ya le Younger Poets award in 1942 (For My Peopl e ), was awarded a Rosenwald Fellowship for Creative \,Tri.ting (1944 ), s e r ved as visiting professor at 'Iorthwestern University , and became a membe r of the English f acult y at Jac kson State Colleg 7 where she is currently director of the Ins titute for the Study of His tory, Life , and Culture of Black ~ - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - �People (since 1969). Arthur P . Davis says) ~ ":t•ass Walker is a better poet than she is a novelist, " and one can hardly quarrel with him . • In addition to For ,1y People, she has sustained a ·1h. < \ _" quality of poetry in I Prophets for a New Day (1970) and October Journey (1973) M both published by !i Randall's ___. Broadside Press in De troit. J Al though some of the poems in Prophets '-- for a New Day were begun in the t hirties and forties , "most of them," according to the poet, were written during the sixties . them in Chapter VI . !, 8rief comment will be made on ; "For Hy People," the title poem of her first book, first Told by Owen Dodson at a College Language Association meeting (Howard University, in 1942) that she was winning the Yale Younger Poets Award, w hevi IL ~he had wonJ and · 1 1 -=1t-i&..isl, -e-1 ~ she "had not even s ubmitted 11Qp- "-manuscrip t and her- v o Lv"" e. • ,,:;;;-(31i/ ;ecalls ~ thought he was cra zy . " t\._include<l a sensit i ve Fo r d by Stephen V;i.ncent Ilen/S, who praised her " Straight -for wardness, d irectness, r eality ," and noted that such qua lit i es are " good t hings to find in a young poet." also observed Benet Q : lrt is rarer to find them cor.1bined with a controlled intensity of emotion and a language that, at times, even when it is most modern, has something of t he surge of biblical poetry. And it is obvious that Niss Walker uses that language because it comes ~ turally to her and is a part of her inheritance. Indeed "inheritance" is the key word to unlocking the fruits and juices of Margaret Walker ' s poetic storeroom. Her own experiences , as the <laughter of re l igious parents, of growing up in the South, of being nurtured on the oral tradition, of developing a ca reful and sympathetic ear for the folk expressions, are all served up again through the poe t's "honesty," " sincerity," "candor " and - - - - - - - - - -- -- - ---- �tremendous technical abilities . Harr,a ret Walker ' s verse does not employ the ~ oblique , ~truse , and learned scalings sometimes evident in Hayden and Tolson . And she is quit e at the opposite end of the spectrum from the ladxtlike lyrics . and of her predecessors: .._, Ann} Spencer , Gwendolyn Benne tt/\ Alice Dunbar 1Qg el son., ... Indeed when ·measured against the tradition established by most of She : certainly · her female predecessors, her work is startling. I\ · bears ship to her forerunner ,i/4 is;ers~ especially to Frances Harpert some ki"1, i n theme and e; ~ usag~ -but her language, lines , an<l narration a re more .related to the work of )3'.l.ack poe~s .renton Johnson, Wright, ,c}"arnes Weldon Johnson, Htllghes and Davis, and whi te -·poets Masters, Lindsiy and -Sandburg . During an exchange t1ith 'N i kk i Giovanni (A Poet ic Eq ua t ion : ,..Conversations Between Ni kki Giovanni a nd Margaret Walker , 19 743 't]~~tli'et alker !nut t o ge t bac k to t hi s business of l angua ge. £) s aid : In t he t wenties and thir ties, f or t he f i rs t time we had the us e of b l a ck speech / f r om the streets . He were r esponsi ble fo r t ha t pa r tic ular urban l2:_d i om going int o t he American languaf:e . ~ ;ikki Giovanni answered with ~ ~pe rceptive ~ _!tit• ohserv1iTi6>t~ 5 \r t was the first time because we were bec oming urban. {) one of the things we f or :·: et when ue start ~r ritiques is t hat we could not have had a street laniuage earlier . been plantation and southern and rura l. I t h ink Speech had And as we moved~o the ~ ities during the ~ i gration period , we developed a s treet language . M-ir.otret· think that's an import ant point," ' ~ J \~lalker noted , moving on to indebt herself and the whole modern/ l ack poetic folk.t r adition to lear that :Margare t Walker , t :1e ~outhc rner, ~leaned from the kinds of rich linguistic c omplements needed to draw the �For Ny People. The t itle poem sets t he tone of t he book and es tablishes t he poet ' s intellectual, aes t he tical , ph iloso phical and his torical consid erations : V the acquisition and employment of. knowle<l3e of her past; the exhortation of her people ("Th e Struggle Staggers UsJ ' but "Ou t of this blackness we must struggle forth"); the celebrationi specifically+ of the / 1ack folk heritage and language; esteem for her religious (especially supernatural ) and spiritual needs. Revealing in both its style and its content, "for ly People" is a majestic poem containing '""tot.So n1'M f'. the now-famous Whitman sweep of words and ideas with aa 4ordering disorder : J.f~ For my people everywhe re singing t 1eir slave songs IJ l , repeai :!{ t heir dirges and their d itties and I their blues anc,yJ ubilees, praying their praye rs nightly to an unknow~ od, bending their knees humbly to an unseen power0 ... Continuing from th is first stanza (note the similarity to Fenton Johnson's ?J the poem views "my people" adding their " streneth" to the " gone years" and the "now years." It sees them, as it traverses the physica l and spiritual history of Blacks , as "playmates" in Alabama "clay and <lus ~ as "black and poor and small and differen~ as youths who " grew" to "marry their playmates" and "die of con-{,, ~ul!lption~';) as "thronging 47th Street in Chicago and Lenox Avenue in New Yo rk and Rampart Street in New Orleans ' as "wa lking blindly spreading joy"; as )r\ blundering and groping and flounderin~"i a s "preyed on by facile force of state and fad an l ovelty, by false prophet and holy believer\f) and "as all the adams and eves ." Finally, in the last stanza , she gives t his ringing cry for a more a ggressive / lack push: �{f) Let a new ea rt h rise . •c. e ,,ott-·• \~" t),t>~\~ Let anot her wor ld be born . 1-tt IJ ·. 1a bl oody /peace be wr itten in the sky . Let Let a second /\A let a people , generatiorf/tull of courage i s s ue fo rth; 1\11 1ft ~\~ loving free-~dom come t o gr owth . Let a beauty full of hea ling,. //If nd a s tr en 6 th of f i na l clenching be the . . -1-z lf pu 1 s 1.ng 11;. .-,o ur spir its and our blood . ~ Let the # martia l songs b~~wr itten , le t t he dir ges disappear. I Let a race o f men now ris e and t ake control . For Hy People is a small book (only @ _f111~n;ia~ by a/ poems) but it is one of the most in~ lack poet.(/,,Da rk Blood" follows the opening poem, reaffirming 11 H~rgaret Walker ' s be lief in t he " forms of t hings unknown /4as Wright ~ it. "Bizarre beginnings in old lands" cons tit u ted the "making of me." succulent imagery un f olds: u t~ Lus c i ous , " s ugar s ands," " fe rn and pearl," "Palm jung les ," "wooing nights," in contra s t to t he " one-room shacks of my old poverty." nut the "blazing suns" of t he po e t's conj ured=up birt:iplace will help reconcile t he pride a nd pain in me . ti Lt, ,,._ Strongly reminiscent of t he Rena i s s a nce poe t s ' inf atuation with Africa, but ending on the reali stic not e of the poe t' s loca l ized " poverty," "Dark Blood" certainly meets ~ notion of "realit ." The skepticism, the doub t, t he scent of s acrilf ge ~ ound from Dunbar forwardJ br ing tension to "He Have Been Be l ievers": ~ .•• believing in our bur dens a nd our demigods too long . And now (recallin~ Dunbar's "Synpat hy") , t:,e " f ists" o f the believers "bleed" (t a gainst t he bars with a st r a::ige ins istency. The streng t1, begun in the f irst poer.i , is carried through "Southern Song" a nd ... ______________ _ ..._ �"Sorrow Home ." With incantation and incremental refrai1:,i "Del t a" t ells of t h: . ~ collective "s truggle. " Strains of "Delievers" course t hrough " Since 161~" ~ the poet a ga in re:£.t races the/ lack odyssey : /4. (f) How l ong have I been hated and hating? The speaker, longing _t o see the rich "color" of a "b rothe r's f ace, " assa ils racism, poverty , ignoranc e a .. violence , and laments s piritual desola t ion. War, poverty, diseas e and other heirs of the Depre s sion a re the themes of "Toda ~" which speaks of "chi ld r en scarred by bomb s," "lynching ," and "pellagr a and silicosis . " A different " stride" of this poet is seen in the second s ection of For My People . "Mol l y Means , " "Bad- ,[an Stagolee , " "Poppa Chicken, " "Kissie Lee, " •falluh Hammuh ," "Two- Gun Buster and Trigger Slim , " "Teacher, " "Gus, t he Lineman:;" "Long John Nelson and Sweet ie Pie , " and "John Henry" a re f resh treatments of authentic stories from/ la ck communities in Ame rica . " A hag and a witch," Mol l y Means had seven husband ~ and 1 Some s ay she was born wi t h a veil on her f ace .. •• The incremental r efrain ("Old .1olly , ~1olly , Noll y , " etc.) gives drama tic and r psychological power t o the poem as Holly's work wit h t he "black- hand arts and her evil powers" are catalogued . {!) Stagolee , apparently "an all- right lad," Till he killed that cop and turned ou t bad , quite possibly had kil led "mor ' n one" white man. The "bad nigger:" type found in all / lack communities is the portrait drawn of Stagolee: (!,) Wid dat blade he wore unnerneaf his shirt. • . . Stagolee mysteriously d isa ppe~, though his " ghost still" sta l ks t he shore of ....... the Mississippi River. Poppa Ch "cken was a pi mp who , in the American t radition of f lack-on-flack crime, " go t off li3ht" fo r killing a mant' and (J) Bought hi s pardon in a yeare ... �Also a p ack protot ype , he had plenLy \: men (" gals fo r miles around"), expensive rings and wa tches, f ancy clothes , displayed a coolness ("Treat 'em r ough" ), and when he walked t he st reets J The Gals c ried Lawdy ! Lawcl ! ,,.. Kissie Lee is a throw_ ba ck t o llar <l=Heart ed Hannah (who would "pour water on a . man, ") : d rowni.ng J) she could shoo t 8l a ss door s o ff a the h i nge ~ Shine and othe r s . Hammuh recalls Do ~ He killed hi s ••. He was so "bad" that law of fri ght . • . . The cultural folk ty pes par a de be fore our eyes, much after the fashion of "Slim" and other characters i n St er l ing Br o·wn ' s Souther n Road . Margare t lfa l ker' s cot t1:µ tribution, a s":'.a oe,s Brown's, lies ~l~ in the area of history and linguis tic ~ _.,,,,----- Sl.<1 for both a re chroniclers of s uc h . Jjut ct.err 17' surpa sses Brmm in her sear ch A+ . iL ...+,.-e...-e Le ttie Con~t°Cflf., 1 for the vers e fo r ms to convey / l acl~ folk i f e . 4v1 1 I r0 ~ 1Ctl Yf l" p.l'll~e.11l of \J.J\mt¥\ IV\ he~ p6ems. .. Big J ohn Henr y tales ca n be f ound in prac t ica l ly every Americ an communi t y . Y t Margaret Walker places he r man in Us sissipp~ wher e and sorghum." ,s e feast ed on " buttermi lk As a Bi g Boy t ype (Wr i:-;h t, Hughe s and other s ), he as s aults the world throus h physic a l prowes s . lie is t he best co t ton picker, stronger t han ~ a "team of oxen , " t he champion boxer; he ca anchor hand," is taught by t he "wi tches" how to " cunjer ," a nd is undaun t ed until a "ten- poun' hammer" s pl i t " him open ." The ha l lad, app ropriately, is the primary form of the poems in t h is s ection . The third sect ion o f t h e book con t a · s six sonnets, capturing r emembrances and vignettes. The poet br i n~s he r mm r 1yme s cheme, stanzaic pa ttern and line-stress variations to the se piec e s . " Ch ildhood" r ecalls that of a ll the many human a nd natural pcs t i ences t ha t invaded the lives of the poor, including J 77 �the "hatred " that "still held sway ," tp) ..• only bitter land was washed away . ~ "Whores" are told t ha t their labors a rc ~ndi 6nified and warned (a dash of deepf wornan concern (feminism?)) that as t hey grow older they will f ind that their bodies, in this world of turbulence , wi l l neither give " peace" to men nor "leave them satis fied . " Endinr; , rightly it seems , with "Struggle Staggers Us," For .1y People reminds Bla cks t ha t t here is room to "stagger" but none to halt: , Struggle between t he mor ning and ni ght . .I This marks our year s ; t his se tt les , too , our plight. There are few volune s of poetry published since For Hy People that can be cor i ()rt'{ et- sidered aii_,elacl<{; ,in t he complex sense of t,e wor d. From the e<l clay of the e playgrounds t o t he teemin~ treachery of urban fus t lages; from the . / J,.;- a r to the pi e rcing cry of the hungry; fr om t he deeply (unquestioning1 s to the iconocla sti c and t he here t i c; from t he healthy racial to the ,... ·,g'iod · dose of modest y a nd na'ive t : { it is al f i e r e : wonderful sensitivity and a rich bank of poetry for all times . fl b,. ., A link to the writers o f t heAr.cna i s s ance , llar garet Walker has had contact with ~ . twenties poets ~ '--"' Ilu13hcs , 3ont em:is , Fenton Joh nson and Gwendolyn . Bennett: 'as well a s with l a t e r barJs : V Danner, Margaret Burroughs a nd Tolson . Dodson , Hayden , Gwendolyn Br ooks, Harga r et Fo r Hy People , in t he end, stands a s the rich digestion (synt1esi s ) of t e ma i n currents of the / enaissance an~ t he a esthetic consider a tions being de ba ted by Locke , Cullen, J ohnson, Brown and Redding . Wolke, Hargaret"-rnay have pro duced the volume of poe try many of the older writers Ja~:te& ,'to write . Wi t hout being se lf - e ffacin g or "unrealistic" about her plis ht :fJa.ri:4'Afro-American, ,\ .- ..:. ''-• ~-!. .,. she poetically r econs tructed one of the most balanced pictures �o f ~f lack humanit :i; withou t l esscnine or prof aning her obvious self- love . I ~~yth<\ b-e a u!. e he. w tl..4 .J ~ro(fu, in Southern Roa d , avo ides,I even mentionin& Af rica~ perhaps s8' fed ~ Jp ni.tL w~().7 a ~~ the romantic escapad e s of s ome "f\ena i s sance poets . ~ !!:~!:, ~e deserves no'\praise 11-1\s1 0 n1' p r,J ~A}ortfor that aspect of his " - ~ ~ Tolson and Haydenl (bo_th~ U Hant poets) ~ )-.... 1.,vere o i:-te r. _ _ +1 ~ ~ ~,. .rj t s ~oi sed in t he wi ng~ , ~ of t en r equir.QQll a signal from the academy before they could " slip the e a g le ' s claw." ~ }lore critical assessr.1.ent of ;!ar garet Wal ke r ' s work is needed . c~ Barksdale !Ya ent s in t he i r antholog! , j A Poetic Equatio n) Walker_:; 1 974) is ext r eme l y helpf ul in getting to the grit of the poet's ideas . Ther e are s eminal comments in Pa ula Giddings' "A Shoulder Hunched Against a Sharp Conce r n ': .....,Sor.1e Theme s in t he Poe try of Margaret Walker, 11 Black Worl~ XXI (~ecembe1 1971), 2oj 2s . See also ~ Whitlow's Black American Literatur~. ~ , Young ' s Black ~vr it e rs of t he Thirties , ~ -Jackson ' s essay in Black Po et r y i n A.mc r · ca , 1§f!!!II Gibson 's 1odern Black Poets, ~ anuel "'s ,5 and Gross '• Dark Symphony, ~leg ro Ca r av an , ~ Davis '~ From the Dark Tower, Redmond' s " The Black Ame r ic a n Ep ic : - It s Roots and Its Writers/' Bla ck Thou ht an 9'!!!!9&Henderson 's Understanding -------Tilac c Exp r e ssion and The Black Aesthe t i c. - Poetry, a nd - - - • Gayl e ' s ----------~ ____, -------f Ia r ~ \ - th e mos t celebrated lack poet of all timef , cwendolyn Brooks~ cont inues t o make he r home in Chicag~ where she presides as ~'-"t"" f1't't~~~ of t he/ ew~ nck/ oetry . ~ CUI She joins To lson, Hayden, Randall, Margaret Walker and others as poe t s of " t ransi t ion"/4 thos e who helped continue the literary //(I fe ,r r/4i % light of./:hel\Renaiss anc e i nt o and t hr ou.~h the Depr e ssion, World War II '/\,t ivil _;;,C y~d ;ti,., , f i ghts/\ nd Black Power,;\ . 0 Bor n the daughte r of l .ihori class parents in Topeka, Kansas, Gwendolyn Br ooks Has r ear ed i n Ch ic a g<?J where she attended public schools, ,I ( �g raduating f rom Eng lewood ll i ~h School in 1934 and Wi lson Junior College in 1936. -. Wilson represented the fi nal st ep in her formal e duca tion) and in 1939 she ma rried Henry Blakely . in ,rh ■M S he had a son and a daue hter . (D W f.n&Lf t1 · tft1ooks ~ be9att W1'itu., ~ tlt#ie ~ 4'f;and b~ the time she was in her late teens s he had published two mimeog raphed community newspapersA one being the €-am;l~ Weekly . numerous publications: Since the early 1940s her poetry has appeared in Poe try , Black World , Common Ground, Saturday Review of '- Literature, Negro Story, Atlantic ~lonthly , and countless others. jo1ted tbe Jiteranr :rd a i.a. the 7 BGOs sac ¢1 · j h Ii · c titta:l!CS .JltC£t sl: " r II mra bclitg a I.WO@ ii bill t.dlfJh 1 ' IP ,.,;{4 I iga · c o t shifts Eresdci d j Ro:: ts iBl rl 0 ( P r b L 1&B£L ti 11l 1st §810 frbbdl Cif@§@ i!ldctGi§ Iii ctldp&t ti.» Her first book 0£ poetry, A Street in Bronzeville (1945), won the 1lerit Award of e. lad. mo isel le magazin j and he r second volume, Annie Allen (1949) garner ed 4 ,...--..... ) for her tite c-ovet~u.1 Pulitzer .;fr- ize (1 9 5()) as well as Poe tr ' )(~ ~ ,'&,t, Memor ial Awar d . Eunic e Tietjens v The recipient of a ~ award from the Academy of Ar ts and Letters and two Gug~enheim fellowships for s tudy (1946 and 194 7), Gwendol yn s -------- ~ />"AM"",,.~ ., Brooks'f list of awards and citations 4-8-- so b:mg it would take several p.ages to lis"t; them all. She has receivcc over a d: Y h onorary doctorat~S/legrees-,.._ served on special arts and cultural councils It been listed among the most in:t'l_u ential _and important Americans in numberle-ss .l . ~ reg ional'f-and national acknowledg..!,~ments. compilations/\ Literature (1964). ai.ln 1 969 ....__, 1 • She has won the Poetry UM,_---i Workshop Award, g iven by t he '.lidwestern Wr i ters' Conf~~ ~ ./ l 'W11-td the Friends Li terature Award for 1 e (th ree times: 1943p 45), A oetry (1964) , the Th,frmoa d fonsen Award for I\ ~ she anno unced that she would awa r d two prizes of $25 0 each to t he best poem and best hart story published each year by a / 1ack writer in Negro Dige st (now Blac: Ho rld) . Institu tions where she has taught · p �I include Columbia, El mhurs t, and ;forthenste rn Illi nois State Coll ege, a ll in Chicago; the University of Hisconsin, the College of t he City of :fow York , a nd many other public and p r i vate schools . For some , however, her crowning achiev~ ment was her selec tion in 1968 as/o etj aureate of the state of Illinois ( s ucceeding Carl Sandbur g). Other volumes of poetry are Ti1e Bean ~aters (19 60) , Selected Poems (1963), In the Mecca (1968), Riot (1969) , Family Pictur e s (1970) , Aloneness (1971) a nd The World of Gwendolyn Brooks (1971 , poetr: and prose) . the Centennial of the Burial of Lincoln (19 67) include A Portion of t he Field : and For Illinois, (1968). The poet has a so writ ten some much-praised {:Oetic fiction : '"' Haud Martha, .a, ~ (195 3) ~ and Jump Bad: _/ New Ch icago An t hology (19 71 ) . is most readily a ccessible i t A Broadside Treasury (1971) ----,..__ \\ ti Ile r pr e - B l ~ poe try Selected Poems which con tains her three earl ier section . ~ ~ Selected P ems shows @ ~ JS!l. JI I'reelte ~~Mt'!~~ - - ~ earn between t he int eg ra t ioni s t,h le.:1- bound wri ters and the firm, ~ and adamant voices of t;-ie 1%0s . / "StMELime s called the "most careful craftsman since Countee Cullen," she "--- ~ was (and to some ex t ent r emains ) greatl y indebted t o the mode r nist school of American poetry: ,_.,Eliot, Po und , Crane , Ransom, Joyce (influenced, as she says, by The Dubliners), Stevens, Frost, and Auden . I Read in3 these poets and th0 ack « 7M ones (Dunbar' ( 11 a family favoriteJ j ·1u~; hes , Cullen , Johnson , and othe~enaissance) ~ PPll!S.T9;)-,;aaill•flillldJ !J! her ~• . •"'1'J•ttn"" . . oedl f leant· choil <levelop11ent an,.t\>r-ovi ~ i.gn results were a bewi l de ring nrra y of tec~mlcal prof iciencies) which~ k.~~Ls for the thematic and psycholo;~lca1 _.-; _ J a in 1cr poetry. 1 · , II The a base Usually working wit:1 ,1/./W./ what George Kent c a lls ap propriat e '\lis t.:1nce ," this poet carefully sculptf - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - , Nld 8~6--if\\1097.5; G> Bronzev il l e Boys and Girls (1956'l A. Her work as an editor has been equally i~pres s i ve : books an<l a Special publications �poetic gems f r om t he r, r a ni te an ,l experienc e : t:ll~ chea:) rock. of u r ba n f lack Ame r ica ' s tenement housing , r e t urnin ,3 unsun z wa r h e roes , job lessness, cont' sumption , murder, endl e ss pov e rt y , l ov , uo.n- \mman rela t ionshi ps , womanhood and motherhood (es pecially) , no b i l i t v of the eco nomi c a l l yt presse<l and deep religious Ct, wettJdt/,yl) devotion . Commenting on th e effect o f the dis t ance and what ~ JtBrooks was able to perceive and achieve wi th i t, :·ent says (Bla ckness and the Adventure of Western Culture) she master ed Dr.:. such modernist techni ques as i ronv; unusual conjunctions of words to evoke a complex sen s e of real it y (Satin Leg s Smith rising " in a clear delirium" ); squeezing the ut mos t fr om an image ... , agility with mind - bending f i gura tive l a nguage , sensitivity to the music of t he phr ase , inst ead of imp risonment in t raditional line beats and meter; experiment a t ion with the po s s ibilities of free verse and various devic e s fo r sudden em phasis and ve rbal surprise; i_:nd authoritat ive managemen t of t one and wide- ranging lyricism . V''f- And one is struck, i n r ead in~ , wa tch inr; , or t a l k ing wi th the poet, by her intense \ yet relaxed lovef affair wit h words . lier prose is poe ti c; her manner is poetic. 1/.rn Report from Part One , her autobio r r a phy , s he disc usses her life as poet, mo ther, wife and traveler. There a re va lua ble i ns i ght s into the womar who shifted from " Negro" to " Black" in 196 7 . a dozen poems . f:.e por t also pr,...vi de s her own explication of at leas t About poetry wr iti'1 f~ sh says : \so much is involved in t l1e i:r i t in~ of po etry~ and sometimes, j) - - -- - -- -- although I don ' t like s u~gcs t ing it is a ma 3 ic process, it s eems you real ly hav e t o ,,a into a b it of a trance, self- cast t rance , because " brainwo r k " seems una b le to do it all, to do the whole job . -- - - - -- - - The sel f -c o. st tr:ince i. s po ssible when you are - - �Ll:l:!1portantly exc ited about an idea , or sur mi s e, or e~otion . Ce r t a inly the "trance" quality is found in the ea rly a nd l ate r Gwendo lyn Br ooks , One has only to comparef poem ~ "the pr eacher: "-J rumina t e s be hind t he s ermon" (A St r eet in Bronzeville) t o "Malcolm X" (In the Hecca) to see t he stayi ng power of the mystic, the seer and the entrance r . v ibrant yet static poetic sculpture . Bronzeville is a I t came in 194; under the influence of ;c t he poet ' s wide reading and experimen ~,·•· James Wel don .Johnson had hel pfully cr it i qued her wo r 5 a nd the results, she a cknowleges, we r e that she became a sure r, more prec is e poet and critic. The couple in t he " kitchenett e building" are pro ducts of " dr y hours and the i nvoluntary pl a ~ ' who smell " yes t erday ' s garba ge" i n t he ha ll. After the fif th chi l d ha s finall y eme r ged fr om the ba t hroom ~--' We think of lukewarm wate r , hop e t o ge t it . The memorabl e poems in Bronzeville a r e " the mot her , " " t he pr ea cher , " "of De Witt WilliaI'l s on !1is way to Lincoln Ceme t e r y, " "The Sundays / f Sat inf Legs Smith ," "the bal lad of choce l ate Mabbie , " and selec tions from a ser ies of s onnets called GAY CHAPS AT THE BAR. ~-·r The mother recalls abortions : You remember the children you got t hat you di d [] no t get, a nd pl edges he r l ove to the dead ch i l dr en. s he "loved " them " a ll." Even t hough she knew them "fai ntl?.," Taken from their "unf inished r e ach, " the aborted l ives "never gi gg l ed or planned or cried. " Rumi nat ing "behind tne senno" the preacher4 revealing deepening l evels of conc e r n and ps ych i c distress~ wonders how it f eels " to be God ." The god of t he wor l d t he prea che r discusses from t he pul pit is perha ps no t the god of the "rea l " �world. Consequent ly the p r e ac;:er "r·1:1;.w1tcs" on whe ther anyone will ~ Buy Him a Coca-Cola or :. '.)l.'C:r, Pooh-pooh His pol.it ics, c.1 l. ;'.ie: .1 foo l? Being god has to be lonely , "::it!10ut a hanJ to hold . 11 </te Witt Williams is carried to the cemetery behind the r efrain: (gJ Swing l ow swin 6 low ::;\\•eet sm~et char iot. Nothing b u t a plain hlack - Rf: 11 ,. (t, \te pla in . know he may hav e been anyt.1ins But if h e ~ just ; a plain black boy " we uill celebrate t'1e places where he hung out (pool hall , show, dance halls, whiskey sto re s) an,l \-:as knm•m (4 7th street, under the " L"). De Witt ' s journey is t h e J l au, .\ner ic an (~ ou t h to no rth) od,ssey depicted by ~ Wright, Ba ldwin, Claude Brown , ,:md co~.;r:1 (~, Born in Alabama . '--'" Br ed in Illino is . He was no t hin: b u t a P lain b l a c k boy . Satin Le g s Sl'l.it h is another cut off t'1' block of the/ '71h e y>o -1 lack jxperience . In · immo r taliz i n g hi m,~ITT18GH,Joi.ns a '.10st of / a ck bards , known and ~ n known, who have a cknowled ~ed t he i M~ortance anJ inf uencc of folk culture. Probably 11 lik e De Wi tt Williams , Sr1it h co:;tes fn".: a "heri age of cabbage and pig t a i l s. o.: He is remi n i s cent ti# Poppa Chi.c'.c. in the opening lin es, is to a c•1 ~ G__.,.. ~[arga ret The analo gy, i.s "ta~-rne , r e luctant , royal." Rising in the morning) Sa t i r Legf s n::t ·~:es '.1ir..!;01f of "shabby days" when h e "sheds" his pajamas. t hat , when l ~ He ba t hes , pu ts un th,~ best bocly s cents , and goes to a wardrobe istecl , soun<l s l i::e a re'.1 ay cf t\1e whole era of the zoot-suiter and ,., the / e bopper • : - diamonds , pearls , suits of yel low , wine , "Sarcastic green, " �an d II 1 . .ii. eu. I co b a 1 t " ; ,.-i., . 1. .:> ze b ra-str ip 1 n • l :,11,) 1. ,,'l" taper, hats t ha t rese:nble ur,c. · .:. <1 .,, . , : " · · .,t,, rical ti es." his imar, e and blot s ou t the r ,': . .:.n,:t.•.· ., does not hear"; " s ees and d uce ·1 .1• ;1...1 C:u1.ng , ballooning trousers that He is enmes h e d in p,,ve rty and ugliness. 1 :· •r He "hears and ovin~ his music and his lady, he ft,::- ·. '. 1ic ' 1 t1c re tir es (at home) to her body-l takes his d a te to " Joe ' s f.at :f /\'\ lt ~s a ~ osaic$ like study complete with "new brown b r ead/- · · soft , ar·,; ,1bs.JL 1t e . " the down-home ver s us Promis e...: L.111,'. t· ,'-':-:. , . {(The tle g r o llerolic " to hero) "had t o kic k " ~;hite t h e m. 11 :•i.: ·e r ": ~est .~c,rh. SU ':! i,h?'1 1 :; a 1:o rld War rr/ :"to'.:: e ir te eth" before he could "save ·, ....... r ~ .,":,( .. J.l. , Being / lac k , it was t h e ship was goinr, dm-m , to c-r-' un ,Instead of j umping ove r j boar ,~ hero invo k e d t h eir "~vhite- •~o,· th ick and thin of b a ttle when 0:-1 t :w ~alley and save the white sailors . ~. 1.c~1v:.·, ~ avy c oo k turned tlie:-1 to the ir fate, li k e Shine , this 1 and f oug h t a t their side de spite ~,'.s bile-fret1hid . • ~ statement by a s o ut:1 er l I n <l eed, I' r · ::·1 ,. Indce J , I ' r t Or r i.dJ e n () o f a flood ' T 1an saved ,y - • b n c k n a n ' s blood. i:·· "~-Ieg r o He r o " s ymbolic :i l · r / ♦ in Chri stianity anJ _,Y'c '1cc , -: _,.-~ the idea was lof sinr, ,., r o und -- ~ 0 .-,~ r esentment of such " '. ,e r- ic ,. chaps at tl E' '1Gr" l ' !1 • s . n e rican self. l /1 ,; ;-i t ' T .~~ '1('' 1• i-- ·, so 1 1; " r s ' Bro nz e ville Experimenta ] , ({jf-_Y CHAPS AT THE in <; does not prepare them to tr :1 i repel {!) As a t heme, b ut it would be s ome years b e fore ! ~v,,,t Ly ex r essed. 1 ·• c ·i nn n "soldier s onne t s" c1pp c a r in In l, '·~" r · can d oing his dut y , belie v in8 1 .. ' e- To h o l le r Jown the 1 l o::s in t '1 f-. ai r . �~ ~ In "the progress" the phrase is questionable when the soldiers hear the ma rch Of iron feet again. ~ • The Pulitzer / rize,$winning Annie Allen shows Gwendolyn Brooks sustaining her balance bet ween the modernist influences and her o,;.m intuitional phrasings inter est. Some migh t call it the least / l ack of her vo l umes., especially since it contains the enigmatic and diffusive "The Anniad." And while her ' children of t he poor" series ref'states t he plight of the "unheroic," she is nevertheless generally mo re withdrawn than in Bronzeville. -- Yet t he titles of both volumes signal her continuing int eres t in, and empathy with , " everY,<lay ~ In her first volume, she had written ex tensively about women (" t he mother," "chocolate ~bbie," "the hunchback").> and she opens Annie Allen ~ ;, •' with OTES FR0~-1 THE CHILDHOOD Al~ D THE GIRLHOOD'- Her neat words and stanzas - deal with a neat lifein "the parents: people like our marriage." "white Venetial1 blind" sit._,f "pleasant custards." Behind a "Sunday Chicken" is a humorous comparison between carnivores who eat human flesh and those who eat chicken. Iler excavating of poetic jewels from non-hero types takes her through the death of an "old relative" and "the ballad of late Annie," too " proud" to f i nd a man good e nough to marry . The reader is encouraged to avoid easy solutions in "do not be afraid of no ": f .It is brave to be involved , To be not fearful to be unresolved. And condescending people in high stations are brought low in "pygmies a r e pygmies still, t hough percht on Alp s." The high and mighty sometimes feel they are better than others, and {J_J But unbeknow~ Pity the giants wa llowing on the plain. to t he " percht II ind ividual, - - - - - - - - - -- -- - -- - -- -- - - 't'Jru; ~Y\e.. r no alps to reach. II �~ "THE AllNHD " c ontains @ ..,,Z,,-line stanzas, adapted, so Hi ss Brooks says, from the Chauceria n f hyme/ oya l. As a modern poem, it places the author in the 111t1,.y • M,U.e .. middle of t he modernist tradition with other } lack poets: _,Hayden, Dodso) lnd ~..-.o,ui ontfl\So Tolson,,. At least on e level o-.r complexity- i s reveai ed i n t he appearance !of-ffi I\ wo-!'."ds and phr a ses ~ ".rarad isaica l," "thaumaturgic lass , " "theopathy," ().,, I\ and ref'erences to " Prophesying hecatombs, "A" Hyacinthine devils sing , " / ; lato ,• .._• Aeschylus , t_• seneca, , • Himnennus ," ....t Plinf' and *Diony sus . • the poe t's own admis s i on , "THE AllNIAD" is " labored, a poem that's very intere sted in th e mys t e ries and magic of technique . " With Hayden ' s "The Diver," the poem carri e s you dee pe r and deeper into the underbrush ... of self and psyche. Annie b ecomes Anni ad , t he poe t's way of giving another unheroic character i ·<iii?' t he stature of t he heroic-k t his time the Iliad. z When you think of Annie (Anniad)1 you a r e t ol d to (t Th ink of s we et and chocQlat a,afl/ The blurr ed ima gery and perc ep tions of Hayd en's diver 4:s again anticipated in the line ( r' What i s ever and i s no t. (Remember Sat ir Legs hearing a nd not hea ring , seeing and not seeing?) Ful l of ma gic, history, l ore , my thology, supernaturalism, "THE ANN IAD" plunges t hr ough the mental and spiri tual spher es , and "crescendo-comes," f) Surrea l ist a nd cynica l. Anniad is needed , hungry , c ourt ed , and won, as she desc ends and -ascends the " demi- gl oom" of lif e, of now and t hen . ~ Thi nk of s weet and c hocolate at the be ginninc of the poem, you are to I \J_; J ust as you were to Think of almo st t hor oughly Derelict and d im and done �as the poem closes . And, perhaps it was all{\i'\after all·J t dream as Anniad stands VKissing in her kitchenette J The minuets of memory . /' " ANNIA " includes the nowt famous invention i n title and in type . "the sonnet- ballad," The tradi t ional sonnet is enlivened'Mgiven a ballad stance a nd t emperament; the young woman whos e soldier-boyfriend is dead wonders what she can use " an empty heart -cup for .J C ,I The achievement of Annie Allen, however, is " HE WOr1ANHOO t he five sonnets on "the' children of the poor . " and especially Childless people "can be hard " since they will not , like those wi t h children, Hesitate in t he hurri cane t o guar d . In number t wo, a mother asks wha t s he can give t o po or childr en. The fo urt h sonnet, seeking per haps to resolve t he sur r eal dr eam , adv ise s the poor to "Fir s t fight . Then fiddle. " There is nothing wrong with rising "bloody, " For having f ir s t to civil i ze a s pace \fuer e i n to play your viol in with e race. It is t he same unmut ed ca ll t o militancy rendered by .1ar ga r e t Ualker in the final stanza of "For Hy People. ,(ft/Beverly 1-l. ilP, Chicago" takes an interest i ng l ook, through~ ack and po or eyes , at the people who "live till they have white ha i r." To say Beverly Hills a nywhere is to evoke images of splendor and richness , of glit ter and high life . The denizens of Chicago ' s Beverly Hills "walk their golden gardens " as the poor sight =-seers drive t hrough the neighborhood . Here the "ri peness rots" though "not raggedly . " Decadence is neat, says the poet: J ·\Not that anybody is saying that these people have @.. 0 no trouble . Herely that it is trouble with a go ld- flecked U beautiful banner. t �The po em ' s theme is one that is dear to Blacks in their daily conversations: that whi t es , especially rich wh ites , do not really live; that they are mannikins, (>II~~ f~~ for the well- landscaped life; that they are inhibited and not free in t heir expressions. The s e peop l e , the poet reminds us, also "cease to be , " and sometimes J. Their passings a r e even more painful than ours. But they often live " t i ll their ha ir is white." They also make "excellent corpses," as it wer e , " among the expensive flowers." Nevertheless the poor sight;=-seers have been changed , no ticeably , by what they have seen, and the cha nge ~ e,. is no t ed in~ 'l i tt le gruff " tone5 of their voices as they " drive on." The Bean Eat ers finds t1e poet leaping back into the tra nsitional b rea ch where sh:'~s battle wi th problems and eneraies of the unheroic. She ga t hers up the pr ide, passion , despair, disillus ionment, joy and anguish of "bean ea t e r s " and r e l a t ed gourmets . The book opens with an elegy to her fa t her ("In Honor of w,Jt,,. ~a-.,, Brooks, :ly Father") and , reflecting debts to dar gare"Fugl'"~~, / /[J._• • iivi i i gh s I ___,.-) ~lack music, and the ~eat ~ vement, moves through a tumultuous (i:. spectrum of vignettes and perc eptions : "My Little ' Bout-Town Gal," "Strong Nen, iding Horses," "We Real Cool," "A Bronzeville 1other Loit e rs in ,.{ississippi.# " Heanwhile , A :-1ississippi r1other Burns Baca o{ 1" "The Last Quatrain of the Ballad Emme t t Till," "The Chicago De fende r Sends a Han to Little Rock," "The Crazy A. Woman," and the powerful s aga "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed . " The death of David ttl:-derson Brooks has lef t ~ l ___-/ //,)' v A dr ynes s upon the hous e .• .• J Absence of the man who "loved and tended" gives the poet pause, makes her recall how he tra nsla t ed "p r i va te charity" of the old =time religion into "public love." · ,,--- ;(;1 1 1 �, ).. The nan::at:or I s " ' bout-town gal" gall, vants with " powde r and blue dye " ~~ . h the moon. whjo i l e }l waits wit 11 Wat ching -t..R& weste r n movies , the speaker in '--- S trong Hen, Riding" (not reminiscent of Brown ' s poem) r ealiz e s tha t ~ 'gesterns are products of Hollywood , t hat the strong men are "Too saddled." Heanwhile the speaker has to deal with real life-Lthe fears , the dark..Land is Iv\ 11 old yellow pair" in their lives 11 11 11 not brave at all. 11 The irony, of course, is that the viewer is often braver. t he 11 Eating beans "mostly , The Bean Ea ters 11 put ter around their apartment, recalling with t winklings and twinge s. 11 kind comes to the dramatis person~of ' 11 Desolation and tragedy of another We Real Cool" in which the poet employs ~ a Hughes ian j azz pattern wi t h j a gged rhythns reminiscent of / eat poetry, Babs Gonza l es and King Pleasur e . The poem r ecites t he "live- fast- di e- young 11 pattern of many urban)31-a ck youths: We real cool . ve Left school . Lur k l a te . \e \· e Str i ke straigh t . Sing sin . Jazz June . l· e \e t.:e Die soon . The longes t poem in The Bean Ea ters ( 11 A Bronzeville Mother Loiters In rlississipp'i. Neanwhile, A . lississippi }lot her Burns Bacon.") is a collage of journalism , day$1reams, fai ry-t ale histo ry, and r acial hor ror. slain & The mother of year~old Emmett Till ( l ynched in 1955 in Missis sippi af ter allegedly 300 { \ \ �-e ak.ing "passes" at a white housewife ) toys over the rema ·ns of her son and her at the same tim<;, a white "mother ' mus es over the " c rime" childhood fair t ales of the " Dark Villain" pursuing the "milk- whi t e maid" (rescued by t he " Fine Prince"). The whit e mother ~ clares to doubt the need to lynch young Emmett as she imagines she is sexually assaulted by the "Dark Vil ~ n." The poeml includes news r epo rts of the crime, the lynching , as ...,/ well as accounts of t he tr/ljl and the "acqui tt a l." In "The Last Quatrain of the Ballad of Emmet t Till" Emmett ' s mother " kisses her killed boy" while sitting in " a red room" and "drinking black co ffee ." • 'IZ' Unable to describe the~ija t W 1 3 mother's gr ief , t he poet ga thers --. t he b l u rring pa in into a metaphor: Chaos i n windy \grays through a red prairie. ,n journalism, history and mythology with "contemporary f act," Again coml:ijng Gwendolyn Brooks portrays one of the hi~h points of the fivil iights era in "The Chicago Defender Sends a Han to Little Rock" (1957). People i n Little Rock, the poet t e l ls us in the opening lines, have babies, comb their hair, and r ead the papersJ like other Americans . She then etche s out the contrnclic t ions and ironies in t he nsoft women softly" who "are hurling spittle , roc k ." These "bright madonnas," like those wi t h "eyes of steely blue " in rlcKay ' s "The Lynching ," become "a coiling storm a- wr ithe ." The l ast line .of the poem, e "" was our Lord_, The loveliest lynche"t has since been ~ repudiatedj• e t()et new _ Is 11\'8 feels that the greatest trage<ly, slavery and "---------- dehumanizFof Blacks, makes for more important and urgent "news" than the c rucifixion of a white Jesus. ~ ~-the boo~J Later j in the~sectit'll\ a woman who refuses to sing in May because she feels (V A Hay ~ong shoul<l be gay \ �is admonished+ af ter she chwes t o sing a " gray" song in November. ~ Critics call he r "The Crazy Woman."fone of t he more well-=- known poems in Bean Eaters is /\ "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed" who, along with his wi fe , son and "two good girls," ) was "oaken." Rudolph Reed , seeking the Promised Land in the *orth and riding on the crest of the new push for integration , buys a home in a white neighborhood because he wants to avoid falling plaster and the l ghe ttol .J. roaches Falling l ike fat rain. But t he times are not quite right fo r integrated housino/ and t he Reed family exp erienc e f vio l ence when t hey move~ i n : ,._.., ~ the fi r st t wo ni ghts . ro cks are t hr own through thei r windows - The r epe tition a nd i ncrement ation are almost ironi c in the ballad a s Reed , fil led with grief and anger when one of his daught ers is fina lly hit wi th a rock, goes V ~ to the door with a thirty- four and a beast l y buwer knife . He attac ks f our white men before he is finally slain and kicked by neighbors_) who I t i s an unpleasan t story ; but a s a chronicle of t he themes and consciousness of a poet, it places Gwendolyn Brooks on the thresh! old of t he new militancy , 5~ some of which is unveiled in the <f2i_w Poe' section of Selected Poems. J oems ev- ~ "Riders to the Blood-Red Wra th" and "Langston Hughes" show her " concerned with s truggle and t he spiralfing fury of social unrest. At the same time, she -.;/ salutes a white poet, as in "Of Rober t Frost ," and continues her pr actice of ~\verse , 5 C mining the unheroic for poetry in a section of~W A Catch o f Shy Fish . f: The "ride~ (perhaps a parody of the ,gurple ~age riders) lurch into the breach of human struggle and social chaos. - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - stylistic efforts They are the freedom �ridersM seeking what is "reliably ri ght" i conducting sit-ins, wade-ins, lie-ins, sing-ins , pray-ins and voter=registration drives . '£!!!ill called them "shock troops" of the ~ "revolution." f Hy scream! Carnichael ha s 0F/tl>-e1>1 One A.s tates : unedited, unfrivolous. ✓ Hy laboring unlatched braid of heat and frost. I hurt. I keep that scream at what pain: At what repeal of salvage and eclipse . Army unhonored , meriting the gold, I Have sewn my guns inside my burning lips . And he goes on to 1fr r emembe r kings . '-.../ A blos soming palace. Silver , I vory. The conventional wealth of stalking Africa . This rider r ecalls his past, projects his future, and surveys the state of the worldJ from China to Israel. Ile is going to mal~e the "bloody pea ce" a s ked by wu.ker Ma r ga r e \ Democracy and Christianity ef Recommence with me . And I ride ride I ride on to the end-ML Where glowers my continuing Calvary. With his "fellows, " he intends to see the battle through, r (J v To Eail, to flourish, to wither or to win . We lurch, distribute, we extend, begin. "To Be / n Love" is also to extend and "fall" along a golden column ~ Into the commonest ash . Diverse , explicit and splendid, the poems in this section achieve balance as / _____ __________ ,.._ - - �Frost and Hughes . salutes t wo senior p, Iron at the mouth. j With a place to stand Frost has And he has much more t han immediate physical space, but a permanent position on the world ' s poetry totem . f As "merry glory, " Hughes Yet grips his right of twisting free. His "long reach" encompasses "speech," "fears," "tea rs" and "sudden death ." s Hughes 'f j ob is not done , a nd as a "headligh t" he must press on ~ Till t he a ir is cur ed of its feve r. 6.1.<;.0 The poetAr e turns to he r ~arden of non-heroes in poems about garbage men, the sick, old people, stern women, and "Big Bessi:," who "throws her son into the street." Sculpture, precision, exp l icitness and terseness a re key words to remember when approaching the poe try of Gwendolyn Brooks. Not prir.iarily of the academy, but of t en shar ing s ome of its virtues and fa~lts, she has been f ree to deal pr imarily wi t h pictures swirl ing a r ound her <lur i ng childhood and adulthood in Chicago. Sometimes her poetry about night life and t he South carries a fo rc ed );r feeling, since thes e a r e not t hings she is in intimate cont act with , but 3ilil!!~is always skillful and e conomi J 0 uer world has not been "wide" in t he way that Tolso 1 \and Hayden's(have been "wi<le ." But it has been deep and multi layered, complex and womanly, tragic and profound . Her poetry has not, at this writing, inspired a book-length study, but she has been the subject of much critical treatment. here sinc e bibliographies are widely availab le. Se lected studies will be listed Fo r example, CLA Journa ]j XVII �( Sept ember l 1973),! (a special issue on Br ooks , Hayden and Baraka) bibliogr aphy . lists a @ - page @ She is represented in every a nt ho logy of Afro-American poet ry { beginning with Poetr y of the Negro (1949 ed . ) and in many general American anthologi es of poetry and l iterat ur e . Hel pful a n]@§# Ken t ' s "The Poe try ,,,e,S of Gwendolyn Brooks" (Black:Aand t he Advent ure of West e r n ·cul t ur e , 19 72); t he critical entries in ~ ck Writers 5:.f America Barks dale and Ki nnamo 1 ; ,. f 7 I Davis 'fl From the Dark Tower; . . ...., J a ckson's essay in Bl a ck Poe try in America (1974); essays ir - - 1od ern aGili> Gi bson's a) Bl a ck Poe ts ;AReport from Part One , ..... t1'-i ~de,"fi t,·•1111 ( Owen Dodson's first volume of poetry, Powerful LonJ Ladder (1946), was one ~ of the casualties of the diQ!nterest in/ lack poetry during the post~ enaissanc e and war years. The book did not go entirely unnoticed, however, for Time magazine described it as standing " peer to Frost and Sandburg and other white American poets who are constantly recited in our schools." Powerful Long Ladder appeared in the mids t of Dodson's busy (and successful) career as dramatist and tea cher . His interest i n wr iting and dr ama began in his you t h in Br ookl yn , New York, where he was born and a ttended publ i c s chool s . He wen t t o Ba t es College, obtaining a B. A., and Yal:., wher e he was awarded the M. A. in dr ama . student at Yal~ t wo of his plays~ Divine Co~ Whil e a and Garden of Time~ ~ere produced . Since t hose year ~ Dodson's work in drama anclAwriting has been prodi ~ us. He taught drama at Spelman Col lege i n Atlanta and was commissioned to writ e a pl ay on the Amistad mutiny for Tallad ega College. He directed summer t heat{(e) a t Hampton I ns titute, the Theatre Lobby \vashing ton, and at Lincoln University. Dodson finally settled at Howard University--------as drama instructor, later becomi ng head of the department and remaining the{until 1969 • . �In 1949, he took t he Howard University Players on a successful State Department= sponsored tour of Scandinavia and Ge rmany . His novell Boy at the Hind owl was published in 1950, an<l his short storyt "The Summer Fire} ' won a Paris Review prize (1961) and appeared in the Best Short Sto r ies f~om that publication . received many other awards and forms of recognition : I,., He a Rosenwald -fellowship, a General Education Board Fellowship~ a Guggenheim grant to study and travel in . ct Italy (1953), and a Naxwell Anderson Prize for,.,verse play. - libretto for Hark Fax's opera. and prose He has comple t ed a number of manuscripts in poetry have never been pub lished. One of his most rec ent exciting works was The Dream Awake (1969), a cultural history of f by Spoken Arts He also wrote the ack Americans ) released and consisting of color f ilms, records , textbooks, illustrations, and other .aaterials rr;:;- ~ show the r ange of Dodson ' s talen t s and i nt e rest. In 197 0, his second volume of verse, The Confession Stone: ._)long Cycles, was publishe~ but the poems were written before 1960 . About his work as a poe t, Dodson reports with some d i spirit in Intervi ews r7ith Bl ackpHritets: jI have ~·i* written three books of poetry . The f irst was-/4 1 would say-1-somewhat propa ganda , but the third was fill ed with stories , ✓ M di a r ies , a nd remembranc es of Jesus. They are r ea l l y frame d i n diaries by Ma r y , Martha, Joseph, Judas, Jesus, even God . This, I believe, is my most d edica ted work(, ... I have written and fou ght somehow in my writing , but I know now that the courage and forthl ri ghtness of writers and poets will change something a little in ~ r dilapidation . 1.-P f:eri,,e_ dfo That "first" voiJmeN-s obviou sly J:_Q.werful Long Ladde~ but Dodson does not have �"' to <leprec#ate the wor1) since it will hold him in good stead as a poet . not one poem in the book "poetry." ~ 1 cannot be aesthetically or stylistically called And this is not a claim that many poets can make. influences can There is Dodson's st yl istic be traced to t he American modernist s. And there is no doubt that , in his recurring despair , he shares sentiments wi th Eliot , Pound, Auden and Yeats . Yet, in his lilt and his language , he also pays his debts to Hughes , Dunbar , Cullen (whom he eulogizes) , James Wel don Johnson and t he whole web of/ lack folk and spiritual life . Dodson's note of despair , which pervades the book, is sounded in the opening f;J /4 poem ("Lanent"} w~te JJ he lynched boy is addressed: Wake up , boy, and t e ll me how yo u died : What sense was alert las Re lying heavily on h is exp eriences and interests in drama, Dodson carefully underscores the repulsive act and the guilt . In an italicized sectio~ he giv es details that recall other poems on the theme: f the Mississippi drank itself one night, t he b ridge from which you hung thr ew i t{ arms up , folded into mud like an old obscene accordion, the crowd dispersed count ed on its finge rs one by one •..• The invisible/ lack viewer of the lynching , going beyond the actual act to the nat ure of dea t h i t self , ge ts curious about the last moments and questions the dead boy : (V Tell me wha t road you took, Hha t hour in the da y is luckiest? The nar r ato r wants a si8n ("the acrostic , the cross , t he crown or the fire") , �something tom ; e his own way easier, bearable : 0, ,,ake up, wake! ~ We said several strains of f lack and modern poetry can be seen in Dodson ' s work , not the least among them being t he folk idiom . Sterling Brown . In "Guitar" he reminds us of The six-string guitar has a " lonesome" wail and cannot "hold its own" against the howl of a Georgia hound . ii) Ain ' t And the guitarist-singer had nobody To call me home From the ele ctric cities Where I roam . An adaptation of the blues mo tif in styl e and t heme , i t employs incr emental refrain &:,-~~•- -~- and the aflb ivalent drive-sulk oft e bl ues troubador . ~ -........ ,,., ( nr, C ~-::'·~ ,. •~...,,...,.-..,,..,.. -· - ~-- ,,J, ✓. 4,f,<· T 1is somber tone of Dodson ' s persis t s i 1}\ poems~ "Sorrow is the only ;:: ' Faithful One" ("I am l es s , unmagic , black" ), " Bl ack dot her Praying" ( "black a nd ,Py burnin in these burnin times " ), /\ 'The Signifying Dar kness, " and there are tinges of it even in celebratory poems such as "Pear l Pr imus" and " Poem f or Pearl ' s Dancers. " But t he grand s t atemen t of poetry is a l ways lurking or l e ading ("Pearl Primus") : "the sun is like a shawl on their backs," and " pistoning her feet in "' the air . " In " Someday We ' re Gonna Tear Them Pillars Down" a woman comp lains: Cf) They took ma strong- muscle John and cut his O manhood off •..• The Bl acks in " Rag Doll a nd SuI!llller Birds" sit in their cabin (like "The Bean Eaters") "wai ting fo r God." The fire in t he stove goes out ; the newspapered walls ·, " telling of crimes ," curl u? and (!) In ~ the Blackness stars are not enough ! Includ ed in Powerful Long Ladder are three verse choruses from Divine Comedy . �Dodson was t he first / 1ack dra:-aa tist to ex ploit t he meaning of t he Fa t her Dt•vine ~ t~ n verse draPJa . ~'hen a cult leader is gone , the dr ama contends, the people are fo rced i nwa rd to find a replacement. Divine Comedy is bizarre , with shifting uncertain t ies , horror, violence , religious extremism and r a cial intensity . The first chorus a s ks (in a r efr a in): Cancel us . Let doomsday come down Like t he fo ot of God on us . A charact.e r called " One " not es: ~ I A A We ar e cl ear and confused on many issue se ••· " Girl" says ; I dance wit hout legs . "One" remind s us ; -M'ra't! l·;ar , war will bomb you r eyes open. a "Blind I[an" beseeches the o t hers: 1 Don ' t l eave the b lind t o wander Hhe r e the wind is a wall ! one of Dodson ' s heroes, had suggested t hat Blacks we r e not made " e ternally to weep " (" From the Dark Tower" ~ and Dodson has a "Yo ung Man" say ✓ Thi s shall not be fo r ever. In t he sect ion called Poems f or :ry Bro ther Kenneth, Dodson delicately recalls remembranc es of his dead brother . The somber tone and weightiness return as the poet , addres sing his brother, asks for some answer to the "long tanks" that " creep" and the " dark body of the ruined da r k boy ." .f) But \ There was no reply : .. �You gave me a smile and returned to the grave . In Interviews with 1:nack Wri ter s Dod son claims that Cullen did not <lie f rom disease but "was pushed into death" by "us because we <lid not rec ognize the universal quality of what he wanted to say." ·"··------Revie ,, section) In his eulogyl "Countee Cullent ' Dodson bids farewell to his friend_J who died in 1946} by likening his plight to that of Socrate~~ ...._, : t We hear all mankind yearning For a new year without hemlock in our glasses . ,t,,r. stagnant hour." Later)-. "Drunken Lover;• we find tha t this is "the interest i n ~ f And Dod son's tu,~ ti A.is seen in "Jonathan ' s Song": ~SS'1€S 11 Jew i s ndt a r ace Any longer j -but a condition. /V' Finally Dod son closes t he vo lum 7 appropriatel~ wi th "Open Lette1/ wher e i n he asks for toler ance and understanding in a time of wa r, ha tred , domestic violen ce JJ. -r'1 ,t poe:/ ~ 11jonathan 's Song" l& alignedl\l · and racism. ff with the j ews being ma s s ac r ed '-' in Germany : ~ I am~part of t hi .. . . So"Open I\. Letter" calls on the universal brotherhood : f Bro thers, let us discover our hearts a gain, Permitting the regular strong beat of humanity there To propel the likelihood of other terror to an exit. 0-A. The war is almost over, he says,/\'planes stab over us . " The word "hallelujah" can be understood in the language of f All the mourning children~ and The torn souls and broken bodies will be restored ____ - .._ - - �when war has ceased forever . Signaling his non-black 11 brot1;=,:s," a tone and posture quickly fading fron1/1ack poet r y, Dodson challenges t heml: ..... Brothers, let us enter that portal fo r good I' q_, When peace surrounds us like a credible universe. Bury that agony, bury this hate, take our black CJ hands in yours . It was the "We Shall Overcome" call) t would die in the mid-sixties, though a few (Hayden, Hughes and ot hers ) would continue to walk the difficult tigh r ope o f unive r s al brotherhood . poetry . There ar e f ine rhythms and keen per ceptions i n Dodson ' s o. 1-.e bette:.- t<vi~w'1 • I'.is t echnical skill surpass es many / l ack and whi t e poets whoK3 iibi ·:a '\ - wor k done i n the f orties and fi f ties. , ' ti lii:1111,1111.,.,111,.,.,•-••••■..;-c■•iililr111111 1 ,.., I thoue h published in 1970, contains The Conf ession Stone : .. , •· "I D1 1111 l!!!la"s",-sa"a"dl-!zl!"cl!!!!t"'al!!!lc,_J,.•111■11■1111101110..,.,_...,5..,..3..,._,..,,_, sd it ■ b ohf§ " fjJlr:■-ft It is a strange "cycle," which moves among "The land of t he living and the land of t he r i s en dead. " The groupings (many wr it t en t o be s ung) are "The Confession Stone, " "Ma r y Passed this Ho rning," "Journals of the Hagd ~ene," "Your Servant: _, Judas , " " Fa t her , I Know You' re Lonely ," "Dear, 1y Son," and "Oh 11y Boy , Jesus . " The cycles recast /iblical stories surrounding Jesus Christ and the crucifixion, updating them by adding contemporary language y/lack idion at times) and technology, In poem@ of "Confession Stone," J esus is quieted with the words , r,/ shushhh, you need the rest. f"lJl'll\:){V' J lacnc, -ask\lJ ~ la I ~ if he knows "Lazarus is bacl~ " In to save him from the cold and icy Jerusalem ground: Let me rock him aga in in my trembling arms. .,.I L -- -- - - - -- - - - - - Jesus',-mother vows ....., e �"Mary Passed fhis Horning" contains "letters from Joseph to Martha ." Number ~ is a poetic telegram : C\ V Hartha Mary passed this morning funeral this evening D stop Near six o'clock tell the others stop Raising bus fare for you stop signed Joseph 1/:rt Dodson is reliving the life and times of Jesus is clear after a while t hat dlso t he old search' fo r t he ·Promised : La nd moti f through/ lack cha r a cters; he~ses ~ Q:Jright, Ellison , Baldwin , Brown) . In number I of "Journals of the l1agd~ ene" /Ttj efap~<m /s't li:l\tco••AMllliillla(\vows even to "crucif y mys elf " in order ( to be with him. Amen . Writing a letter t o Je sus in number t9 of "Your Ser vant: . .__,J udas," J udas s aysJ / _,, Dear J e sus, I killed myself last nigh t. The "cycle" is completed as Dodson ends t he small volume with t he opening poem: "Oh My Boy: ,__,Jesus" .... and the mother saying , in the manner of t he preacher in Johnson's "Creation": '--' "rest on my breast." Of Dodson's fr equently anthologized poems, "Yardbird's Skull" (a tribute to saxophone player4 Charles "Yardbird" Parker) is one of the most enduring and p PLe powerful. Parker (1920 1 ...., 55) is also saluted by other poets and _.,,, writers: ._J:uney and John A. Williams, to name just two. He is a major fi gure in the development of jazz, American music and contemporary jazz literature. In statement and style, "Yardbird's Skull" ele~!cally captures the psychic and �rhythmic layerings and wanderings of "Bird' s " horn. When "the Eird" died, Dodson thinks, s o did "all the musi ~ ' and "whole .sunsets" were deprived of this great mus ician ' s v oice. A s kull becomes the me taphor for the historical t~;-a tftt~ ~ , 6 corridor s o f musis a nd Dodson's f ingering of the skull , like allows h i m to retra c e Bird 's j our n ey to grea tness: ~ to air; to brotherhoo') whic~ sired t he musi c ; t o soaring b i rds ; to Atlantis, even ; and to .i Pla c es of dr eami ng , s wi muing lemmings. There has be en only slight criticism of Dodson's poetry · __,Barksdale and Kinnamon write briefly of him . /(,;e i s in most a nthologies of/ lack poetry beginning wit h Kerlin's Negr o Po et s and Their Poems . s Gwendo lyn Brooks' f winning of t he Pulitzer/ r ize for poetry in 1950 momentarily br ought new a ttent ion to the poetic ac tivities of Afro- Americans. ~ Bu"-f_, though a;; her name hung like antic ipat ion ove(.'.; Oecade of the fifties , the period in fact was dominated by f iction writers .....,',i> pecially t he articulate expatriat e Richa r d Wrigh t, Ral ph Ellison!, and James Ba],dwin. Wr i ght had e ~ tablished a tradition, and many we re a ttempting to follow in his foot steps/\'\ ---, including John Oliv e r Killens, William Attaway• and Chester Himes" t (Barksdale ..::,_,; and Kinnamon The wo r ks of the fic tion wr i ters and their a ccompanying dialo gue with ,ila ck and whi t e cri t ics and ea ch othe rt helped develop "a national, almost globa l ccnc ~r for the identi t problems of Ame rican Blacks ,lt•IFiction writers also wrote in a diversity of style s , from "Wright ts" school to Demby Is "consciousness'" However ~ e t s were wr .,_ ting d"ilu l:'u ulis i1ing in var i ou s pl a cesi during the b.f>lt>~~ fifties, but mo st of their activit i e s wer e part of t he g round swell that would reach a c rescendo in the sixties and sev enties. Ha ny of ,{t:~ pr ••s can be found in such an t ho l ogi e s as ~egro Ca r avan (1941), The Poetry of the Neg ro (1949) , America n Lit erature by Neg r o Aut ho rs (1950) , Lincoln Universit y Poets (1954), Beyond the Blues (1962), Si xes a nd Sevens (1962), Burning Spear: v An Anthology <C.,J I .,. �of Af ro-Saxon Poetr y ( 1963 ) , a nd Soon One ~lorni ng : , ,New Wri t i ng by Ame r ican r:egroes , 1 1940.f ,. 1962 (19GJ) . As i ndiv i duals and 3roups , t he ' po e ts continued t o make t hei r work available eithe r t o eac:1 o t her o r t o the s mall ~ poctry "'-r ead i ng audiences of the period (colleges, schools, c hurc hes) . Hughes , Ha yden , Gwendoly n Bro oks and others , who had establish ed r e putations in the f orties, continued writin~ It g'w~biiah .\ And --■ -. v dl:h h1?oi:t; lf u I tr 1 a I Ji the younge r o r l e sser :: known po e ts of a • . -:iiii/19 µ i-:e.= this /\transit ional s t age (Wright , ~ Danner, O' Higg ins, Allen/!Ye s ey , Randall, Dureft: Ho l man, Jeffers , Pa tt eron, Atkins , Evans , and othe rs) ~ publishe d .~et\ littl e maga zines M" / :,,/ won v a r i ous reg iona l and nat ional wr iting conte stsM p rimar ily through s chool s a n d coll e g e s. Opportuni ty , The Crisis , The Negro Story , TTecro l! istory Bulle tin , Phylon and nume r ous c o lleg e pe rio dicals continued t o provide forums. Some of the po e ts who a pp ear ed in The Cris i s during the thirties and forties, for example , vA/U n•VW[lliiP' Grace E . Barr, Edna Ba r re tt, Hilton Brighte , Sophy Hae Br y son , - Cla r i ssa Buc k l in , Lillian Byrnes, Po l ly .Iae Hall, Al ice 1:fard Snith, Paul A. Wren , Wa l t e r Ad ams, Ethel Collins , Edit h }! . Durham , and Max Reyno lds . ..__,., Ot he rs Ill!> pub l ished in r e g ional ma gazines o r b rou r,ht out col l ection s of t he ir own works ~ : Noy Joseph Dickerson (A Scra p Boo k , 1931) , Th omas At k ins (The Ea g l e , 19 36), Leslie M. Collins (Exil e , / Book o f Vers e, 1938 ), Hi lliam Wa l ke r (who published @ volumes 7 between 1936 and 1943), Olive Lewis Handy, Claude T . Eastman, Nick Aaron Ford (Songs ,l'r om t h e Dark, 1940) , !Iaurice Fields (The Collect ed Poems o f I ~urice Fields , 1940), RiF. Boyd (lioliday Stanzas, 1940), fol k lorist J . ~1ason Brewer ( 'four books of poems), William Holmes Border,< (Thunderbolts , 1942), Anita Tur peau Anderson (Pinpoints: , p roup of Poems and Prose Wr i tings, 1943), Alo ise Barbour Epperson (The Hills of Ye s~erday and Other Poems, 19114), Nary Albert �Bacon (Poems of Color, 1948), Harrison Edward Lee (Poems for the Day, 1954), Willie Ennis (Poetically Speakins, 1957) , Paul Vesey (Ivory Tu s ks, 1956)i and Arthur Wesley Rea son (Poems of Inspiration for Better Living, 1959). (and SdmP_& c.K) -Hle., 11 Among white~poet"s: t he fifties were aglow with the fe rvor o fJJ:J..:!at 1; ovemen)~ Kenneth Rexroth, and ~ Kaufm9 E.F. Cummings, Lawrence Fifrlinghetti and Gin~berg . Hughes \ especially} played a great part in introducing the/ ea ts to t he poetic lyrics of jazz and the jagged-lined interpre tation of post$ 1ar blues of the "lost generation . 11 Ano t her influence on the beats was Russell AtkinsJ who, with Helen Johnson Coll ins, founded Fr ee Lance in Cl eve land - . . . a ( l 95g). -------- An avant-earde "l i t tle " maga zine, it played an uns ~ng par t i n t he dev elopment of ideas and t echniques of t he_}(ew America1;./oe try . the "style" @ At the dawn of the sixties, of f1- a c4·~ils o f i gur ed pr or.1inen tly/1s ~ always / ~ in t he fte pacing of ~ lit er ary and cul tur al concerns . The op poet Babs Conzales, a/ Y!. ..n t-e/1dlt>1'i along wit i\jazz- poe try narrators Htt:e Kin3 Pleasure, influenced t ~~ of"" 1' f m] ] t ihlilj Pof~n a s e , ~ s ~ gnaled a call for r e-examination of the "ear" traditionally used in t he silent writing of a poer.1 . As t he fifties closed, t he prec i s e passion of Gwendolyn Br ooks and the troubador's gai t rlfl ~idl.w /4u unified, of Hughes hurled a dual , -:J!ir,t cha llenge a~ a ck poets . /; 4 ~ � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_09_10to12 Title A name given to the resource Editors proof, Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, Chapter V. A Long Ways from Home, typed with handwritten edits, p. 208-405 Description An account of the resource Editors proof, Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, Chapter V. A Long Ways from Home, typed with handwritten edits, p. 208-405. Includes the backside of p. 290, numbered 290(a). Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/2c7da83db333ec9d8c84f99b6ac53a1c.pdf 69e6c85281b8fa3ca7a3d7b001db5654 PDF Text Text CHAPTER IV JUBILEES, JUJUS AND JUSTICES \ (1865 ~ 1910) l,;1 ,~ 1 We have fashioned laughter ~ Out of tears and pain., I But the moment after-~ \... Pain and tears again. - Lcharles Bertram Johnson Iv\ I {i;' Overview C:::-- This "trans 1 tional" period is normally viewed by critics as the gestation of pref,revolutionaryflack writing. We have seen, however, that some of the most politically~ onscious activists., thinkers and poets ·wrote before the Civil rlar. ~ Frantz Fanon (1924J1 61)., the Hartinique-born psychiatrist, '" ..,.,/ for W · established three phases ~ &,\J-iterature of oppressed peoples: (1) ._. assimilationist, (2) '-"pre revolutionary and (3) V revolutionary • Critics generally agree with Fanon. So, following his reasoning., the period of 1865 11910 (and the previous era) would fall under number one. Number two coincides roughly with the Harlem Renais ,,. sance (1920 1 'f!!30). And the 1960:S ~ lack / rts era) comes under number three. One should exercise caution., however, in placing categories and labels on any artists and complex as ;(lack poets. especially ones so diverse For while it is true that there are general trends in the evolution of the poetry., little said �by the so-called "armageddon" ·w riters of the 1960"' and 197o"s : ~ can b~ ant ore "re;olutionary" than Walker , 1-lh itfield or Albe~y ·w hi tman1 who favored the murder of/lack traitors ( 1 'Uncle Toms" a nd "Topsiesn) to the cause of freedom. On the other hand, as in the past, some con~ ~ l ,Jflack WI'1ters avoid politics like the plague (se e ~ e~ie&). Als~ the alternatives and opt ions facing Blacks nowadays- resignation, M emigration, assimilation, despair, segregation, desecration ~- 0 0\ and so on¾ have always been there . centuries, p anq l 8t ack poets and activists vigorously pursued these choices, sometimes partici pating (Whitfield-Douglass) in fiery debates. lz ••dn fl tfi• frecedi ng chapters s ~ack poetry thati dation become popular and accessible. e \1ibU~h•A:foun only recentl~ has Therefore, critical c omments and background materials will be less extensive from this point on. Certainly, as Robinson suggests, more careful study of the poets of the Harlem Renaissance is needed . His obs ervat ion that !!Afro-Amer ican ' Soul ' Jas never rece ived the elaborate philosophical ~~ J_,U.....L ~ poetic , ,,,_,.has" .. . - and even political explication that J .. i s a lso well taken ss (although there is some attempt to a,t~ess "soul" i n The Hilitant i ' Black Writer in Africa and the United States, r cook a nd Henderso n a:E Understandable, too/ is -a- comment by Ster . . ing Stuckey (IdeoloGica. l Origi ns of Black Mationalis m): e , "Had a nationalist of a nte= bellum America realized tr.e enormous i mportance of Slack I . �/ culture ••• that awareness, articulated into theory, would have been as r evolutio nary a. development as calling for a massive slave-uprising. " Of' course we know, looking back at the f ast htmdred years, that Stuckey 's assessment does not take in all the facts . Earlyrack Americans iden~tfvedi-"tith their cul tural roots more blatantly than do even/\...~ Blacks of today . But the undermining influences of lynchings a nd the practice of st eotyping corroded much initial race pride and self-interest . Again we note that chronological boundaries are arbitrary f:".-.11 " , e s and that we could just as well have s tudied ,....._~arper in the 1865~1910 period (since her Sketches of Southern Life was pub lished in 1873 and her Poems ran through several editions until 1874) just as we could have placed Benjamit} Clark ( "What is .; I t ~ Slave?") and James Madison Bell in t h e ~ chapter. -:.:. It is not always easy to determi ne where a poet who ·w rites early or late in life fits in the chronology ; but if pursuit of the poetry becomes a labor of love, boundari es and categories cease to exist . II -_,. ,---7"/ ( Forgive thine erring people , Lord , fuo lynch at home and love abroad ......~. ~ ~ ....,.,. -, . ··--~ -.. ·· ..;,L.,_Qharles R. Dinkins IV\, ~ (fl \ Literary and Social Landscape ,....) ,. ...... . . .~· C - Between 1865 and 19611 America played out a dram'\. of cont tradictions, swelling and receding expectations, continued progress and experimentation in science and the arts, and �important beginnings. It was a period of painful adjustment that has continued to echo. 'tj)i it • On the white literary scene 11Jhi tman ( t he "American poet") , Hark Twain, William Dean Howells, James Russell Lowell, Henry James , Stephen Crane , Jack London, Emily Dickinson, Joel Cha~dler Harris and Irwi~ Russe{were the writers of importanc~. Harris gained popularity for himself and} lack folklore wh e n he published the Uncle Remus tales in 1879 . Eut whiLe roma n} t i cism and l ocal color dominated the last two decades of the century, both began to fade with the approach of the new centuryl -whose early years saw experimentation, especially i n . M verse , and the beginnings of naturalistic writings . On the political and economic front 5.> the efforts at solidi t fying gains, and retrieving losses , were stepped up among Blacks. 1(e. The NJLACP was founded in 1909; but~major vehicles for protest and change were those used during t h e earlier years: jhe church , self- help societies, free schools, scholarly research a nd writing on.., Blacks, and debates over courses and choices. --.__/ Important new name s i n literature, art, science and politics came to the forefront. However, many of t h e writers, activists a nd educators from t h e previous period continued their various programs . Of t he new ~ .O•t'C.e'J ., several sh ould b e no ted: Booker T. Washington (Up,from Slavery, 1900) , W.f B. D+ ois (The Suppression of the African Slave Trade, 1896; The Phila del phia Negro , 1899; The Souls of Black Folk, 1903) , Charles Chestnutt Cwri ter of fictio n ), Dunbar, James Weldo n .Johnson, - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - �~Lo.\r1 loct: e > . Fent on Johnson, Jar.ies D. Corrothers,A_William Grant Still (The Underground Railroad, 1872), Alex~ er Crummell (founder of . ";) . American Negro Academy ), · Alberfy H'hitman, Benjamin Brawley lf , v . (The Negro in Literature and Art in the United States, 1910 ), Kelley Hiller (Race Adjustment, 1909·), William Stanley Braithwaite a nd Alice Dunbar- ~elson (Violets and other Tales, 1895). Black ~ Am.erica wi t ne.ssed a major step in the development of· its stage productions (ma ny designed to destroy "stereotypes 11 fostered y white min~trels and dialect writers) with Bob Cole's A Trip to Coonto~ t he first- musical. produced a nd ~anaged by Blacks . ~ . ~ . Will liarion Cook and Dunbar followed with Clorindy/~in 1898; a nd Cole ~eturned J th is ~ime Hi th James Weldon Johns on, to vri te and play i~ed Mo~~1'1ie maturation of essays, journalism and autobiography also' conti nued . Elizabeth Kackley, friend to presidents and statesmen, wrote Behind the Scenes i n 1868; r Douglass founded the fow National Era (1869,v ___ 72) and published h is Life and Times i n 1881 . Southern Workmen was established at Hampton Institute in 1872. Rumor in 1879 and edited the T. Thomas Fortune founded The --- - _ ..... -.........-_ -_-- _-_ i nto being. in 1887. - In t he same Others included Penn's The Afro-American Press (1891) , John H. Murphy ' s Balti more Afro-American (1892), IIonroe Trotter's ~===:::::::::::,"-- - - - (1900) and oston Guardian (1901). t!mnsrtsnt BJ aslr 7t t rsmr names £2> tJ t r aa ; r, t Ii es Snow th s ; Islonnor, IPnnlt iii pu rM • umas&• 1 $ a abl!st SJ XRX&ii&GI HSI 8££115£ SJ �'51 ,~ Corrothers and Braithwaite this period . Dunbar, Whitman, Fenton Johnson, are the poets of interestl _,, during James Weldon Johnson wrote "Lift Every Voice and Sing" in 1900 but is usually identified with the Harlem Renais l sance writers. (Jb,.it1 • >,; And~Locke, intellectual and scholar, was one of t he important chroniclers and interpreters of th.r}era. D'13ois, sociologist and editor, is chiefly known1 as a poe; for his "Song of the Smoke" and "Litany at Atlanta," written after the 1906 . ~•,4.eS race riot .l\Chestnutt was the first important i'iction. w lack writer of .,., i),,1 4.,, Both he a nd Dunbar were endorsed by \Howells , who presided as ~ ~ •••9••;<- czar over A~~rican literary criticism 1 during the last quarter of the century . Howells also helped laund\ the careers of Henry Jamesyi i!IGSiiifob &&IP I Arner1 aa'1 s ( lSYB JGJG_i&S,.andWalt ·w hitman. Generally, with the exception of Braithwaite, Fenton Johnson, MN ■ ag Whitman and a few others, j lack poets followed the dialect tradition of the day. Robinson (Early Black American Poets) notes: i;nat ~u~wThe vogue was established among white southern ,;..11'1 ters (who i'ailed to appreciate their own (?) amusing dialects) with Irwin Russell (1853J 79) whose popular pieces were collected and published posthumously as Poems by Irwin Russell (1888) with a loving preface by Joel av �Chandler Harris , also popular for b is Uncle Remus and Brer Rabbit prose tales in Negro dialect. "'e~ The major _)3lack dialect poets - , .Dunbar , Danie Hebster Davis , James Edwin Campbell, Elliot B. Henderson a nd J. Hord Allen; · bv,t·· ~ ~ 1'hC. pa & QL James Weldon Johnson ''A·wrote I t td& J in .-...t.. idiom . ~ --- - -,. &!! SliG &1&1666 I I a Dunbar surpassed al l l\.writers 1- lac k and white ...Lincluding Russel~ after whom he patterned his efforts . or ptt..ft'cl~,71,el'YJ, ~B/.N.b l His ability to empatb iz ei\rather ~ban simply "report'A'i . /.71r,-;~1ith . I his "perfect" ear f o r - ~ speech, ma ke him more i1anJ~ ~l~Fc, .. wh~t. wo... auth entic. Dunbar also 't-TrOt wo be re~emberecl_ I ru 8-! 7 Ait was his dialect poetry ("a jingle in a broken tongue") that gained h i m notoriety. The biggest contradiction of the era wa s that struction" occurred in name o ly. ~ • and intimidation groups ( , 0 11 :!1.eco nl, _ growth of white h at e t. Blacks were lynched between 1 /1\,, 1885 a nd 1900) , the development of a neo slavery, the parai doxical plight of the "freedman" (see Washington 's Up ; f rom Slavery), the general disappointments in social "paper" programs and the disil-usionment on the parts of Blacks wh o U fought in the Civil War-'- all influenced and helped direct the M co ntemporary;81ac k mo od . Coupled with thts was the ½eginning# of the jfi'eat..fi gration of southern Blacks to northern urban cent ers. fuile dialect poetry emerged as t he most popular form in poetry and prose, James 1:Teldon Johnson later observed (Ame1"ican. Negro Poetr ~ j that it would not encase the manifold 13'1 'I Iii• �natur e of the / lack? perience; wh ite wr iters bad initiated it a nd Blac s c ould ot;ly "caricature th e caricatures . " Caught up for a '!vbile ln the potent ials of the ~mancipat5.on Procl~ ma tior. and "::Ze co:::ist:i., ·ctio ntr,\ 1;:a.ny_/1 ack :_)oets also couch ed their l ines in patriotism and sentimentality (s ee Johnson's Years 11 ) • 11 Fifty IICll'-!L@C,±~S-.•11111ikiilitllllit•s-21111211piitliiiiilJIIS•■11illll••·112111-,t•21111s••O-INt11211cllllt•ffllillf•... ; During this period , the first of a series of/ lack ma nual~ arts colleges was establi shed . Hampton Institute, Fisk Unit, vers ity , Houard Uni vers ity, :i'.•Iorehouse Coll ege and Johnson C. mi t Co-lege were among the early ones. • In 1871, the year of James; eldon Jobnson 's birth , the Fis k Jubilee Singers made the i r first cone rt tou:r:, wit hjrpirituals. 1 The tour was epoch-= making) for it marked the f i rst time a~ lack i nd igenous American art f orm had been gi ven such world1 ide exposur e . The per iod was crucial, too, for all~ lack folk art because the burgeoning 1 ne·w;131ack ,Zntell i gents£i~, anxious to remove the bitter taste ,,,,--- ~ vest of slavery, -et:Hther:de11;1e~to d\11 J•~ ther.ise lves of all relics of their ante-bellum past . The/P irituals, the r ich cadences of folk speech and the freedom in dance, among other aspects, a__ were giv en~back seat i n an attempt to Westernize or "civilize" newly emancipated Blacks. ~ The Civil War , ~Emancipation Proclamation a nd the stationing of occupation troops in the E outh had also left a bitter taste on the tongues ofJsourtie;n\_ , ; evenge-be~ whites. ~.u.......... . . The att empt to "colonize n the ;;3 outh, as some saw it, was dramatized by the �arrival of "carpetbaggers "-1-whi te northerners preaching .)31ack rv\ ~ freedom or exploiting southern industry. The results were the elaborate and ruthless rise of white secret societies and the ridicule of Blacks in newspapers and magazines . Hany • r ack poets unwittingly participated in this ridtcule through their own diale.ct and sentimental verse. Others went to the extreme to prove their "goodness" and "Godliness~ as : g l!J PS! & sltsat. In the shadows of all thes: ~rad oxes, )3"1.ack minstrels and musicians gained prominence. ~ ;(agtime" heralded an era ultimately to be called the Jazz Age. Meanwh ile more serious debate over the fate of Blacks was taking place among men such as Douglass, Washington and nt ois. In 1895, at the International Atlanta Exposition, Washington delivered his famous "Compromise" speech1 which encouraged Blacks and whites to work as close as the fingers of the band in matters needing mutual concern; but advised that, in all social respects, the fingers of the hand should be separate.~ This was seen as a conciliatory and unprogressive posture by many integration-minded leaders. Washington, who founded Tuskegee Institute in 1881, played down civil concerns and integration, and urged Blacks to seek practical skills. Dtf3 ois encouraged Blacks to seek knowledge of the arts and sciences and predicted that a "Talented Tenth" would emerge to lead them. In The Souls of Black Folk! , D+ ois criticjue:l Washington's position. The controversy between the two men is now famou~ as is Dudley Randall's poem ''Booker T. and W.E.B." in which the ideologies of both men are placed against �the mood of the time • In an incremental development of both dia logue and rhyme-refrain, Randall frames his important statements in iambic tetrameter~ The use of an imaginary conversation between '°\WO "opponents" also allowed the poet to comment on two significant "poles" in the continuing~ ck push for freedom and self- detenni nation. ➔· _The ois-Washington controversy created reverberations that are still being heard around the/ lack worl d@ i ois was, ultimate ly, to rise as the towering and defiant figure of the perio es peci.ally among Afro-American intelligentsia ~ while Washington was reduced to a negative and sometimes obscene symbo wn,......, - ... A recent book deal~ some-what indirectl~ with the'se matters is Booker T 1 s Chi14 (1974), by poet Roy L. Hill see Hill •s lbibliography)0 See , also Up / rom Slavery~Washington, 1901), From Slave to College President Godfrey Pike, 1902), The Life and Times of Booker T. Washington 1 Benjamin Riley, 1916J and Booker T. Washington and His Oritics (Hugh Hawkins, ed., 1962) . For a recent . informative biography of ~ ois see His Day ~ s Marchin (Shirley Graham nul3°is, 1971) , I / I i - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - --- �v,aS!ilagbo~! mu1 , 1d12osd :ts a eH:ga1bJ'.l!css are sornat:!mas abs1stw• SJ d.s cl Ne r (£61 flibi 6 0.1 b!tl:s J a so 9N J ~J> ft:; L1 ff!:l:l). l_iPlilBO 1'1 ,.~ iil!!!Jis ftiJ'.118. 81} lat! bbe pus bi 3' ( tee!m:T:callJ ana t:M!u1w id ii I'll I l:i I SHF--=tltd ti:sall;) J !%sh01 u • ~a&f'-1+,e the wi.gewan1 debates an<l tl.ia a ca ial oom1 ng..-af.aga 17 L t_ ,,,- aPeX Udtii cue second dcsais llf III uJJ Ll~:ti ~ ~Cunja..'1 man, de cunjah man, , GO The Vo\c.es OYl 0 chillen, run, de Cunjah manJ '·~--,.____,_~.. . ne ~ - .Tames Edwin Campbell ' "... IV\ Totem } -8!'-""'"""~"0.."'---v-':,,r.lP.-,:'.'~.,. C.- Although poets of the previous period placed their verses and polemics in various po litical and news organs, it was d ring the 1856 1910 era that such a practice reached new levels of importance. Poets had acc ess to numerous regional and nat ional publicat i ons, contests, political platforms and educational programs through vhich they could either read or publish their poems. Robert Thomas Kerlin, for example (Negro Poets and Their Poems, 1923) , c ollected literally dozens of poems from nemst, papers, church hullctins, privately printed pamphlets and magazines l - many of them no longer available. I"'\ of the political nature o:f Some indication both the people and the poetry of the post-Civil Har era is seen in this stanza from "The Song of the Black Republicans" (whi ch appeared in The Black Republican of New Orleans, April 29, 1856): �I Now rally, Black Republicans, 'Wherever you may be, ...-:-,. Brave soldier~ on the battlefield, IAnd sailors on the sea . Tow rally, Black Republicans{\ Aye, rallyl we are free1 We've waited long long To sing the songi I1The song of liber_ :cy. Continuing for six stanzas, th~• poem is obviously aimed at a public listening and reading audience . It praises "colorn ) which comes "from the Lord II and reminds _iBlack vote s that J Abraham Lincoln ("beneath the Flag of all") "flun£ s Preedom through its stars. " Somewhat of a different vein is the work of Benjamin Cutler Clark ( 1805? !. ?) of whom we know very little. I A fugitive slave, he attended t h e 1835 Annual Convention of Free People of Color (held in P iladelpbia) from his adopted h ome t own of York, Pennsylvania, where he had moved after leavi ng the slave state in which he was born. rfostly self-taught, Clark married i n York a nd raised a large family l writing poetry and prose in bis spare moments. He was politically active and opposed colonization of Blacks, believing that it was "indi4,, viduals" who emigrated and "not nations." llt ~ The Past, ,pie J Present and the Future (Toronto, 1867) includes prose reflections on the state or race relation~ and 5 poems . He is primarily @ �concerned, in poetry and prose, with the issues of slavery and racial injustice, although much of his work deals with domestic life . Infsentiment,) language,J style and influence, Clark bears Cl resembli nce to the poets . of the period just covered. 9 And although his work was not published until 1867, he wrote earlie 7 oems -, as indicated, for example, in his 'fuat Is a Slav ') and "Requiescat in Pace , " an elegy on the 1857 death of a woman associate. Clark is quite effective as a poet and, sometimes, even gripping in his ability to make the poem assume the dL en~ sions of the event it relates. in detailing ~ tails C}!! slavery . Like hrs . Harper, he is graphic And, like Frederick Douglass ~ ----) -in slavery, that is) may "miss me." (see Narrative) he is tragif comic in suggesting that t h ose !tat home u Me? ( "Do They Miss A Parody" opens each of its four-lined stanzas with Do they miss me at home-} do they miss. me? and alternates ~ iamb ic pentameter and (with an ab c b rhyme scheme ). ~ tetrameter ti Clark describes an unusual kind of ''home n: nDo they miss me at home ~ do they miss me? 0 By light, as the horn echoes loud, And the slaves are marched off to the corn field, 0 I'm missed from the half-naked crowd. Using a break (or caesura) reminiscent of the blues, at the third foot (the b]ues breaks at the second), Clark dramatizes slavery and pokes fun at those men who run the "peculiar a �institution. 11 a Slave I /.l M\v:. He makes similar use of the dash in "tvhat Is wh:ePe 1e achieves incremental power through repetition and syntactical variance: A slave is-~what? 0 A '"" thing that's got Noth ing, and that alone J His timeJ -his wife- 1, \ /I'\ And e ' en his life , He dare not call his own. Emp loying expletives, spontaneity and suspense, Clark shows h i ms elf' to be a skilled craftsman (all things considered) for h is time and training . His rh:n1e scheme is a ab cc b with an off t rhyr:1.e i n the first couplet of each six-line stanza. Under t:1e persistent questi on ''r·Jhat Is a Slave?" ·we feel not only the i ndic tment against slavev wners and racist policies.} ut sor-:ie key to the early realizations of t lack thinkers tbat the race was being disrobed phys ically and psychologically. As with Vass a, Reason and others , the hurt is h i dden a nd defies · oth def niti on and visual co~tact : slave is l - what? IV\ . LJ I pray do no t Insi st; I ca nnot ·now, ::c Or , -:vords i ..part , ai nt er ' s art, Ves cr i be a s:ave- Lah , noJ M Though trapp ed i ~ t he forms of European modelt builders, Clark shous !1is own ingenuity and ori gi nality. By ..,aryi ng b is rhyme �scher,1cs o.nd :-.1 et er., a ::id i_s i ng dashes and exple t i7 es ., : e ":-ri ~.:;s emotional .. o~rer i -:1t or l ac od ·wi t~ an iro ~ical l y d et ac _-:cd i ~i telle ctua l assesst:ont of t he slave ' s pliJ;l: t . powerful i n ~ "Th Se~: in cl ,:.,/ He i s 3i r.1ilarl:r ,i,;~ ~il . ~ .:.""'e 7" (cor: t i ~-:ui n.; a longf line of _)l".Lac lc s a lt tcry v ers e J prais e s 6f, 1ft, S ed no:'.e chi ef arrl 'hero of Semi nol e wa r s i ::1 ::7lo i da i n t he ear :~rc ';+- •. centur7. In t is , r..e a l s o anticipat es/\ t a.i t r.:a n ' s ,rork (Rap e of Florida) . For selections of Clark ' s worl::s a.:.-id 'Jrief cr iti cis m s ee n o inson 1 s a ntho lo 6 J . See a ls o Joa n R. her:-:1a n 's Invisible Poets If Clark's strength lay i n h i s assault agai nst ~acial injus tices , Jane s 1·:S.dison Bell ' s (1 826;;1902) la-y i n h is ". l east! and "hope . n "Fortunate " eno gh to wit ness t!:e Gi7il ">!a.1 1 ., ;efrnancipati~n and .Re construction;' Bell railed agai nst i njustices but prir.:arily ex pres sed hope i n b is ~ Jri.ack struggle. years of o servi ng tbe Bell spe nt r:iost of _is adult life delivering eloquent and ue i gh ty poetic liberty. He was orn in Gallipolis, Oh io, w'h ich he left at age @ to pursue t h e trade of plasterer and t h e avocation of orat or-poet . A wanderer, Bel l played his part i? t he over~ throw of slaveryM soliciting funds and recruiting Blacks for John Brown's ~ 1859 raid at Harper$ Ferry. Before t h e raid, Bell had moved to Canad2jwhere h e continued h is frient ship wi t h Brown and fat h ered a large family. He later traveled to California, back to Canada, to various cities i n Ohio a nd Michigan, and, . finally, spent time i n Toledo. - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - ---- Dur ing t h is �odyssey Bell appeared at concert halls, churches and various public gatherings to read his poetry s commemorative event 1 Hi - a-eme political a.,) .Qil- He also took advantage of books and gained considerable understanding of history and literature. His major themes are devotion, inspiration, love, unity, collective strength and political change. of Byronic power in the roll of his verse Achieving "something 11 (Kerlin) Bell's 0 poems are often too long, too ted~s ar.d lacking in interest. Robinson notes : 'l"!""'T ~ ,_.;.✓ Not to mitigate his obvious technical flaws, it is helpful to remember that Bell is best ~ appreciated as something of an actor, his poer.1.s re garded as scripts . jl:I 1c.._ Unashar:iedly chronicl ng his journeys, Bell included t he followi ng as a full title of :'riumph of Liberty 1870) : _ Poem,17 Entitled th eo/ Triumph of Lib erty .~ Delivered i ! ~, 1870,/ Detroit ~ f Opera House,/ n t he Occasion of/ e Grand Celebration of the Einal ~ of the Fifteenth Amendme t to the Con~/ ' Ratification/ stitution of the United poem erupt th ugh th tat es. ~s 0onsisting of 90 i , th e f all t he "flourish es and vocal modulations at his experienced command. 11 According to Redding ✓ (To Hake ,;( Poet Black), Bell "unblushingly" claimed the titles ' of "Bard of Maumee " and "Poet of Hope." Typical or Bell's style is bis tribute to b is f'riend John Brown (rrou.1.-J::,JI:_ ,_.___ of _ Li er~ : Alth ough like Samson h e was ta'en, 1 �And by the base Philistines slain, I Yet be in death accomplished more Than e I er he had in life before. His noble heart, which ne'er had failed., Proved firm, a nd e'e n in death prevailed; And many a teardrop dimmed the eye Of e'en his foes who saw him diei ( ., ~ And none who witnessed that foul act ~..,. fill e'er in life forget the fact . \-- ~ ) something of the stature of Vashon's "Vi ncent O v and 1fuitfield's "Cinque.," Bell's tribute has all the ring of indebtedness to Scott, Byron, Pope , Tennyson and ot~er Englis popular masters with whom he was /familiar. However i:-:iitative and derivative, though, Bell seemed never to be at a loss for exalting, e.x:iortatory poetical flourishes . In "Song for the first of August" be sings a song for "proud Freedom's day": '- Of ever-<-J clime, of every hue, 0 Of every tongue, of every race, 1 .:eath (r) heaven's road ethereal blue; Ohl let thy radiant srililes embrace, Till neither slave nor one oppressed □ Re main throughout creation 's span, By thee unpitied and unblest , .cJ Of all the progeny of man. One of Bell's nost amb itious works is h is 'Hy Policy' · I 11 . :fodern :-~os es, or I ·Ian " in which M in sca'Jdi ng satire~ h e assesses the �adr.1ini:tration of preside nt Andrew Jo"tnson. - Joh ns on ( i_3o5J 'Bi?5 ), ·wh o s cceeded the assassinated Lincoln in 1865, '! as orn poor and learned to write and figure from his wife. His ~&'ttt.he,~in presidenc~r~)iisrli aa Ii.in a showdown 'between a progressive Republican Congress and Johnson, a reactionary Democrat. Johnson began reversing his bars Once in offic ~ criticisms of t h e South, giving former rebels a rather free hand at things and vetoing several bills aimed at giving Blacks a better share of things. Upset by the whole thing, Bell 't'!f'Ote a blistering satire Cc,:rhich I VJ~~i,,.ttY\ often collapses as suchM ie,, iduo~., with couplet-fury, be ob serves: that • And crowns t h ere are, and not a few, And royal robes and sceptres, too, That h ave, in every age and land, C (7J / Been at the option and command Of men as much unfit to rule, As apes a nd monkeys are for school. Fol lo ,ri ng poets like Clark and Uhi tfield, and anticipating !!s ignifyi ng!! poets of t ..e 1960~ and '7oi s (such as Baraka, Crouch , Toure, Ec~els: . . . '~· estern Syph illization, pares Johnson to all manner of evils. 11 and others) Bell comt Johnson is also contrasted to "goodn or liberal whites such as Congressme n Charles Sumner and Thaddeus Stevens and abolitionist Wendell Phillips. ically calling Johnson "Modern :noses~ derisive 11 Cy~ Bell also uses the Hose 11 - Lwhich appears to be a way of reducing 'him to - . f'v\ the level of the stereotype whites reserve for Blacks (see, L• for example., such statements as the one by Don"-Lee: 44' "styro~/ �& his momma too") . One must chuckle somewhat at Bell's clain that Johnson cursed in the ~it t ouse: But choose we rather to discant, On one whose swaggish boast and rant, And vulgar jest, and pot-house slang, Has grown the pest of every gang Of debauchees ·wherever found, From Baffin ' s Bay to Puget Sound. Only recently have we beard echoes of Bell from journalists, c ongressmen and old ladies astonished at ~ it1~ouse tapes showing that ex-f resident Richard Nixon cursed in the gval Eoom. - We have observed., then, that Bell, though a ted*s and n ,v;.._ harEfuing poet, is important Q.1i.. a co ntinuing chronicle of the mind and creative development of the Afro-American poet. Bell's works also include The Day andg1ie War (1864), dedicated to the memory of Brown; The Progress of Liberty (1870), a recollection of the war, praise for Lincoln and .}!lack troops, and a jubilant greeting of enfranchisement; and The Poetical Works of James Madison Bell (1901), including a preface by his personal friend \ Bishop B.~·l. Arnett. Even though Bishop Arnett claimed that Bell ' s "logic was irresistible, like a legion of cavalry led by Sheridan," the poet recognized his own limitations when he said (Progress of Liberty): "The poet laments the discord of bis harp, and (f:, its disuse , u ~ answering Freedom fs call he 1 aga in essays its k.rmony. " �~ For otl:er samples and appraisals of Bell's work see Robinson, ~~erMo.n ¼ Brawley, . . erlin, Redding, Brow13.,~nd 1-iays (The 'Negro's God, 1938 Anticipating Helvin B. Tolson of the 20t 1965) wrote a book-length answerl l Harlem · Gallery, \\= Stein's statement : ~ .....__,, century (who '<1/ to Gertrude ,., ,, - "The Negro suffers from notbingness l , Francis A. Boyd (1844L?) penned his only volume in partial response to Rev. Henry Ward Beecher's concern for "the injured and oppressed sons ar.d daughters of Africa." Boyd's volur:1e, published in 1870, is entitled Columbiana ~l,~r ~ Complete in one Volume. e North Star ~ ~ Boyd explains in the preface that he ~ ·t-ras born free to Samuel and Nancy Boyd in Lexington, Kentucky, a nd .net hardships trying to acquire an education. Columb iana~ the author notes in the preface., comes from "I., a scion of that a ncient racen rho takes in dedtcating the following lines"· to the Rev IIade up of five cantos (major breaks i n a long poem), Columbiana is a poetic narrative on the plight of t!1e / lack man in slave-founded America. The cantos contain various structurol.and rhyme schemes ; most of l'I which reflect Boyd's kn0v1-edge of the classic,,_. ., neoclassical a nd ro~a nti c traditions i j poetry , and the history of events l eadi ng up to t':le Civil Har. In the poem, Freedom (personified) t ravels., like some classica l deity, on a win ·ed chariot from =:~,.pt, acr,o ss I p rael, Greece and America. I!'.l America, Freedom meets all sorts of evils, like t ,e protagonist in .Tohn Bo:,-d's 11 vi::1ion.," a1.ong t bem Secessia, t e arch-enemy of Blacks and freedor.1. - -- - - - - - - Secessia, Southerners who sece l ded from the union., ----- -- -- ) 0 �i s a ss es sed f rom all s i des duri ng Boyd ' s ian: ic te trame tr i c ,,..-. . . - &!( a ss a lt . In "def ia nce ni.de to Unio n laws , 11 t b e S outl: r:I gnor e d n t rut.1 and r i ghtn es s To h a r.::;,cr down t he sh udd ' r ing slav e . Bu t the s ons a nd d a u r;l-.:ter s of Af'r i c a , -;.fh o own a part of Se c ess i a, mus t h a ve a sa:r-so i n llmh .L. G i :1at h a pens to '-1 e r . ,,,.., :::'reedom (c ont i nn i nc - S oli~oquj" 11 f'ron .....,"canto I 7 ff ) t e lls ..._., ~S e cessia ' tl~ a t ._, ....,""' __ • • • or.. u . _ _ s oi : t b e :St h i op dwe lls (i) Ir. .:;lorious t r i u~:1r,!1 o ' er t hfy f oul s l a ve -c 11 ... "!.,! a ':'ld '-' ~ n:o.c ks !1a".. e, t ::1 c ir e:re on tbe Horth Star ( als o/\ na me of Doug:.a.s s ' 11 ::: a~ e1" } s 16 s e sts -';~"e na rrat or i n Bef o:;."o '.-18 The 2)rea11: " f r or.1 Ca nto q1.1. e nc:1 t he .1allowed fi re , Or.cc c or e -.;1e stri.{e t e sac red l :,· ra . ':::11::. ~!ort ~ ~r..cir c led · t ar l i ngers i n t . e sl.i:y, :r a sno •T:f dov e . 3un, -:-:oo n a r:d stars c onfounded li e , The _:orth St a r outsh i nes a ll ab ove , o s h i ni ng h ere , a nd s h i ni n 6 t her e , Forever r u l i ng ev er ;r.·1.1ere . ~ e I'! ort h S t ar .. as rem.ained m til t'his very day :L1port a nt i n ,)!lac k l it erat ure . aB" ( 11Ru::1aga t e :'o'":) er t Ha:rd en i s on _y o ne co ntemporar;r poet J. : a ga te n) r.:a1.. i ng use of i t . Confus ing b oth h i s met er a nd !1i s rhy ,.e patt er n wi t 1ou t h ints t h at h e is i ~ t e ntio nal or exper i menti ng , Boyd s ome i mes los e s t h e reader in h i s labyri nt::1 ine de l uge . But , c o r s i der i ng h i s stati on i n 160 �li.fe and the o½stacles he 1-1orked against, '!:1 is work is one r.1ore notab le step i n t!1e development of' Afro-American poetr:r. F or selections from and assessments of Bo:rd , see Robinson. Henrietta Cordelia Ray (1850h l916) was among the handful' 01/1-ack poets of the century (i ncluding Daniel Payne and Ann Plato) ·wh o avoided racial themes. Hiss Ray, however, s eer.is to be one of the first to try a wide variety of forms. In sonnets such as "To IJy Father ," "Robert G. Sh aw," "Hilton" and oth ers, she shows skill at ·w riting this difficult form. ~ ✓ And in works ~ "Antigone and Oedipus," "The Dawn of Love , n /\ n:Noontide II and nThe '-I onths" she proves her linguistic dex ~ Sfi e J t erity and poetic virtuosity . Even though C IID:t&:,i\avoided outright racial t h emes\\in h er poetr; she i mplicitly commits : _erself in ~~ l ~ "Robert G. Shav~11 dedicated to the ;'""\ i;-rhite Colonel Shaw (183711163) of Boston who led the 54th N,_,, Hassachusetts ; olunteers (all ~ lack) in_ the Civil War . I illed lee.ding his troops on an assault on Fort Wagner, South Carolina, Shaw is eulogized: O Fri endl O heroJ thou who yielded breath That oth ers migh t share Freedom's priceless gains, In rev'r e nt love we guard thy memory . Cow.\ e.L, o.. Dunbar, a younger contemporary of ,_ARay's, would also praise Sha~ who, like Lincoln, became one of the important white heroes to pos tp.zar p ack Americans . ttlw!ell~ ~"-.Ray, however, was not u ~ aware o:f the plight of her brothers and sisters o:f color in her everyday li:fe. Born one o:f two daughters to the Rev . 151 �Charles B. Ray (of Falmouth, Massachusetts ~ distinguished minister and "tireless abolitionist," BC ,'4~~as made aware of slavery and racial injustices . very early After a rath er protected upbringing, which included good traditional trai ning , she went on to New York University where she finished in ~ J ~ edago~ and to Sauveuew School of Languages «r:;;;:?1,..,1\mastere\l Greek, Latin, Frenc, erman and the English c lassics . For a while she taught school+ but, finding it boring, preferred to attend her invalid siste~ Florence (wi th whom she maintained a life long friendship ) a,,i Jtravelifi.g ----- throughout /' New England~ giving moral support to the antislavery work of her father. Her poems deal primarily with love, scholarship, intellectual theme3> 'praise of great literary/@~political figures and seasons. , She loved to do settings, descriptions, i mpressions and cycles in her poetry. For example there is a cycle ("I dyl") which goes through "Sunrise," "Noontide," "Sunset," and "Midnight ." Another cycle, "The Month s," consists of l poems, five of them in If . . £ --e-1:g:ht-linef stanzas, five in ~-line!, stanzas and t wo in 7 - -G-OVe.Q·linee stanzas. She ge nerally varies her meter and rhyme schemes; but the ballad form predominates in "The :.fonth~}'' l- while a "two-stanza, ~ 6 - linef form (rhyme scheme: a a b c c 'b) I,;. heralds the four major segments of the day in 11 Idyl. 11 -..(c,"'citlt~ ...........,,,, Ray, as we have noted, is not an original or innovative poet . But her work does mark a new level of sophisticationf despite her imitation of the models followed by most _;5lack poets of her time . Her published poems included Sonnets (New York, 1893) , and Poems (New York., 1887). Sbe also published Commemoration �Ode or Li:Co1 no/ Hri tten for the occasion of theo/ unveili ng of ~ /\ -# the Fr eedman's monument ~ 1£ in ~fomorv of Abraham Lincoln ~ - Ap1.., il l.5.:Z.6.. She cof authored, witl1 her sister, S ketch of the Life of t h e R0v . Charles B. Ray ( Tew York, 188?). c:: ~ For selections of - g I ~vork see Rob i nson's Early Black American Poets and and Kerlin's Negro Poets and Their Poems . tlA- critical cor.unent ~~ Declaring )~~ s lave, -k " Albe 1!)l a\;e.Si □ 144 ,~ Robinson includes IJ~ Shermanla~Invisib le Poets. "I was born in bondage, ii~ I was never a ,r , Allson Whitma n (1851 1902) thus i ntroduced h L s eli' and ~i s po etry to t h e world . A complex and brilliant poet (Hagner r ef ers to him as a "brilliant 11 1.mi tat or), he must b ave been antici pated by bis contemporary Cordelia . ay in the experime nts with various verse forms. Hhitman was b orn a slave i n or r~ear i:unfords ville, Hart Cou~ty, Kentucky (in Gree n River country). ~ ldl 1 I Vtll it ; .&&btd__:&:>ISP lh#l?bl&bl J ES 3 It . $f .Q muLa.lto) slLW&iJ Ila ,\~e was orphaned at an early a ge and recei ved only b its and pieces of formal training- a glaring ih~-1 en uw,, irony agai nst b i s achieven e nt, the most important~until Dunbar. T~ ough it is widely believed that Whitman wrote t h e longest poem ( over ~ lines) by a j 'lack American, we now know t hat at leas t two ot her J 1ack poets wrote longer poems: Ro½ert ~ . Ford's Brown Chapel, a Story in Verse ( n. d., n.p.) O"'t\ Preface dated 1903) contained at least 8,600 lines "Nl 307 pages; •1aurice Corbett's Harp of Ethiopia (Nashville, 1914) 6Y\. contained over 7,500 lines t1ci 273 pages. ~ /tJ broken up into cantos utilizing...:e-e-H-line v ~ Ford 's work is I stanzas while Corbett's ~ ) �epic is divided up into i sigh-t--i ne ♦ sta nzas. Whitman utilized a half dozen or so metrical a nd s t a nzaic forms and numerous other r hyme schemes. His forms i nclude t h e ottava rima, dialect vers e , th e Spe nserian stanza, blank verse, °'iambic., trocbJ c and anap"es lines in t hr ee to fi ve feetf (in..;;:_,,, eluding st~ess nrhyr.ied li nes), and the various stanzaic a nd metrical fusions be develop ed from i mitating such writers as Byron., Pope., ·Jhi t ti er, Longfellow, r1ilton and Scott. The poet developed his technical facilities while he worked, primarily as a pastor of an African ~thodist Episcopal Church in Springfield, Ohio, and financial agent for ~•Tilberforce Uni ~ versity (where h e h ad studied under Daniel Payne), to support himself and promote race progress. A fiery speaker, lecturer one. e and reader of his poetry, Whitman was J ~ notAto bit" h is tongue . In declaring that he "was never a slave" he went on to sayi at ~ years of_.age M "The time has come when all 1Uncle · Toms' and 'Topsies I ough t t o die. n· The title of Whitman's first work, Tot a 7-Tan a nd Yet a ~..an _(1877) is i mportant b oth literally and i mplicitly . one ~ For to go a few niore steps to place it alongside similar1 contemporary titles: '""' Soul on Ice, 3obody Knows 1'1:y' 1 Name., I Know Why t h e Caged Bird Sings, Manchild in t h e PromiseJ ~ ' Invisible Man, and scores of other volumes of essays, novels, poems and autobiographies. The titles are slightly different.J but the cry a pd the passion and aim are the same. Not a Man and Yet a iran, for Whitman, ensconces the dilemma - - - -- - -- - -- -- - - -- -- - �of the p ack man. A mulatto slave, Rodney, saves the life of the daughter of bis master during an Indian raid, and afteri ward$....., falls in love with her. Going against his promise to offer his daughter in marriage to the man who saves her, the master instead sells Rodney to a Deep South planter. / In bis new habitat, Rodney falls in love with a slave girl, Leona) andt after being separated from her for a while, spends a beautiful life with her in Canada. The ove1,simplified theme of the "tragic mulatto II comes through in much of Hbi tman 's wor~ which never features the problems or lives of dark-skinned lacks. ·Jhitman possesses a brilliant gift of descriptive prosaic poet~ as in these lines from Not a ?,ran: The tall forests swim in a crimson sea, Out of whose bright depths rising silently, Cf Great golden spires shoot into the skies, Among the isles of cloudland high, that rise, Float, scatter, burst, drift off, and slowly 0 fade, Deep i n t h e t wilight, shade succeedi ng L shade. omewhat rer:iiniscent of the brilliant an anonymous J'ohn Boyd, ~-. i t r.:a n is competent a nd relentless whe _ placed against any other romantics of his day. .Echoing Poe and Longfellow, g lse Hhere in liot a ::an, :-!hi t rr..a l:J reacts to t h e temporary separation "' _ odney and Leona: A true h eroine of the cypress gloom, ( --~------ - -· - - - �/now there to lie, the Creole sai:-1 her CJ doomt Q ... In The Rape of Florida (St . Lou i s , 1884), revised and repuo lished the foll01-1ing year as Tuasinta t s S~minoles, or . ape of Florida) , ivbi tman engages bis readers i n a nother roli1antic tale. Under truce., Semi nole I td ians , iho h a ve fougr.t 'travel:", are fired on ., captured , and tal:: n o:ff to Texas; where tbe:," are Here, in an other a nt icipat io n, we see presaGes ref located. of "relocation " ( see Etheridge Kn i ght r s Bell:, Song) t 1 at Hi :1 I),, 1)'1 ,. , a.,, ,_ c or:ie in th e wor cs ofl/. oonte, . .)orar~r rr i ters (The :.;an Ubo Cried I Am~ .. , 3ara.!ca, '.Hl'I.ia~.:s Q; Bald,<in (~To'iod;, :C:oows ::;: :'a:::, ) , Greenlee (~e Spook ~-Tl':lo Sat b y t:1e Door ;, Graue:-: 1 Ai. 't A'."1.b ulanc es for ~ c ?Ti.::;z;ti_~s Ton'.i. t2), t 'he Last Po ets , Gi 1 0 0 Sco4f=- Heron (?1~ee ~-! il:l, , r.1.a:. l Talk at l25t .. Street a c:.d !.e!"lo.x) a :::d numerous other~ . ~-l:1itl:ian, at any r at e, lar::ents tl e treat1ent of the Indians,; i: r'!::o extende d a brot erl:r 'hand to slaves. In a note to tbe nark , T·!r.i t mar. ~'1 entions t : at 1"'e 1et relati v es of one e rai nole chief . Atlassa , "an emi nent ~ape c ontains eminole chief@ ," ems "h ero- , or n ": Free a s t:~e ai \ ~ ·.ritbin . i s ,al:-ry sliacle, The nobler traits that do t~1e r:1an adorn, I n bim. 1-:ere nat:t·,e: (P 257 Spenser ia n sta nzas . !fot t~e r.-ius ic r;1ad e In f a i1pa 's :forests or the everglade :Jas fitter than i n t h is you ng 1 e u.i nole :-las the pr oud spirit which did life pervade, And glow and tre ;-nble i n h is ardent soul- 1 ~ �1-Jb ic, , lit h is i nmost-self, and spurned ( °:' i .0 all mean control. t 1an' s last volume was An Idyl of the South, An Ep ic Poem in Ttvo Parts (Ne1-1 York, 1901 ). 11 Again ( 11The Octoroon " a nd The Sout, land's Charm and Freedom's Magnitude") explores the problen~ of mulattoes. Wh itma n Here, in chronology and subject matter, he parallels Charles Chestnutt, the) lack fiction 't·Tri ter who also exploited the theme of the mulatto a nd "passing. 11 Drifted Leaves. A new edition of Rape (1890) also included Whitman's World's Fair Po em: ')§he Freedman's ~riumphant Song, along with "The Veteran" (Atlanta, 1893), ,;ere read ½y ::i r.ise lf and Mrs. Whitman respectively at the Chicago World's Fair, atte nded by Dunbar and the venerable :i)ouglass. Like Dun ar, Wh itman became addicted to alcohol, but he managed to maintain his popularity as a hard church t worker, freedomf fi ghter ar:rl poet. in Drifted Leaves. He also published sermons An edition of Whitman's complete works, long overdue, is currently being prepared. For selections of h is writi ngs see Negr o Caravan, Rob inson's anthology, Kerlin' s bo ok and other anth ologies. Sometimes grouped with Phillis Uheatley in the "mocking-bird school of poets," Whitman is assessed by Wagner, Brown, Brawley, Robinson, Kerlin, .Jahn (Neo-African Literature, 1968), Loggins and Sherman. :~king only oblique references to racial pressures, Geor ge Marion McClellan (1860 1 1934) is reminiscent of Francis Boyd, and calls to mind Tolson, in his effort to prove Blacks �- capable of intellectual and literary comp etence. However, McClellan still does not deserv~ the abrupt disr:i.issal give n ( ~oj:oef~ ~. him by Sterling Brown~ HcClellan writes harmlessly of flo·wers, trees, birds and love (things Baraka and others have , of late , claimed a ,,.z(l.ack poet should not waste his time on). But ~e is competent and technically dexterous so as not to bore. Happily, some of the longer pieces are interpolated with sh orter ones and this makes McClellan more readable. After his birth in Belfast, Tennessee, LcClellan lived in an -, economically stable family and later bad a good, solid education at Fisk (B.A., 1885, and M.A., 1890) and the Hart ford (Connecticut) T'a eological Seminary (B.D., 1886). Con stantly on the go, like Bell, and a fund-raiser, like ~·Jb itma n, for Fisk University, he spent much of his time on the eastern seaboard executing his important duties. and taught in several cities: Louisville :McClellan pastored 1Tormal (Alaba.rr..a ), Hemphis, and Los ·Angeles, where he fi nally went i _n hopes of finding a cure for his tubercular son. His last ~ years were devoted to soliciting funds for aR ~~L tubercul~ .......... ::::::::. s ani tori um for Blacks. --- Among HcClellan's published works a.re Poems (Nashville, 1895), Book of Poems and Short Stories (Nashville, 1895), Old Greenbottom Inn (1896) , Songs of a Southerner (Boston, 1896) and Path of Dreams (Louisville, 1916) • . - As a poet, 11cClellan is sharp, crisp and musical in his use of language and images. "The Color Bane" pulls us somewhat forward to Fenton Johns on' s "The Scarlet Woman" since t he ) �nproblem 11 of having a beauti.ful but / 1ack face i of both . r the t'her.1e Even though :rcclellan' s wor.ian possesses ninez pressible grace}' For all her wealth and gifts of grace Could not appease the sham Of justice that discriminates Against the blood of Ham. And there is more than a hint in the title of h is final v olume, Path of Dreams; for , as many observers o1/1ack writing have noted ., the 11 drea r1" is a c entral theme ( see Hughes, Hayden, Nat Turner , Cor~other~ ., Dunbar), a Iii: au 11 . a) Yet1 on the 6' - - - - - - - - - - - - sur.face., r-1cClellan is delicat e and unoffe nsive . He writes ~1?Lted, sonnets, sing-song qua si- ballads , ¥ lA verse remi nisce nt of Byron., Scott and :-!ilton, and formal ballads a nd l~:rnm-i nspir ed praises as i n 11 The :?eet of Judas . 11 Varyi ng meter , sta nza and rh:nne scheme ., ::cClellan nevertheless refused to write i~ dialect ~ the vogue of h is day . time , 11 :-Taking it analagous to "rag;: he cor;1plained t h at i t ·was "co ns i de red qui te tbe proper dressing for 1Tegro disti nctio:1 i n t ".'.1e poetic art." ? or amp l e se lect ions of I:co:clla n 's writi n3s see Kerlin ' s cr i tical anthology., :'.:lob i ns.on' s b ook a nd J ohnson ' s A;nerican !Tegro Poetr:r . Robinson, Kerl i n and Br awn also give critical ..,iews of ~IcClellan' s work . See also Sherman's Invisible Poets . ":Rag- picker , tobacco steaw.er, br i ckyard hand, wh iskey distiller , tear,1ste:::- and prize-i'ighter.," Joseph Sear:1on Cotte tf"I• 7 (1861J 1949) was also one of t'he most gifted a nd prolific �writers of h i s era. Cotter was b orn to a J lac k r,1otber a nd wh i t e father i n He lson County , Kentucky . a._, Tbe k i nds of work ci ted a bove character iz ed 'h is life whe n h e was f orced, at a.n early age, to interrupt h is s chooling. ~e-e nteri ng nigh t school at age @ ., 'he studied to b ecome a teacher and admi nt istrator., ch ores uhiah ....___...., b e eve ntually assumed at the Colored ~-Tard Scho ol in Louisville. Cotter also taught E nglish lit~ erature a nd comp osition and co ntributed poems., stories a nd L,11/~l,LLL article s to local newspaper s i ncluding theACourier-Journal (one of America's outstanding newspapers). In b is life a nd work ., Cott er looks forward to Blacks like D+ ois, James Weldo n J o'tns on, :-Iar y ::cLeod Beth u ne and Langston Hugh es. I n h is "t-Triti ngs ., h e a ntici pates the variety and vi:rtuosit3r of a Du nbar. For, i n t h e words of one critic of the peri od, "he ma kes poems and invents and discovers stories., and ba.r d,t, l i ke., re cites them to whatever audience ma~ caj.l for t ~en-h, ,...., LKe'i,..Lln). in s chools ., i n ch urch es., a t firesides~" I\Brill ia. nt , precocious a nd endur i ng, Cott er pursued the complex side of' life, dari ng to exami ne t he oft en over simplified phenome non of' race re l ati ons i n America. Ker l i n said of his work: "Some are t rag edies a nd some ar c0t~1edies and some a.re tragi-comedies of everyd ay lif e among t 'h.. e ~T.e groe S • IT Cotter (Brown says he h as nboth point and pi th"), it must b e said, was among t h e first pack poets to represent, without shame and minstrelsy., authentic 13lack folk life. vefo"tJ He wrote i n formal-l academic, bookish l 111!l!fllll!IPE ; but he also wrote -~ M / ,, " �explicitly in dialect a nd standard English , of cor..mon life and common probler.,.s . He ach ieves "rush ing rhythms and ingenious r hymes " whe n be is at h is best; and a qui et , reflective per~ sej:verenceJ when he ·wr ites i ntrospectively. A disci ple of Dunb ar, Cotter is able to capture vividly the theme of traveling a nd ·wearines s that pervades so much j lack literature and song (see "The Way-Side 1foll II a nd - ...__/ repetitions ro 3 1 1 that ~ tablish the drudgery a nd the momentum to carry on). esl'f., He can be satirical a nd adinonishing in dialectJ as in "The Don't-Care Negro": Ne er min' your manhood 's risin' r 0 So you b ab e a way to stay it. Tieber u in' folks ' good opinion f' JSo you h a ve .__. a way to slay i t . In "The :Negro Child 11 Cotter tells the y outh to let "less ons of stern yesterdays" • • • b e your food, your dri ~ y ur rest, the sane poen he strikes a pose similar to that of Booker T. 1:Tashington' s 1-v-hen he advises the ch ild to Go train your head a nd hands to do, ~ Your hea d and heart t o dare. Cotter's verses a lso exalt .J'lack and liberal white heroes ( "Frederick Douglass , 11 "Emerson ," "The Rac e We lcomes Dr. W E B. Df ois as I ts Leader ," "Oliver We ndell Holmes") and relish such experiences as reading or listeni ng to Dunbar ("Answer to Dunbar's ' After a Vis i -t; " and "Answer to Dunbar's 'A Choi ce'") and Riley ("On Hearing James Hh itcomb Riley Re ad"). 16-J He vigorously searches �the human h eart 4 and the intangibles of lying, b ati ng , a nd ~ 1,// self-denying-I in poems J:4-k-e "Contradiction" a nd "The Poet . " nMy Poverty and Health II recalls Corrothers r 11 11 CompensationJ1 since the richness and strength of com.mo~ss, charity and honesty triumph over money and a high social station. A prolific writer, Cotter published several v olume ~ including: A Rhyming (1895); Links of Friendship (1898 , with a preface by Courier-Journal editor Thomas 1·Jatkins); Negr o Tales ( 1902); a four-act play in blank verse, Caleb, the Degenerate (1903); and A 1fuite Song and /(Black One (1909). A good b iograp_ical=- ' critical stud~ of Cotter is long overdue. For selections and critical appraisals see ~o i..s on and Kerlin . See also Cou ntee Cullen's Caroling Dusj( (1927) and Sherma n . ~ Judging fro1. mu ch of t b e critical reception of :)aniel t Wes ter Davis (1362f 1913 ~ the prevailing feeling is that le should just disappear. Of all the cri ti cs assessing hira (Wagner, Brown..,r edding, Brawle:r, Sherrr..an, ,J o~nson and ot:-:ers) , only t"l.-10 , Redding and Sher r:ian, seem to feel that Davis 1-:ias any 11 sinceri t:.-" i n _. is eff orts to portray , lacks i n dialect. rtedding's position is iro ni c i ndeed , since~ i n '!10 ~-~ke a Poet Black be does not discuss the folk tradition i :'.'l.fa- acl: 11 ter ~ tnre . Davis (~·i ho O".)erat ed on t ~-:e t _1eor~r t'::1at t1:1e r.iost effective 11 vriter of dial is the one in demand 11 ) is derivati..,-e of tbe wh ite writers t, as ~-ere ,.ost of the / lack dialect ;·rriters, a~d se ~::s only t c., tro.!:.3ccnd then i n tne fact of h is "ce ir:g a ,J-(lack ..1an --------- a nd a ore ac:.". erJ -u~". O could deliirer the verses ;•Ji t':1 the tic bUH!hB - /\"\ ~"""T~ �1. •.'"r" _L_ a • 1 .. c t i-·-,,-, ·- oss ;, _ ..._ ...,,.., .,c. G-..: :~L!J~ , ~ ~ !'\"' .. . _ (': v '. '.. '"" OJ 'Wd: " c, u- •._.,1.• 1-,., _,! e.1-.... .. - a uc , I ,.~. ., . _, 1sse 1-l. a "'d ., 'T) - -b it0 (:;_Q.:_c ct ~ ri t .)r ~. ·, :Ja 7 i s '!%\ :J a l so a s eriou s ll3 c'hola:' of d ia~-oct 11 Hh;) ~1rotc -: c;::;. h is 01-m fi r st~ lrn.~C:. exi ~mor'l.G\ pcr i e r:c ,.,s ....,ti3Ta c ks . I n i nt rodu ctio ns t o !; is 1"1ooks '½ e d r a,:1s ,, c o ,1pari sons and c ont a s t s b tw ee nfile.ck and ·rb i te sout>er n speech . ~eddi ~g p1~ais es :Ja v is for t h e san e r e aso ns t ½at ot he r I and h i s s ugge stion t nat plantation 11 \&~ ~ criti cs <l i s r.1is s hi r:iM f or ':1 i s exasGerated c21t::g of Bl acks dark " esn Here conte nt t o (J, . t liv e ou t t heir l i v s e a t ing '"hog me a t J " ~,Yadermillu~s '' a nd st ea l i ng . Reddi ng - eli e ves that Davis 'f poetry "r c pr e s e:1ts t he t i z;r. e st i n e..;i nativ e p ower of t h e pla nta.tio -:: i. 1:e gro, t he .. r odi ga :!.. r ichne s s of his i rn.ager:r, a nd h i s happy pouer to re s olve all dif fic lt ".cs a d r:ry s t eries with the reasoni ng of a child . " Redd i n.; ' s c or.:r.ie nt , not so b ars~ as it mig'ht seem, is nevertheles s o:-il~.r part i ally -if t h at 1,1u c~-1-trt: e . M f'\ :?or h ow oes one acc ou nt f or t he ingenuity of tr:e work s ongs, t h e ;(;:, i r it 1als , t h e a. itt i e s a.n jingles and t he earl::.r ': lues? Did not t'he s a I e "child" create tr.em a_so ? Bro,:•m , on t!1e other h a nd, refers to !)a v is as t "'.: : e "ITegro ,.,.., '!'h omas _.elson Pag e"- Lquite a nas ty • put-:-down ~, to use co ntem! M porar:r ".)arla nc e . ..., 't- - . nd Davis doe s seem to )e making fun of 1 Blac ks i n giving "is p oems sue . titles as: ''Eog ::eat, " "JHeh Down Souf ," "Bakin a n' Greens ," "Is Dar Waderm1lluns on Hi gh ?" a nd 11 :::)e Bigges t Piece ub Pi e. n But he is be nt on meeting t h e needs of people who want to 1)e "i nstructed and entertained." And it will be ob served that in some parts of the South 4J ',i .•ih ec ti.I£ t l1 is dropped from its e nding position i n favor of f tb3 �and one certainly find',, vidence of Blacks speaking like t h e characters in Hebster 's poetry . But a notb er a nswer migh t be in a comparison between Flip Hilson 1'ne v . LeRoy) and Rev. Daniel Webster Davi~ who achieved gr e at popularity wb en h e t urned his pulpit into a stage f'rom which to unload b is own brand of' "saving souls" and making the "word" c ome ali ve . As the dialect poet wa s not u nlike such ~nen as John Jaspel'_) • ~~~!!~!!!l!~ Black Billy Sunday, Brother East er , and "other Negro preachers II of' his day who ._ ~.,.ere so well known. fl -- Davis,, two collections, primarily in dialect, are Idle I·Ioments (1895) and JWeh Down Souf' (1897) . lished prose . He also lef't much unpub1 ifost of' bis work deals wi tb joviality, gluttony, f'lamboyant sermons, happiness, the "c ontented 11 slave and misi_, chievj'ousness - ~ the stereotypical behavior ~ ~ .,... white mi nstrels~,r· _\;.. ~ f1 has f'ostered on the Blac~#•• 1¥1:,-. Davis is derivative, as we notic ed, to the point of' copying wh ole lines a nd phrase~ ...t-~ I, 'l as in "Hog Hea~ " wb ere _ e takes the words ' ·Then the frost is on the Punkin" f'rom James Wh itcomb Riley and · changes them thusly: When de f'ros ' is on de pun'ki n an ' de 0 sno'-flakes in de a ' r , ••• The poem also closely resemb les Dunbar ' s r~fuen Hot 11 ___ e Co'n Pone's (f lthough Wagner and other criti c s claim that Davis did not borrow .from Dunbar but ·worked "directly from the models provided by the minstrels and the southern poet • " ) < lo J niir firs ~hand experience of the/ C • ~J Davis ~Vll'c:..a lack .folk predicament , �f'irst as a child i n North Carolina and, af'ter the Civil Har, in Richmond, Virginia, where he attended sc~ool. Fi nishing high school with good narks, he began to teach in the schools of Richmond. lack H:!.s popularity was wide among "th e less literate of' his own race," according to James Weldon Johnson, which may be a partial reason f'or Davis' ' continual production ..:.,,' of his particular brand of "poetry. 11 Known for reading h is verses with "comical unctuousness bef'ore convulsed audiences," his work, when placed beside Dunbar's, is unf'i nished. In style and workmanship, however, it should be noted that Davis is not unlike some of the bombastic ft ack poets of taday. For when t h e complete story is told, many "popular" contemporary ·, poets--speaking and writing a "dialect" and titillating "con (V\ vulsed" audiences f r.1a.y very well meet the fate reserved for Davi. (Instead of' becoming a "prelude to a kiss" they may end up a footnote to a joke~) In his f'ew standard=English pieces, Davis als o preaches a conciliatory attitude, as i n T EmancipationJII J. :JI'he claims the Af'rican ''roamed the savage J ., ... ~ wild" 0/ Unta ned h i s pass ions; , alf a r.1an a nd D half a savage child, until God nsa-w fi t " t o t each t he fl ack ma n of ''Him and Jesus Christ. I! It c ou ld e t 'h at t here is more to Davis than has met t'he eye; at any rate, a complete study of h is life and works awai r ome serious s tudent offa ack poetry. For assess ments of and selections from Davis'......, # writings see Brown, Sherman, Wagner, Robinso n, . edding and Johnson. �Our study makes no c laim t h at every poet briefly c onsidered i s any sort of giant. I n fact., exce pt when such a title or lab el i s obviously warra nted ., there is a n e.ffort to steer c lear o.f such qualitative evaluations . Tbis is true in view of our stated goa l: '--to place i nto th e hands o.f students a nd lay per f sons a bandy refere nce to) and~verview of) iac k poetry . So .Jean Hagner's claim that "it would have required a great de al of indulgence to welcome " the poetr y of J'obn Wesley Holloway (1865N1935) i nto "the literary domai n " can.,., ot fi nd crede nce or reinforcement i n thi s ✓ ook . Hagner also includes Cott er, } I a It t • Corrotbers and .~lid& :S S&l!&t, Brai th'wai te in his list of poets non grata. Holloway., like b is c ontemporaries Davis and Corrotbers., "7as a "preacher-poet." His poetry is i n both s tandard=Eng"!.ish form and dial ect., which ., acc ordi ng to .Johnson, is h is "best -1ork ." I n The Negro ' s God, Ben ·ami n !-fays c lasses Hollowa~r wi th the writ ers and thinkers _~1ho take a c onciliatory and c ompe~ s atory approach to the de ityf des pite oppression, slavery or ·w hatever . I n one poem., Holloway i s •~·Tai ti ng o~ the Lord " ; and even ~ Though hosts o.f sin may hedge me round, "WJ ill --- i he will nevertheless wait "patiently" for help from God. Baldwin, and otherp ack Hriters .Tames century ( getti ng a first start from Dunbar ), call such advice "dishonest." Baldwin, saw a contradiction in the preacher's �resignat i on a nd the rat-infested tenement buildi ngs against whose owners the preachers refused to lead a rent stri ke . Yet, a s a preacher, Holloway exhibits a classic devotio n a nd the abi l ity ( see Preface to Johnson's God's Tromb ones ) to aid 1 in the welding of the disparate Ji(Jack masses- - r - f"'\ u•~ never ~ ,_.. an easy t a sk • ......___,,, ~ .., A disciple of Dunbar, Holloway was born in He:triweather _, ✓ County, Georgia. His fath er, one of the first ,,,glack teach ers i n the state , h ad learned to read and write as a slave a nd sent his son to Clark (Atlanta) and Pisk/ niversiti es . For a period, young Holloway was a member of the famous Fisk .Jubilee Eingers. As a poet of dialect , Hollowa;r is both mus ii cal a nd h umorous.., as in "::'11ss :,forlerlee)' wh o h as ? Sof' broN"n cheek, a n ' smilin' face and Perly teef , an' shinin' hair / An ' s i lky arm so plump an' bareJ Reflect i ng a growi ng practice of th e transitional poets, Holloway makes an honest effort to portray deep _,Black emotions and feelings. Hi s descri ptio ns of ;B'J.ack women (especially) a nd men signal a new and v i brant aspect of _flack poetryi the merger of the sexual / sensual levels with the racial flavor of post bellum / lack America. Linguistically, Holloway approaches t h e sounds a nd id i oms of the Gullal~ wh ich will be s een more definitively in James Edwin Campbe ll. Since the Gullah dialect is spoken in the areas off the shores of Georgia and the Carolinas, it is poss i ble that Holloway picked up accents a nd expressions as �a child . (1919) . His books include Bandannas (n . d .) a nd From the Desert Especially humorous is bis "Calling t e Docto 7" which JJ: is an important catalog ng of folk medicinal re med ie~ includi ng Blue- ma ss , laud-num, liver pills, "Sixty-six, fo' fever an' chills ," Ready Rel ief , an' A. B. ✓ p,$ An ' half a bottle of X. Y. z. r Holloway \f-ialect poet~) joined Dunbar, Corrothers, J. Hord Allen a nd Ray Da ndri~get in being publis ed for the first time (during the first two decades of the ~ viously "off-limits" white periodicals. century) in pre For s elections from and criticism of Holloway's work see Johnso n's American Negro Poetry and r1ays !$-[The Negro's God. See a lso, for crit ic ism, Brown 's Negro Poetry a nd Drama. Yet another dialect vrriter, Elliot Baine Henderson, on whom we have l ittle information, was a notber dis ciple of Dunbar. A "prolific wr iter," he pub lished some eight volumes of verse, all i n dialect. In much of h i s l•1ri tings, as wit Holloway and Campbell, he utilizes the phonetics a nd idioms of the Gullah~I akin to the West I ndian bra nd of folk English . Henderson is somet i mes concerned with folk beliefs and the supernat ural and.J'lack religious themes a nd songs ("Git on Board, Ch i llen~'). His dialect is inconsistent, a problem with most dialect writers (inc luding Dunbar) , and while be trtes to achieve a phonetic trans cription of what he bears , be spells {in the same title) "Board " in a standard English way and att empts to place words �l i ke "Git " a nd 11 Ch i llun " i n d ial~ c t . His volumes i nclude Pla ntatio n Echo es (C olumbus , Oh io, 1904), Dar ky Meditat i o .s (S pr i ngf i eld , Ohio , 1910 ) , Uneddykat e d F ol ks ~ utl; or , 1911 ) 1915 ). a nd Da rky Di tties (Columbus , ,.. (1867J _, 95), u n like h is contempora ry J ame s Edwi n Campbe l l Dunbetr, "0 •1 es a L ost n oth i ng to the plant ati on p oets. 11 Campbei- se ms to h a ve l i stened c arefully to a nd a ppli ed the~ l a ck fo l k speech arou nd h i mJ wherea s Dunbar to ok h is i ni t ial cue s fr om t he pla nt a t i on s chool , c i ef sse ll . Po e ro roponent of wh ic ias I r i n Bor n i n Pomeroy , 0 io , Cam b ell grad. at ed f' r om t e Ac adem: and for a while t a ught sch ool ne ar Gall i _ ol is. H g ai ned -a?:lgs ton a d mi n i strative ex_ e riw nc e at t . e ore t each i ng an choo l i n Virg i n i a and t he r-re s t "I i rgi n ia Col or ed I ns t i t t e ( nm-1 ~Jest , r gi n i a State Col lege ,J -:,rhere oppositi on to i s a d m· n i stra t i ve ? Ol ic i e s forc ed i m to leav e for C:J icag o . cagg} ~ '.:1be r :, ., a ,.1.p"bel"' 1- a s a r:i.em e r of t h e sta ff of t he <'.§__1 Hrt " 1- ad £ht )l\A,~ ;::__~ fo r t hw r 3s t of !1 i s l ife -'_:::..'-~ ~ - ::..1 e :~i s c ~:m tv ~lporar i es, ) ot ter a nd D nbar ( and ot:~crs , Ca r.:p½ell t s e ar l y 1 l i s h od i n 7a· 1 • ous • 01-rs ,a t; rs . ., 0 · •- 0 :: ngli s ~a and t wo e s sa~rs . . ub l i shed i n 1~ ✓ 5 a ~d :31S ei·rher e . ( • '"'( 11 > 7 ers e s i:1ere . '9:is f i ::-s t vol~...:e of p o :,:s c o tai i:s ""'O e:·:s i n s ta nd ard Hi s se c ond volu.~e , sol e l :r po etry, ~der t e t itle .........,, f!J!l ~ c~oe s f rom the Ca i n ...,..,_.. , .. [ ■■--illifil[li!il'illiMTli:1■PlllliO■llif111.liPk ■lilif'41111@11!2. .tl!!ll!i~&&•1112 -c-slllt••·•"e"'*"&!IUMll'!JltU _ __ i lit.diifj i S::£:rGijfi& H i t t I I w \ Bll Ca r.1::=,b e ll i s quite c om e t e nt i n 'l:l oth sta nda rd :Zng l isb a nd d i ale c t; and ":1 . ile s ome of . i s se nt i !':lent s a r e well 1ha nd l ed i n t he s ta ndard~Engli s~ pons, i t is in t he d i a l e ct pi e c es tha t �h e sb o rn h is . ewer, complexi t-y a r..d origi r..a 2_i t :r. 1 110 ~1 0 ~i s important t hemes are int..,rracia l love ( or:e of t:: e first/ ~'iack ·wri ters-l s ec 'i:'1i t man a nd otb ersJ-to dea l wi t t is "touc:1 2r" /v\. fV\ subje c t ), the mulatto , sat ir e (see, espec i ally , "Cl ' Doc' Hyar" 'lack pride (though r,mffled ), a nd re a list i c presenl, 1 tat ions of foack "socia l reali t i es,l m i gious formalis r.1, a r:d (! etl\ W'!f'lrls lkkf'lR •tk VO :c4 ~ \ folk values ." I\.I t is i mportant to ment i on b i s brand of dialect, although a more i n- depth study i s still to e done. Unlike Dunbar, who see,, ed to strive f'or a universal anglicized ?ho~ netic, Camp,,ell (traces are alst:._r::Hollo1-1ay a nd Henderson) rec orded · th sp ee ch patterns clos ely r~ed to Gulla}~ [ ;· fl ?I t c Lat Such usage is se e n in er.~ l ploying t he subje ctive a ni obj ective pronouns i n the nomi nat i ve pos ition ( "I·Ie see , " "Him hab, .! as i n "Unc le the ~ 11 etc). Sph 's Banjo Song " : There is use of the broad 11 ( as i n "bawnjcr ") for the .£• '1-Jawnjer " a nd 11 dawnce" and The verbal copula to be e'1 is usually omitted (ass med?) and there is a nor~al le~gt~ ng of an e or i sound in 1-1ords li k~ "Be eg 11 , "j eeg ", "La igs. " The v often ecomes _ , and t somet i mes be c omes k. of course, other great differences. Tbere are, For more on such li n guistic aspe cts see works by Lorenzo Dow Turner, Herman Blake, Robert . D. Twi ggs ar:rl others. Campbell has a more auth entic ring than Dunba~ and or.e gets the i mpres sion that h e is • seriously involved i n feeli ng as well as representing what Hughes called "the pulse of the people." But Campbell and Dunbar are also similar in ma ny ways. 1.70 �In 11 1' egro Serenade" (compare to Dunbar's "A !Tegro Love Song ") Campbell captures a sharp human-social need . In ''De Cunjah ¥1an" he achieves a strong musical ring (with the help of a ft,, .. y ring-a-round-th e-e-iJ?e-i€ sort of chant) and dabbles in t h e supernatural-Lsuggesting, as Chestnutt /"I ~ {rdd, that perhaps the lack i'olk tradition bolds keys to the "ultimate mysteries of the universe . " The recurring rei'rain oi' . De Cunjah man, de Cunjah man, 0 chillen run, de Cunjah manJ will be ramified and made more dexterous by Hughes, Toomer and Hayden, as they experiment with these exciting oral folk forms . Campb e ll attempt ed to capture the cadences and gestural com plexities of a contemporary dance, the "buc Wv,\ in b is poem 11 :.robile Buck." He stated t h at he sought the "shuffling, jerky rhythm of the famous Tegro danc~" which he bad seen performed y 'j,lack longshoremen on t h e Ohio or the !1ississippi. type of word- movement marriage ~ • SJ . ti usual in J(lack poetry. today. I!}J This is not u Tumerous examples oi' such pairings abound Lastly, we sh ould note t hat Campbell's near-Gullah dialect ~~ . would later be revived (in the thirties and forties) y /\writers (:?, ~ Ambrose Gonzales and Julia Peterkin. UcKay, we have said, employed a similar dialect in bis Jamaican poems. Actor-singer H~rkr Bela.fonte, son of Hest Indians, would popularize this same dialect in t b e 195~ an~ 'l60J's ( ''llayligbt come and m e : ~ go home 11 ) . Hore salient contemporary examples of this idiom (and its cadences) can be found in the lyrics of"-.West "'"'f. Indiant .ii t .Ell a& music kno-wn as the " eggaJ~-~ an island version of 17 t W"-"""" �Afro-American "soul" music . One of the firs y .Lack p oets to write i n dialect, Car.;.pb ell deserves much n;ore attent ion than be has thus far received . At this writing, tbe most ex. austive studies of h i m appear i n Wagner's Black Poets and Sberr.-:an ' s Invisib le Poets . Though h e was a c lose friend of Dunbar's, his major works in dialect prec eded Dunbar rs books . In addition to his poetr~ he was also a member of a group that edited the Four O'Clock Tiagazi ne ·wnic1~ e was published for several years in Chicago . } Onf onf occasio n, '-' Campbell is known to have spent time talking to f lack men, pleading with them to spend their time more wisely than i n drinki ng arxi gam ling. For selec t i ons of his work see Jo'hnsoi.: , Robinson and Negro Caravan. For critica l evalua tions see Broun, WllG)Yle~ Johnson, Redding ( "Ca ,1pbe ll ' s ear al one d ictated and C/4 ter G. 1foodson 1 s "J.~. Campbell : is lang A Forgotten iian of Lett ~~ 11 ?-!egro History Bulletin, !-Tovember4 , 1938, p . 11. In l937t terling Brown sai~ 11 Eloquent and militant 11 were th e "words most descriptive" of t'he poetry of 1,. illia, Edward B rghardt D1 ois (1R63Nl ✓ 63) . Brown, w:10 also termed ::J1fo is "the leading intellactual influenc e of his generation," -:•1as only t-:-10 years ahead of a similar a c colade fror.1 J . Saunders Redding: "":'he:,,.' (poem'!} represent t .e greatness of Dr . D1 ois a s an i ns irational force . " I n tbe '!1istor:r of_)tlack poetry , however, D+ ois does !lot deserve a s lar;;e a porti on of the liraelight a s 1s normally accorded b i s ·work as historia n, social critic , journalist, novelist , Afri c anist , organizer of i ~portant �~ ,!'"JI Pan-Af'rican/ oncresses i n t he l 20 s, edi tor of 1..,L.. C isis, 0 ~at. f lnder-s c_ o lar of t hefoac k,J"p erie nee, p ect' • s r o;&tfi.4, tancy and t -: e 1/e~ Hegre ." I n 1923, • ~ Kerlin (Negro Poets) said Df ois was "c elebrated i n the Five Continents o.nd t'!le Seven Seas. 11 is i mp ortant for h is work in As a poet , the prose =poem militance/ :a, formfJ and for asserting a defiance and 1 claiming._ a hatred of racis m ~ \,,/ and oppression that h ad not been heard si nc e James Whitfield. Like molten lava, the disgust and \r)ger spill fro D ois's pen., as i n "Hymn of Hate": I hate ther.i, Oh! I 1ate them well , I ate the=n, c~ ristJ As I h ate he ll! Ironically, t h ough, i n h is h atred n u\3 ois al~ays nanaged to I re-establish h is fait and tr st in some higher order--in God. M. Eost of h is poems ad bee n publ ished in various periodicals (th e I nd ~pendent, Atlantic 1·onth ly an~ I\ isis) before several of t _em 1ere inters persed among the essays in Darkwater (1919) . D+ ois had, by that time, already gained recognition for h is ir-<lividualiz ed so of poetic prose N\which fused fiblical lat guage and imagery with his classical education and the expressions from the - ouls of Black Folk• (1903). But i n nA Lita ny of Atlanta," ~1ritt en after t h e racial h olGcaust that took several/ l ack lives, he assails all f ndar.ientals~ including t !1e existence of God • ..,.._:µ. God does exist, i n face of such violence and savagery, �('r Surely Thou too art not white, 0 Lord, O a pale , bloodless, heartless thing? Df ois also takes the occasion to cite his archt enera~r (Booker T. Hashingto n ): ~\}. They told him: 1 ork and Rise . A seeker ai'ter universal suffrage and brotherhood, n'fois employed ~uch of his poetry in the service of the political ideologies ~ t he e~poused. Thus in "A Hymn to the Peoples" he unites socialis m. and the Christian God under one banner, viewing "the primal meeting of t _e Sons of Han" as Foreshadowing the union of the world ! Other poems in Darkwater include nThe Riddle of the Sphinx'' a nd "The Prayers of God." His 11 S ong of the Smoke " (written in 1899) makes the American Black the ; imoke J{ing. 11 Listing achievements and misuses of Blacks (a favorite habit of f lack poets) , n up ois at one point as ks for acceptance of the? - ack man on equal t er., s with the uh i te: Souls unto me are as mists in t _e night, (I I iv_ . di& iten m~r blac kmen, I ~ ny w1ite, ,•fuat 's the hue of a h ide to a man in his .0 mightJ Bu~ D ois does not silence his · pen with out some appeal to God: Sweet Christ , pity toiling landsJ Hail to Hail to the black J For selections from and comment on D~ ois's poetry see Kerlin, �Brown, Redding ( Freedom -1a7,;rs} tNinter Negro Poetry). 1965), Johnson (America n For ass essments sJ!'Jahn, Barksdale and K~nnamon , Hagner, HaysJ a nd Chapman (Blac k Voices, 1968) .wh o rigbtly calls 1 D~ ois 11 the inte llectual father of modern Negro scholarship, modern Uegro militancy and self-consciousness, a nd modern !T gro cultur a l development . n D+ ois1 elected Poems d~ published (1973) by Ghana Universities Press and is a vaila le in the United Stat es from Panther House, Ltd . Jaries Da vid Corrothers (1869&1919) acknowledged his debts / to Shelley, Ke ats ( "Dream and the Song") a nd Dunbar ( "Paul Laurenc e Dunbar ")J after whom much of h is dialect poetry is ✓ modeled . ut Corrothers, a mi nister , displays ne ither the range (in subje ct r:1at ter) nor the skill of Dunbar . His mother died at h is birth in Cass Count~, T1ichi gan., and h is father a pparent l y ga ve hi:::i little care. In Michigan, h e orked as a youth in the sa't· ,.1ills and lum'!Jer camps , as a sailor on the Grea t . ,_,a!::cs , and later t eked out a living as janitor, coac man a nd 'bootblack in a b arbers'ho? . 3 ncouraged b~r associates to contir:uz b is edu cation , he nt died for t~e rr:i nstry a nd ren!ai ned i n t:: at _.ro.i. es si on L astoring i n r.:ethodist, Baptist a nd Presl, -t rian ch urc es) a ll h is life . His fir st p lis .. i ng opporf._ tunit;r car.ie thr oui:;h Cent, r:,.. r..aGazine; this ~a~~hin a wide "'- readi r,g audience ,_,ecause of the resembl• nce of bis ·wor { to ✓ ~ that o:f D n ar ~ . Corrot~ers ' first voluii1e (Selected Poe~s) ·was publi s::ed :tn 190y a ;:'ld _i s second collec tion (T':'.} e :)rea r.1 a nd t!:e Son9 ) cane o t i :1 1914 . F!e was i n Cl1icago dt:ring the sa.:~e �~ - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - p er i od t at Car.1p e ll l i ved t ho1~cJ a nc... ho also 1-rorked f or vari o 1s dai !? n~ s pa ~er s . Dun a r . Ha ~ et an d so c a l iz 1-ri t 11 Ca::1p1""' e: l a ::cl F j: O:i nous pa per arti c l es and n np ".:-lished poe;:s h 3 pt t t oge th er Bla c k Cut Clt b ( 190 7 )J a nd __ s a : -: o'h i o 0 r a ;)' ':r, I ::: ~ pi t,3 of Handi c a ~, ~as puJ l i s~ ~l i ~ / 1916. Corrot·_er s ' nAt -:1::.e C3..os ed Gat e of JP.s t i c e II a p _a rently has been ::i s fr ea b'? a nu:T. er of c:- i tics ( tTo .. r:s on i ::;c _ ~dc C.: ; a s advi s i ng res i g nat i on and c onci. l iat or: . / Carrothers -ms a n i ni ster and i mp l ~cat ons . shoul Bnt i l~no~•:rlcdc:;e t_ a t shed u ore l i e;;:~t o:: his .saccs ~ a9~ one oft: e for s~a n z a s ( ex c e pt f or tbe fourt~ ·_.r. ich endsl\' •::ere ly a ~Te ~ df i :-i a da:r 1Lrn t _i s ! egi ns and ends '!·!i tb 11 ) : ( ( ) To b e a _Tegro i n a d ay l i ke th i s . As a s er ... on on t . ~ e "'t:.rfac e , t 1::.e p oec. a p::: e a r s to tell Blacl~s 1 to 1a v e 11 pa t i enc e n a nd 11 f or 6 i vene s 1," a nd so on . But a c lo·s er readi ng - :-111:!. r e e a l a str o~g ad: ctiv ,., lea c.i ~;; i nt o a _:nost e ver y v i rt 1e . S o t e gr o p i n~s .. oo c l i ke t h i s: "stra ng e l oyalty " and i n t he code of 11 utter d a rkness " i a l l of t :1 e preac~er , i t "s t r a nge" or "utter. n . (l<,,lwrfy, s i milar verba l , • & - "rare pa t i e !;c e , 11 -1h icb s g 6 e s t t :~at , just mi gh t oe too nrare " or :Curi ng t'he d eliver y of a s e r on , or a. Bla c ks a re accn s ton ed t o s e a r c!: i ".JG for meani ngJ - sh i fts a nd l evels a sed on tona l va r i et~,. a n_d ot:::. er M vocal modulati ons . wo s ee y e t one r:1 ore exampl e of a possi"Jle , See d.ttD~-► " enc od i ng " of me s sage s "1111 ~lial!Y Ldfk II ) i n w~at "se ems" t o ½e , at bes t , h arml e s s d e liv eries arrl, at wor st , co nc iliatory . "Pa u l Laurence Du nbar II a ntici pa t es t e Har ler.1 Re naissance �a nd t . o ~ e t 1e -1 _ egr o " in citadels of 'H es ter n c ul tureJ-u~i ng "An• ollo 's Fire II a nd M ' {'~ visit'l\11Helicon" ✓ a v iri..g t . e "Dark melodist II vent re to t h e h o1-:1 e of the .,uses . h owever , is Corroth ers' Eve n m.ore 'blata nt , rilliant sonnet "The Negro S i nger ," in which he carries out a major theme of the Harlem Renais sance ~ reclarr...a.tion of _)tl ack cultural values and the . flack past. The "Singer," tired and frustrated from trying to write (and act) whit e , fina lly de cides: ~ I v B t I shall dig me deeper to t he gold; and Fetch water dr i ppi ng, over desert miles, so that at least some of h is original virtue a nd ancestr~l strengt_ can be ex ploited in the Western world. Such a course is the only way for the ,J!'l ack poet, Corrothers says, the only way for "men" to f ••• kn ow, and remember long, I _. or my dark fa ce dishonor a n~r song. The sar.ie t eme (slightly altered) is picked u h ~ in "T e Road to V t he Bo-v~" -;.Jhape- t h e singer a ;;ain knows tLa'e I hold my head as proudly h i gh □ As any ma n . . µA. Tens i on develops between the / lack and white men" "In the Ymtter of Two Iie ~ " and "An Indignation Dinner" feat ures a dialect presentation of t he popular plantation/minstrelsy theme about Blacks stealing chic keW a nd turkeys. A social lesson . occurs in the poem, however, for "old Pappy S immons ris" and explained �to those facing a .foodf less Christmas that nothing but "wi r..tr:r wind" (hot air) is "a-sighing th'oughif de street . " A f\ He tells the persons at the meeting that he has seen plenty food on a if "certain gernmun's fah m" and tbat I\/\ r "All we need is a committee fob to tote 0 the goodies here . 11 Earlier in tbe poem, Blacks protest t he ir treatme nt at the hands of whites; and in a -part series called "Sweeten JTate.hs , " one annoyed Black complains: ~ "Evahthaing is 'dultera ted f - CJ By de white folks, nowadays Even chime bones, when you buys 'em U f1).1n •t wo•f de c ash you pays . In one poem, Blacks complain of small wages; in another1 t~ey protest high prices t ramiliar stories i n the Afro-American communities. V They dispel ignorant statements (like Wagner ' s) t h at Corrothers is "lacking in personality " and that his works do not belong in "the literary domain . " And they cancel, in ✓ part , Brown ' s allegation that Corrothers follows a "typical V dialect pattern." F or selections of Corrot'hers' works see Johnson, Hughes and Bontemps, and Robinson . For critical appraisals see Brown, Johnson and Brawley . James 1-feldon Johnson (1871~ 1938 ), i mportant in h i s own fo.,. right as a poet and"his immense "service to other Negro poets, " is looked at in passing here. He will be seen a gain in Chapter V in c onne c tion with the Harlem Renaissance I where he is normally placed even though he ·: as in his fifties when the leading lights �4a.t' €Nl of ,._'ii:. · M I 11 ne1 M Cull0n, 1• Hughes , ~-IcKa:r, Toomer a cd others * first started to publisr.. their '\·r orks. Jo. nson, considered here as a writer of dialect poetry, was born in Jacksonville, Flor ida, to middle-class / lack parentst and attended Stanton Central Grammar School (all_)3lack)J where h is mother taught . He entered a preparator~r progra m at Atlanta University, later graduatin3 and returning to assume principalship of Stanto~ uring an eight ~year per io~ithe upgradec'l the scho ol t o sec ondary status . Considered a "::lenaissance I roa:1 (in the European sense\, '$::il I • lo Johnson founded a local newspaper ~ ~ (The Dail American., 1894), studied for the Florida bar ••'••-_, ~ dmi tted in '.!..897) , wrote dialect poems (modeled after Dun arts,, and finally n ade h is Hay to Broadua:r in New Yorls where 'he .~J colla• ora~ed s::i t :1 his 'brother, cor.1p oser J . Bosa:-il a nd Bob 0 Cole .tn 11 the ~ ight operas . Sterling Brown said Johnson recognized tri teness II of his earl:r dialect poems (man;,r pu'blis . ed i n ~ ifty Ye ars and Other Poems , 1 ✓ 17) ., but se-reral of themip •t to CT sic b~ ~i s ½rother and Cole MI became .opular favorites . :rou Hent Awa:r" • r ot~:.e::."s cc~:: pos cd Ar: 11 J.Or pu'l:)li catio;i. :!:.iift 3ver:r Voice and S i n0 " (lyrics y Ja .•es' for the :?ebr"!.ary 12., 1900, anniversary of Lincoln's irth. ~is pocr.i is seneral::r re 6 arded as the lack A•~1eri ca~ .,Jmthen" of ( ,liacnd or "' PPG t~1is 1 7-'a t io nal ¥rrd 1 y ,rn wfp.i An.o;p;L ga;a 1. E!le nob Be .• 6 ;-. Jonson ' s dialect poems ., listed i n his book under "Ji ncles and Croor..s., 11 leave nuc~ to 'he desired i n t he ·area of originality . t71 �P rh a ps 'h is oi:-m exp cr i r.:ents in t at form are i:-ibat led hi1-:1 to sta::e so er.:,11atica:l:_r that d ialect h as but "two stops" ... \ "hu ,1or and pa thos . 11 Johns on 1vas no t totally right, as we sba ll see later (B1,,oun ta .cos up this issue i n The ~Tegro i n Poetry and Drama). However, {erlin <-~•rhotl '.'lagner sa:rs sbows a ~ 11 def iciency in crit ical sense!!) called Jonson's ·,;-ror ~ "sor,:e of t h e best d ialect writi nf; in the 1-1hole r a nge of .Te gro lit erature; cell ence is .ere." h andl i ng dialect~} Technically, Johnson was qu ite capable i n z:::::::· · rings not , ing new to ?? tt "~:y h.e reach es pri nt . II ong." But h is dialect orer_ W ~§ed,o: ti.1 e ti me 0 Lady's Lips Ara Like de Honey n re calls Dunb ar's "A ~Tegr o Love S ong , and otber such p i e c es . ),)~ , ~~ m<1~0.rei·w~Lke":s _ac k noetry (u nlike Sterli ng Brown '~ a nd his t emes h• ave b ee n p re ttv mu ~ . cb. . of Dun ar's Every qt a l i ty of exi-, 11 . Corrothers' "Negro Serenade, 11 's- Johnson~poem carries none of t h e po ~er And hi s sui)title ("Ne gro Love S ong ") sh ows that he is -rorki ng i n t e stoc k trade for the period . The lover finall~ gets to the poi nt where be Felt her kinder s queeze mah b a n ', 1!Tuff to !";1a !,:e ,, e understan '. ,ray II is one of th e real ouc~i ng stat ements in "Jingles a nd Croons II a nd shows Johnson bridgin 0 _ lues a n~ pi ritual styles. the I t ½as a n aut_.entic (though quietly turbulent) ring in its sinp licity,;}moving a nd li nger i ng i n its spell ur ought b-y seeing the loss of a lover as a case for disl order i n t he cosr:1os . Glimpses of h umor come t _rough in a few of the p oem~ but 6 enerally the dialect is used for ridiculef alb eit �um-I i ttingly* and deals with the 11 easy 11 life of the plantation, -- the steali ng of turkeys and r) ••• eatin' uatermelon , an' ~ in de shade. will meet Johnson again, as critic, ~ a different "dialect . 11 J-tJ "PouLlotl,t-en~~ ~ur\b~ ,1 )!~~er of ur12~0") N' '' 2.'he towering figure of ',) lack American literature u ntil the /e naissance of the 1920Js, S lived a complex, tragic , ■J§tlbLCG I !JutL&i iguous and s h ort life. ru;i (l@T! 1!936!>' Born i n Dayton., Ohio., to former slaves., Dun ar corapleted h is forr.ial training at that city's only high school-Lgraduating with g ood He wa~~ ,.J ~ wlteh he w~yeCft-' 0UJ1 1.;!_ij marks .and as the only Black ailli~ sickly at an early a ge but ecame the man of t he ·ho se1,.after ---- his father's death ,. iUhon he s:as !.! school in his class. .§ OU£ a s 7..3s-- Completin 6 hi g'!:1 - but being financially unable to pursue bis interests in law and journalism., Dunbar began work as an elevator boy , maintaining his voraci ous readi ng habits. TenlTtJson, helley (whom h e t ooc as a He was fo nd of odel for h is poems i n standard :St glis!--.i ), James _,u ssell Lowell (.._,'wh ose work , alo ng with Riley, ::u ge ne F ield a nd ::lla Ubeeler 1 ilcox., h e found i n 1 The Century)., and others. I!uch of Dunbar's poetry b ears striking (1.. resembl"nce to the works of poets he admired, especially Sh elley, St:Ji! ;I~ r~ and RileY., whose "devices II Dunbar "industriously" set -..a Svb .. ,IJ'ntw ... (O,,.·,n""w ..~ M(Ol"•u~c p.aTwh•~., .. ~ ""·,ta, \\$"'111iiU q..n ou to d smantie and maste~ oF~it,0.1.Ko mm-Ctn0l"a.tTI,,c fb.'"p bt,.,.in~ ht1 R ptlTu'"'• fn IC'f lf". His volumes of verse include Oak and Ivy (1893), privately Tennyso printed; Hajors and :i:·Iinors ( 1895)., also privately printed, wi tb · �the aid of patrons; Lyrics of Lowly Life (1896, with a preface by ~ Ho·wells), ·which , representing a major break~ through for a / iack author , was published by Dof Company. :-:ead a nd This third volume included the best poerr:.s from tbe t wo previous v olumes and some tha t had not been published before . Dunbar, ~__...,,, a lmost instantly famous , c ontinued to urite a.nd publisb both ver s e and f iction. Hi s l a ter books of poems i ncluded Lyrics of the He artbside (1 899), Lyrics of Love and Laughter (1903) and Lyric s of Sunshine and Shado·w (1905 ), t he year 1:,efore in 1913. is deat -• Complete Poems was publ i .s ed I nterspersed among t he se books of poetry ·were volumes of shor~ stories a nd .four novels ~ "'Ia I P1:i1 'I'r.e Uncall ed (). ( l ,~9 8 ), '2:t.e Lo'Ve of Landry (1900 ), The FAnatics (1901) and The Sport of t~e Gods (l ,02 ) . Eis short stories i ncluded \I V I ~s (1393 ), fron Di ~:::..=-,::;..:----,,...-D_a.-::---". ( :'.. 90 3) a ----------, I/ (1900), -.r-- - -~~===~~::__:==~~~~-• 1 ( n Old :i. 904) • -~· ,roli.fi c a~:-.: ost r i ght up unti:. -tl1e t i ~1e of h is death* 11'!.1ic":1 a ~ .e k::leH r or' ...... i s • ,,.,,... ...1. 5 '!- as a.p;;-roac:--.: i ng . a•t'JQ' ·"ro•--;. .. -. - 1-"' .J. °T' - To~-• • '-" ~" Ee h ad ::::a.rri ed 1 0.r ..) · - a--1,,J,,-, , ~..1. "'l .. - 1() ..... , Q . ,...... '2.ic e ~ut'!_"' ~ , 1 a'"IQ~ 'h'is "'a"'t J...,;;) .... ·- - i:;.arr iage . or "c lassic") :'.::n;;lis'h . :T atter.19:; -:~ere to pres ent sor'le of his po etic co nc~rns, ac __ ieve~ Y" f'> "'t t-J ~ u. ·~"'d ~~'her 1.J. v ... _ ~ .. .... es A, .il.\,;, a. .. • O A"t,,..,,,_a-~ ~\.,..,. 1,._ . .l f S .,.,:.. 'if 1~s "1""' _ e S.'-'l .. l l "Tor ,/ •1,,.\.-"" too f"r Q - reac1 ,'i_ n,. _.b-• �czar pnblis 1ed a favo1 a.hlo :'n1'2.-pa.:;c re·rloH a::' Howells 1 Howells t ini'lue :1c e is indicated 1--:r 'l'.ra!: r,r:. . ck Brooks: lit erature u::o ~a s be0D able to cr e ate re~utations b:.,. a si ::~lc revieH 11 (Broo ks , The Cop.f'ide~1( ';:ea.;~.,. 19.;2). and Kinnamon not"', Ro-:·!el::::i ,. revicn-r 'Ha.8 But, as Ba:r.~sC:o.lo .:,ore of a social cor:ra.e-:::i tary ( l ibero.l, t:,at is) than li tcrar7 cri +icis r.: . singled out the dialect poems for special praise. said ., 11 uas the only nan oi' pure .l;'... !-Im-rolls :Dun½ar, frican 'blood a!1d of American civilizatio~ to f'cel negro life aest:1eticall:r a nd express it lyri cally. " later realizi:10 Eo-:· e lls' praise ~ras a c ' rse i n disguise, strus.;led for t l1e rest of 1.1is life to rer:10 re t1~e dialect stigr.1a. He cor:rp lained to James 1:-Teldo::-i J ol~nso :1 t':!at t . e public only wanted to read l: :ts dialect pieces. the pressure to be an intelligent nsamb o., nbe And feeli nc elsewhere coLi plained of having to play the part of a "blac k wbi te rr.a.n." Dunbar's resentme nt of t 'he "label" of die.lee-: poet when ·1: i e fel t he had reore profound and complex things to say is capsuled in �t is often-quoted stanza. fro:n "The Poet".= He sang of love i-ihen earth was ~rou ng , And love , itself, was i n h is la:,rs. Y But a'!:1, the ~10rld, it turned to praise A jin6 le in a roken tongue. Earli er i n the poer,:, Dun ar refers to a "deeper note," which h e pref erred to sing. Haunted Oak, tr ~ a/.Y But while /\poems -H:-ke IT Sympathy, 1111 T'!:1e "The Debt ," a nd ''Ere Sleep Comes Down to Soothe the '!:Teary Eyes:r ' do h av e deep a nd complicated n:ea ni ngs, one searc es in vain .for Dunbar the !i1an i n thelil. I n the dialec t pi e ces, Dun ar was ab le to capture the r h:rth ·1s, phonetics and idi oms of lack spee ch . But it is generally a greed t Jat, es pecia_ ly since be 1sed ridicule-directed ,;-rb ite models, h e s·aw the 1_,.Elac :<: rr.an as a su"l-iject for either humor or pity . The Sout" ' s reve nge for t '!'.le Civil Har h ad c or.1e i n part through its ph ilos o. hers a nd vri ter; wh o reflec ted nostalgically a.b out t . e "peac e and t ranqu i 4 t:r " of plantation lif e . This was p olitical chicanery at its Horst, but several .,.11-ack poets, :i)un'!Jar included, followed the ·Th i te originators of t he n i::ii,. strel and pla ntation sch ool of poets . (Whites did not ori s i f- nate m.instrelsy-4"½ut th ey did corrupt it; see Loften Hitch ell's Blac k Drama.) As a result , ~unbar 's treatment of Blacks i n ,.J ,, o °'~.-."4L h is d ialect poems i i stock•• -uJ'f\for t he era: . . . . s , i nging, grinning, ob sequious, head-scratching, master-loving, water-l, ~- meJJjn-eating, da ncing , banj o-pic ki ngl darkies . Certainly Dunbar comes t'!:lrough realis ti cally as i n "A Negr o Love Song " �(a ·written account of a song sung "Little Brown Baby, 11 theme) , "The Party, 11 ' y Black( :1 e b ad worked witb ), fuen / e Co' n Pone's Hot+ " ( t h e good-eating 11 "How Lucy Backslid, He also achieves subtlety and irony 11 The Rivalsn and others . :L~ t : "When Malindy sings" is by all accounts his important linguistic-cultural c ontribution. Yet Dunbar seemed to reserve the "serious" su jec ts for standard EnglishM for whic~ack critics will not forgive . imi and even in this seriousness be speaks of people laflt li@-behind lonely . 11 masks 11 or Wllg "caged " or "dreaming" or •~r•ce ~ In these standard piec es , Dunbar treats ~m. 10•111;.: unrequited love and goes on lofty flights as a kni ght or wan~ derer or theologian; or he is resigned. as i n "J.lesignation/ ~ 7 \iib,e;pe he invites God to "crush me for Thy use II if ~eed e. fav\ Yet accusations that Dunbar was c ompletely torn fro m t!1e real world of J3lackness are not true . In "The Haunted Oak, 11 for ex ample , he i ndicts the judge, the minister a rrl t h e doctor ~ for the lynching of a /lack man . He also brooded over h is dark skin, feeli :1g that, dur ng a t1.me of preference for lig...rit f skin and t e :1ab:!. t of "passing, 11 • is color beld bi .1 back. But some of 1is poetr:r anticipates Garvey rs c all for purity . 11 et?'.:l nic He pra ises the brown skin of :-.T.a.ndy Lou in "Drea:-;1in' Tow~" and he loves "Del:r" for being ,f • • • brown ez rown can be 1 ••• : Cv 11 \ ' She ain't no mullater; She pure cullud, -/;.,_d on ' t you see\·•. �k=,--Dat's de why I love hub so , ~2~ ~D' ain't no mix a out huh . A similar tl1eme pervades "Song 11 ( "African maid ")J '"Dinah Kneading Dough" ( ''Brown arms buried elbow-deep") and "A Plantation Port trai..J' ("Browner den de Frush ' s Hing" ). In bis dialect poems , Dunbar reveals a love for spirit and revelry and good times . But nowhere is there an indic ation of the enormous suffering a nd violence in.lierited . y oosti>·war Afr o-Americans . - -er~ksq~ '½ The lynchings , t e patty-rollers s1-rooping down on defenseless ex-slaves, t h e night f rides or t ~ e Ku IUux Klan and Hbite Citizens ~ the bars o1's, and deb ilitating economic situation or Blacks in ge nera-~ none or these things find their wa~r into Dun ar 's poetry. All t~i~, or course, is ironic against Dunbar's great adtliration for sue ~n as Frederick Douglass, Alexander Crumr:1ell, Book er T. ;-!as:1in;tonA h e h -i.'TI.ortalized :1 i: II lack Sampson of Brand~dne n ( all of whom o-etr:'". I nstead, in b is "deeper note" Dun ar ( notwi t __ standi ng t'he exari1ples of Hhi trield, 1:·Jbi t..:an, Dt~ ois, a nd others) spoke of ~ ear tbreak, probed ::1is own pessimis~ and :.." clig io Js doubt and s e er.ied li teral_:r to !):!. ne a1·ray. l e ct ~oer.:, :: oHcvor, he aa :ris ed Blacks to (In one die.t, 11 1":e ep Plt~ggin r A_onG ")0 ::uch of tl'}is eni gr.ia of Dunbar seems to be explained in his poem "A C~:~oic e 11 ( General':.y overlooked hy critics> w. o n onotonousl:r quote fror.1 11 '.:'he Poet 11 ~ in which he complains of hein r;- tired of proble~s and stresses: CJ But :tn a oer... let me sup, not simples brewed to cure or ease �!": :·:a:1i t:r ' s co nf e s sed d ise a se, But t ½e spirit- i ne of a si ngi 1: ,.,_i. ne , O Or a deu- d r op . n a _ o ne:;r c p ! On more t ~ an one occasion, Du nb ar inti~ated to ass oci ate ~ tBat 1-: e was all ½ut fed up with racial a ::;i tatio n-J a.ppare:-it~-:'" f e e li t";: t _at f lack-w ite relatior.s were h eyo d r e pair. T'~~.s co ld •~e ~ at least one reason wl :· h e nnasbed 1:: is b ands II of i nvo _ ~e~nc:-:t. T~ere are poe ts~ fe e l t 1 e sa:::~e - i in ti--e middle of the @ . ce nt a:·. r~~-4: "t-{ - c , '!IT ·o ,, . . f ~ ~e,e.ive.t! ~lt~Pj,.J/ · t#\ . ,e v ort .. eless Dun,::-, ar s r ~qnes vA"r.MB arm;;u i&a J. a c onte~~1porar:" , Cotter, "'11;::;: w:1 0 in ~1is trA nswer t o D :1,ar' s ES 'A Ch oice t ' " said : i:111at poets s .. ould (j >iy s11ift de :::"e e s Ane wed ste r ~ facts to so~er so n3 . Du~: har ei t~er d id not .. eed/hear or i:...ras not aware of t '1is "ans1 er 11 ; . t if ~ e h ad ta ~e n Cotter ' s adv ice per~a s t, e worl d ~ 10A½o re uoulu k n ow a d ~ffere!1t poet, all, D ::.i½ar was a s!d.1'2.f u l reader of :: is poetr:r-/4 often . __)ri :1;i :1::; a.udie c1ces to t .-::eir feet for sta cdi nc ovatic ~s nn~ ,_oas for en core s. Pis d exter o s ncss i ~ t l::.e use of l nn;::;ua; e a~d st:rl e ~-1as ad:;:i red , _,:.,. s e':eral ;:;e:10 t, rations of }(lack colle :::;e poets and la:~ wrtters w11 o I~1 al .::os t e·:or:· ;-,1.i tated •~1:-1 . ::u~:: stantial . flac k co;n:11un i t:r t h ere is some li e facility na:ned after DU ~'}':)u ~e wrote i ::1 al:1ost e v er:-r prev ailing st-y _e~ tbe ,:reat e st /\exploiter of :Sn z lis :~ po e tic tech n iqu e s ~)etHeen '.'ihitma n a nd Cu lle n . Sonnet, '.· :adri ,::;al, c ouplet, ':.)allad, ..J'P iritual, pre- b lues, so n[;s (including use __ .__ - - ~ u""t �of r:msi c a_ not ati o::i i n some i nstances) see r1s to La ve t r i e d . _Th~m l • ~ Du n ar ' s p oe r.1s ca n >e fo t nd i n Complete Poe ms, t1::e text us e d for t h e d iscussion 1ere . F or critical-½iograp½ical writi ng on Dun ar see Wa gner ' s Black Poets of t h e United States (t~ e ~ ost am i tious study to dat e ) , Br: :11 of Hi ::; People , uor k s by Brm·m ~r( s Paul Laure nce Dun ar : Poet neddins , Victor La:wson ' s Du n1. ar - Criticall~ ExaQi ned, '!i r g i n ia Cu nning:1 a m' s Paul Laure nce Dunb a r and His Son;;, a nd Jea n Gould ' s Tba t Dun ar Boy: America ' s Far.10us I:er;ro Poet. Oti~ers 'W " Th e S tor:r of o .1 a ve writte n on D rn' ar i nc lt:.de Housto;.1 Ba:cer, Dar1·1:~_::1 Turner , Be n jamin IIa:rs, James nsfn;~fl([i/Mf:~ F ord He:don Jo __ a nd Addiso:1 Ga:rle, Jr~, 'r). i:~ o re c ent ly pu:J lis~ed a Dm o ar 1, iograpb:r(See b, k>L ,0~'1tlf o,oothe..r" poe., J, ni u s :-: ord e cai A~l e::i (_1 ~75 ' ?), "-a,, out wb o;:-1 we kn ow ver:r littl e , i s a n h 1porta.nt fi Gure in t '!J is transt tio :ial p1~ase of pl a ntation t raditio n i n p oetr:- a nd t h e wiltin.:; of Was , in 3:tQn ' s inf l u e nc e on/ ctxsss lack t:~i nkcrs a ;1d acti v ist . .. - 10m: trr re1 ta sTi sts .• . -...;;.-;c,t-:;;;:-~ ...... ~-· . " - ~ ,., -=-- ' - ·-·· Alle n ·w as ½orn i n Hont g or.1er:.,. , Ala1:a ma, a nd :,1ov ed wi t b ~~ is f'ar.1il:r to Tope a, KansS: w'::1 en 1-; e was se~r e n years old . Except for a t 11ree - ;rear period4, d.uri nc; w~ icl~ 1 m wrote for a nd t rav eled wit:-: a theatrical group , "h e spe nt most · of ·~ns 1·r _..---,, a· :z• ,..15 a.:asa 1 e as a. ·,)o ·n __ erma ,.cer.-:ttusI. if @I on w wa. ~ ~ i...a. - Eis o nl y volume is R,_y mes, Tales and Rl:rymeg Ta les (Tope ka, 1 90 6). �ii dialect, Uostl:r ;::r~:r~;ies co ntai ns ".:::;reat feli c :tt:~ of c:: arac{, terizati on, surpris inc t rns of -wit" a 1:d nqt ai ;2t p i losoph:ri.._ " ~ Tbe book appeared tl1e :rear of 'Jun:., a.r' s deat:,, and Kerli n plac es ct /-so aei·ma. , t of an ex(:lffra . . g t i· on . Alle n on~ par with 1Jun.b ar M '!"\ "J'__.T owe ver, Alle n is -0e ep and pr ofou nd i n . ot __ .. is standard-=-En.:l is , pteces --:..--- (he includes two in the· ook) and dialect. "Cou nt n;_; Out " is a rather li ·__t recolle ctio n of c'::1:.ldl: ood c a mes s .c:, as f ut , 11 '.)<ide-and -s eek, 11 T~'}e poem, and 1fo ~t i t s re~ c urrinc; ' 0 !I ··· 1 Allen also '~nows t 'he co nse q e,1ces 01,, " ut; - 0 tt;- 1 ,--u ca·,'--• '-' ,...'~-'-V 11 01 f-..., at -~ ni.;bt er in a:.i 0:1 tcrritor:,r a ~10n::; ·t1.cious, •,ate-~;:ot::::;erL:: n. ::.c. (I Deatl1 f ':1:tll sui.1s et of c t er ::-!. t:· ·.:4-'. �p To win one stride from sheer defeat; I To die t but s ain an inch. His pen remained silent after his first book. A if ~hr t11 And one wonders . •~,. like so many Jlack artists, renounced his artistic inclination (in view of the times) and simply gave up. His dialect poem~ carry , on t he surface, the' spirit of the "dialect traditio n." But Allen is a biting satirist of middle-class Blacks (Wagner attributes this to an "inferiority complex ")J an~okes fu n at wh ites. Temptation overf takes t he preacher who tries to "resist" in "The Devil and Sis Vine~ " but• "Sh i ne On, Mr. Surn~ " and "The si k o:f the Fiddle" show h is c;:;;se o~ servation 04 and take-it-or-leave-it attitude towar d ) whites. His satire of the / lack middlet class is reminiscent of the i m patience suggested in statements by Whitman and anticipates the works, especially, of Frank Marshall Davis and Melvin Tolson. Allen is also i mportant as a stylistic innovator. In "A Victim of Microbes," he again casts aspersions on whites and spoofs stereotypes of Blacks as field workers and laborers. But be couches his narrative in an exciting new literary form which allows for an alternation between ...._ -&:.loosely rhymed eight-lin4 stanzas and four-linef stanzas of blank verse in ~ - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - --=...,' . , �~ which repetition of the sort found in the blues ofj pirituals occurs: I done hyeahed de doctor say it-1 de .O doctor hisse'f said it ••• • Brown was right when he said Allen's work was "unpretentious" and contained "pleasant humor." poetry see Kerlints work; J.iii, For selections of Allen's for criticism,~own and Wagner. Primarily important as a writer of prose, journalist and .3 ~ 'l- I inspiration to other writers, Alice 1Nelson Dunba (1B75wl935) was born and ~eceived her public education in New Orleans• IJ-8.JL Aae.,.,-; Ca.m -42 1111iia ·ske. ~ marri-,, Paul Laurence Dunbarl\in 189§'\ -i.:;?? !51 pv~11ed · further study at Cornell and Columbia)1niversities and t he University of Penn~ylvania. S~ authored volumes of prose ; iolets and Other Tales ~ U.89 ~ The Goodness or St. Tocque nd edited Masterpieces or Negro Eloquence l (1913 and The Dunbar Speaker j (192g, in which appears some or her poetry. HEYL £& a: &~noted If i ~ l t 1 ·a ·1 • a ::S journalist and lecture~'Jff or a whf!e \she serve~ as managing edjtor of The Advocate and~ contributed to numerous magazines. ·?12 1 = _J1·,,..,. l <l''1 JGS 2f6U?lco~iQ; has little racial fla I5 ~ her tes /\ World War oftenf antholog'ize her technical abilities in that form. 'I Her poetry \ ~f but she does proi epresents 1sonnet"~ Sit and Sew" she laments that, as a woman, she can do little else to hasten the end to war. "Tl:_e Li& ts ~ Carney's Point" contains "fine symmetry, hi ghly poetic diction and great allusive meaningi " (k-frlin), An easy-tlow ~ n poem in four-linef stanzas or iambic tetrameter/ )i r:s • ~ ,_;,; uLig t" al lows the poet ( as with many romantic writers) - - -- - - - - - - - - - �- - - -- to stream associations from a central theme -' the lights. But I wef\'1" fN()A something :ilJN-ost when the lights 11'/\'gray in the ash of da~" J And the sun laughed high in the infinite sky, ,1 1 And the lights were forgot in the sweet, sane .0 calm. Studies of MI's. Dunbar-Ne ls on• s poetry e.r~ collected poems have yet to be published. ~:i,\:(;f:~ :,!r "The Sonnet" is printed in several anthologie~ and three of her poems appear in Kerlin's book. I. a 2 Kerlin also advances brief criticism • ....., <}fll C ill a n Although Sterling Brown says that Joshua Henry jones (1876~ ?) "gives little besides banal jingling)' we mention him briefly as part of our effort to survey2£!t:St f the poetic r1-t1~e. jifitput /, of t he period. \.Por more listings of lesser-known poets see the end of thf chapter) Jones was born in Orang;jburg, v South Carolina, and, after completing high school, attended Ohio State University, Yale and Brown. He served on the editorial staffs of several newspapers, was secretary to the mayor of Boston for four years, and published two books of poems (The Heart of the World and Oth er Poems, Boston, 1919, and Poems of the Four Seas, Boston, 1921) and a novel (By Sanction of Law, Boston, 1924). Jones ~ \poetry treats nature, nostalgia, race struggle ( as in t'Brothers 11 ) and sentimental love ( "A Southern Love Song "), themes "Love Song. " nality. - - V-1"1~-ti Kerlin has compared to Johnson's Though grim, "'110 Skull4 " does show.;;;. origi �Noted more for walking all the way from his home in the South to Harvard University, where he camped overni gh t and was arrested on a charge of vagrancy, Edward Smyth Jones (18?~ ?) published The Sylvan Cabin in 1911. Called "pompously literary" by Browll.>who adds that his verses are less interesting t han his "biography," Jones wrote "Harvard Square" wbile be was in jail. European model • -. ::::.;- He recites the names of Dante, - - - -- Byron, Keats, Shelley, Burns, bombast of stanzas. +he Ll-e and•=••••••lilli-.. - "A jong of Thanks, sensitivity and deeper feeling. 11 in a however, shows more While it leaves a lot to oe desired, one can certainly feel the power growing throu gh t he fheph~~e. wh1,"p~e.s repetition (in se,,eral dozen lines) of,-._"For the,; ",Asun, flowers, or nature. W , -ippling streams, and other tac ~ tyA.lex Rogers (1876 11930) is one of the several ~ ~ o r:=:=--=:::--- so "minorn writers of dialect during t h is period. ~ ets published pamphlets t hemselves, secured places . for their work in newspapers and magazines, and traveled on " l'\'I lt'l\ pt'r' \--Cr' a regular reading circuit "-011 111i41i-S their poems and ditties J often to the accompani ment of bands or single musical instr me nts. This practice ~ continu ~ p unti~this very da~ when many <II A i>e? poets, if not heard live, lo~e their signif ~ 'l'M~•)"c~a ~ and ~ i c flavor. Such was the case with Roger ') wh 'da-,,,W.tlJ... ''wrote lyrics for most of the songs in the musical comedies in which Williams and Walker appeared." Rogers was born in �Nashville, Tennessee, educated in the schools of t hat city, and finally worked his way ,;1orth1 where he wrote some of the most . popular songs of his day; he made a number of performers famous, !Miie ema,l V1 ..... His titles give including white entertainers looking for "Negro stuff. 6'i_ ii-- satire, humor and some slat1stick. some clue to his intentions: ''Why Adam Sinned, 11 (a Flip Wilson-type conversation between Simmons"), "The Jonah Man, Drop." 11 11 11 II The Rain Song" Bro. Wilson" and "Bro. and "Bon Bon Buddy, the Chocolate Rogers' significance, however, lies in his work in the theater and bis ground-breaking efforts to change t he popular (ministrel-inspired) image of Blacks. Dunbar had co authored lyrics ~Clorindy?1 0rigin of the Cake Walk (1898 ) and In Dahomey ( 1 9 0 3 ) ~ part of' a groundswell that ~"'f::r'~ 'to . . .ng to>Lof'ten Mitchell (Black Drama): In the latter part of t he nineteenth century a group of Negro theatrical pioneers sat down and plotted the deliberate destruction of t he minstrel pattern. ( These men were Sam T. Jack, Bert ~illianw, George Walker, Jesse Shipp, Alex Rogers, s.~r. Dudley, Bob Cole, J. Rosamond Johns on and John W. Isham. And in destroying the minstrel pattern, t hese men were to help pave t h~ way for the million-dollar musical pattern which .today dominates the American theatre. Mitchell's observation sheds great ligh t on the importance of many/ lack "poets n who, however dismally they may fare on paper, ;r;) �are of major i mportance to t he aggre gate ritual and musical sense/life of on goingr,-ack society . pattern, with radical variations Today we see a similar of cours ~11growing from the work of James Weldon Johnson and others ~ in Gil Scott-Heron, ; (be Last Poets, t he poets wh o are writing for t he ritual t heater, ~ &Y and in the efforts of" dramatists ~ Melvin Van Peebles (Ain't Supposed to Die ,f Natura~Paul Carter Harris o n (T!ce Great EcDaddy ) , Imamu Amiri Baraka (Slave Sh ip), t he work of Barbara Teer, Clay Goss (Andrew and Home-Cookine ), Eugene ilr _,,, Redmond (The Face of the Deep, 9 Poets with t he Blues ~ d The Ni ght John Henry Was Born ~ and t he experimental productions of Michael Gates {The Black Coffin, There's a Wiretap in or Quit Bugging Me and Will I Still Be Here Tomorr~ My . Sou2..._: ~ -: 5..G \ pattern, practically perfected by Langs to n Hughes, can al so be seen i n outstanding performing-cult u al centers conducted ~ by Katherine Dunham in East St. LouisA Val Gr ay Ward in Chi cago, and atilma Lewis' t Center for Afro-American Cultural and Pert forming Arts in Boston. Sterling Brown~· writers of dialect" .~ a Rogcns j ,-.ic1. __,, e, sib11a1 Hil:tffl other "minor includef Sterling Means (Th e Des erted v' Cabin and Other Poems), S. Tutt Whitney, Waverly Turner Carmichael, and just about anybody else who wrote dialect at the ti me. Means also wrote in conventional English forms. For evaluations of Rogers and other similar writers see Mitchell 's Black Drama, Johnson's American Ne gro Poetry and Black Manh attan{ ._ J and Brown. �Ohe oF """e. --;tream of' _}(lack "immigrant!," •••• haa nots boon• . 110 1 t; ad •• bids uor J J a9- George Reginald Mar gets on ( 1877 ! ? ) , N was born in St. Kitts (British West Indies) and came to the United States when be was 20 years l old. Margetson, a wh olly original poet, got a goo~ solid grounding in literature in bis childhood and produced f'our volumes of' poetry: _England in the West Indies (1906), Ethiopia 's ~li gh t (1907), Songs of Life (1910) and Tbe Fled3ling Bard and the Poetry Societ~ (1916). His a.cbievement can be seen in the last bool-y which consists of one 100- page poem. A satire, owing debt to Byron and other English influe nces, t he poem represents one of the most im.i portant technical undertakingtby a, llack poet si nce 1vnitman 's Rape of Florida. I~rcetson uses mostly seveh-linet stanzas ~ 00 of fi v e-fNt ., meter with the seventh line lengthening to an Alexandrine . . His rhyme scheme is ab ab . b cc and he exh ibits } a wacky, uproazkus use of both rhyme and humor . The basic stanzaic pattern is interspersed with shifting meters and schemes which appear as f'our-linef stanzas in an ab ab movement or an a a a~ context. The poem begins in a search f or t he Poetr Soc iety (reminiscent of several European poets) and Mar gets o OY\t!J ical and ~ s sa s an old theme: ~that of poetry being mecbai uccess dependinguJn school or dress as opposed n to -'--.:, talent•. ....._,, During this "quest fl Mar gets on "digresses fl to discuss and explore practically every major current theme in society: . . . social conditions, World War I, politics, religion, literature, the, /lack problem, and he even pokes fun at President �Woodrow Wilson : ( ? Come, Woody, quit your honeymooning! In t his important poem, Hargetson is scathing, sustained and brilliant . He views the many currents running t hrough t he community and satirically sums up all t he coni'usion: Some look to Booker Wash ington to lead them, Some yell for rotter, some for Kelly Miller, Some want ~ s with fat ideas to feed t hem, Some want Jack Johnson, t he big wh ite hope killer. Perhaps some want carranza, some want villa, I guess t hey want social equality , To marry and to mix in white society. Other, latert, satiri sts wh om Ma.rgetson's work calls to mi nd are Tolson (and h is i ncomparable Harlem Gallery ), Frank Marshall Davis, Dudley Randall, George S . Schuyler (Black No More), William Melvin Kell ey and Ishmael Reed. In bis other poetry }1argetson is strong and competent-l he reflects his i mmense /1, reading bac kground, "S pen~r to Byron"f but none of his earlier ,,,.., work matches up to Fledg• lit;ig Bard. For samples and criticism of Mar getson ' s writing s; e kobnson and Kerlin • ...___/ al so makes a br i ef critic al obs er vation. In many ways t he poetry of William Stanley Braithwaite or (1878ij l 962) has suffered t he fate of that tl!'kPh illi s Wheatley, Dunbar and others someh ow deemed i•not .Jlack enough " for inclusion in some Afro-American poetic - cultural circles. The Frenchman �Jean Wagner said that a study of Braithwaite does not belone among those of other J 1ack poets." A mulatto, Braithwaite was born in Boston to West Indian parents and was mainly self-educated. He is considered a major inf'luence on "tbe new poetry revival 11 in America and counted among his friends such white literary figures as Vachel Lindsay, Carl Sandburg, Edgar Lee Masters, Arrry Lowell and Edwin Arlington Robinson. His career as a poet began with the 1904 publication of Lyrics of Life and Love and his second volume (House of t he 1 Falling Leaves) was published in 1908. His Selected Poems was published in 1948 by Coward-ifuCann, Inc. Best known for his Anthologies of Magazine Verse, published fro m 1913 until 1929, Braithwaite was for many years a literary critic with the eJ§;i Transcript. His other anthologies i nclude The Book of Elizl betban Verse (1906h The Book of Georgian Vers~ (1908) and The Book of Restoration Verse (1909). F or :-: i n eff or t ~ Braithwaite received t he NAACP•s coveted Springarn medal in 1918 for high ach ievement by an Afro-American. The same yea he received honorary degrees from two/ lack universities and later became professor of creative literature at Atlanta University, a position he held until he retiredJ in 1945. 8raithwaite's poetry, Sterling Brown said: The result is the usual one: .....the lines are aceful; at their best, exquisite, and not their best, secondhand; but the substance is thin. Even t he fugitive poetry of some ,,, Of 1 ~ �of Braithwaite's masters had ereater human sympathies. Brown is implying, of course, that some of t he white "models" that Brai tbwai te used could l:>&~e-theu\·'w.,ott k. even if the / lack poet could not. th A. '9'2<.09t11,oklt. r'fd:iy Brown is essentially correct; we Shave tested the t hesis in classroom~ and t he best students I\ appear dum\..Vfounded upon confronting Braithwaite after leaving other J lack poets. Arrl Braitbwaite's problem is not the same sort of "problem" presented by a, say, Tolson /Y\wbose work is ------ difficult and complex but not unw • dy on repeated readings ~ ~ ( ~ Tolson's work is ~·essm~l,r!!"!.y / lack-based). Braithwaite seems to be reaching for a h i gher science in h is words; but he does not chart hi s path so we can follow. Fj\eitdt writing resembled~"poetry of the twilight you have his meaning, it slips away. ~ Brown said bis "i just as you t h ink This is especially true o " poems ~ 11 1 "Ironic: _,LL.D}' (about the waste:f1-and ! (cf. 'Del Cascar, 11 Turn Me to My Yellow Leaves" ( about a death t wish ?), Eliot) and history?), "Scintilla, 11 and •sic Vi ta. " 7 is one of Braithwaite's most attainable poems, is nebulous. T.\s. "Rhapsody" but the messa e 0 He expresses thanks to t he §Upreme geing for :: :; "the gift of song " and is replenished in the knowledge that "world-end things" that dangle on the ned ge of tomorrow" can be obliterated by dreams. In b is critical introduction to Braithwaite, Johnson (American Negro Poetry) apologizes for the poet's lack of sensitivity to , tbt mistreat ment o:t: Blacks and explains bis �A ti~ W"'v. c.i ~L (..c) "C~1'il failure to dip into the / lack fol k- b ~ This has not been a matter of intention on his part; it is simply that race has not i mpinged upon h im as it has upon other Negro poets. (I> fact, In his work is so detached from race t hat for many years he had been a figure in t he American literary world bef or e it was known generally that he is a man of color. Certainly J ohns on meant no harm in using t he word "colo1:," but it tempts one to punning. Braithwaite, as Brown a nd others have noted, rejected having h is work indiscriminately cal led "Negron poetry. This issue continues to raise its head with , first, Cullen and, later, Hayden (including many ot he~ lesser- known poets in between). And t here are oth er poets of t he @ ® century who have written (or write) Braithwaite's type of poetry . Some, of course, are experime nting and search ine for new forms. See for example some of t he work of Cullen, Hayden, Randall (More to Remember) Russell Atkins, Bob Kaufman, Tolson, Gwendolyn -------- / Brooks, Michael S. Harper (especially History as Apple Tree), and others. The debate over h ow much of (or when) a poet's work is or should be "racial" is a continuing one and is not li kely IV\ given the diversity of t he poets ~ to be settled in t h e very ne ar future.~lnti.t--est-n~Ly, , with the exception of Claude McKay, no other poet has as many (or more) poems as Braithwaite in Johnson's 1922 (1931) anthology. Whether Johnson did this out of debt or respect is not known. Braithwaite, we know, bad praised Joh nson �(Fif'ty Yee.rs) :for bringing 11 the first intellectual substance to the content" of Ai'ro-American poetry. But J. Saunders Redding called Braithwaite "the most outstanding example of perverted energy" that was produced in a Jfl-ack poetry. -year period of At Atlanta University, Braithwaite rubbed shoulders with Df ois, Mercer Cook, Rayford Logan and others, which apparently helped him doff some of his Bostonian snobbish ness. His poetry in general reflects the influence of Keats am the pre romantic British poets. He loves to speak of dreams, trances, impendi ng doom, silence and the prospect of touching other worlds. For selections of his wor iy see most anthologies of Afro-American literature. Brown, Redding and Brawley. He is critically assessed by Other evaluations are primarily concerned with Braithwaite 1 s work as anth ologist and critic. Barksdale and Kinnamon give a good over~ ll assessmen , of --••r b-J4- Whk P--- Braithwaite did include some Jlack poets in his magazine anthologie~ and h e stands at an important threshbold of t h e • t he era of modern poetry . A1'ro-American•Jentry into 1 Records show t hat literally hundreds of poets, inspar.ed by ~ the brilliant example of Dunbar and company, took part~ this exciting pre:f)fenaissance of / lack American culture and arts. For more on t hes e poets, students sh ould go to such publications as ']be Century, t h e Independent, ~=====~ Defender, and the numerous other art-and-poetry-conscious pub-t, lications of the day. Yet it is in some wa:rs appropriate t hat we approach our close to t his chapter with Lucien B. Watkins 2f>f �(1879 Nl921), first teacher a rrl t :::.en sold i er , wt. o was c e.lled "t h e poet l aur eate of t ~e / ew 1re 3ro . 11 Hatkins pu lis l': ed ot~c ~olume of poetr~ in 190 7 (Voi ces of Solitude ~ 1~1s s ec or.d hook ('\;Jhisperi ng Wi nds, n. d .) was brought out by frie nds sl1 ortl:,a:f'ter h is untimely death. Watkins is ch iefly noted for his militancy of tone) as t ypified in h is sonnet "The New Ne gr 'J" which opens with the words r He thi nks in black and goes on to describe a god wi t 'h Africa n f eature SQ Watkins also wrote h is own eulo~ a f ew weeks before h e died. I n t he pymn-inspired form>he is grippingly aware of h is ap proaching deatr;, as shown in t hese lines: H ' y summer bloomed for winter's frost: r:J Alas, I've lived "A Message to the Modern Pa a pass age from .John 11;44 in Y nd loved and lost! s" is inspired (i ntroduced ) by the Jible . The ifterations "Loose ( ~1 ,~ l ~ , ~ him!" and "Let him go! ft frame each of t he six ~-linef stanzas . "-' Taking the militant stand characteristic of b i s work, Wat ki ns tells the s to let t he~ lack man go because be "bas his part t<lJ play" ) In Life's Great Drama, day by day, 1- adding t hat freeing the Afro-American will "be t he saving " of whitest "soul. 11 In many ways a precurser of t he Harlem Renaissance , Watkins conducted experiments in verse ("A Prayer of t h e Race J2hat God Made Black") and expressed pride in bis African heritage .;:; ( "Star of Ethiopi a "). He was born in Chesterfield, Virginia, �educated at Vir ginia Normal and Industrial Institute, and was active as a teacher before b e served overseas in World War IJ which "wrecked his health ." Perhaps Watkins' feelin gs are best expressed in t h ese lines (reminiscent of Margetsonts f "The white man's heaven is the black man's hellt "}: God! save us in Thy Heaven, where all is /] well! We come slow-struggling up the Hills of 0 Hell! .. ..1 tc..'t') ~A Pr-a.ye.,.. o rih e r<ac.e thq1 ~ od tt'\tWe ~Gtc. For additional comme n't on Wat1dns.J see Brawley' s Negro Genius, Kerlin's study (which includes more selections) and Johnson's American Negro Poetry (selections also). Duri n:; t :1 is ver:'" i :--·portant period of t ransition ; ,,:,s /,.._..tOa,,w /f!LM,l(. .J -«l:J. :a ala of E?ae lru f ■oriua, t here wefe~~r1,P?ets writing. We ought to ~ite T. Thomas For tune (1856J l928J~ote jour nalism and i mportant political studies of Blacks. And alth ough Brawley calls h i m one of "the most intelligent and versatile Ne groes of t he era, 11 h is collection of poe ms, Dreams of Life: '<Mi ~ cellaneous Poems (1905), shows no marked distinction it I lit I •y ; 1iT (th ough he i mplies a desire to return to Africa. in "The Clime of My Birth"). A preacher-poet, George C. Rowe (1853~1903), publish ed Th oughts in Ver!!!:_ (1887) a nd Our Heroes (189 0 ). The first book contains sermons i n verse and t he second is aimed at "the elevation of the race." Rowe, a pastor of t he Plymouth Congre gational Church of Charleston, South Carolina, also published "A Noble Lif'e," a poem in memory of Joseph C. Price, first president of Livingston College. Known for her �now famous 1ournai, Ch arlotte L. Forten Grlmkf (1 837/21914J ls considered to have "possessed sensiti vity a nd creative s kills tSh!t'm,.r>) beyond the ordinary"il-n t he few poems she wrote. Uncollected, they are scattered through out her notes and various periodi cals published between the 1850 sand t he turn of t he ce ntury . Islay ,... Walden (1847?ij _,, 84) published 1iiscellaneous Poems i n Washi ngto n, D.C., in 1873. There is an i mmaturity in Walden's style, owing, according to Jahn, to t he fact that his enrollment at Howard University "destroyed his natural talent. 11 Loss: -The- Nation's - ------- A Poem on t he Life and Deat h of t he Hon. Abraham Lincoln, by Jacob Rhodes (1 835?j ?), was published in 1866. In Lays of Summer, Joh n Willis Menard ( 1838~ " 93), t he first _elected ...,, % ac k congressme n in t he United States, t___ hem eM cal ling t hem by name as he praises t heir , · ' ~ ,f ( 11 ps. 1 Wor rac lal reasons, he was denle~ in tn e House of Representati ves. •~arned " t er m James Epb:r; i n HcGi,\t (1874-1930 ) brought out Ave nging t h e :Maine (Ralei gh , Nert-_ arolina, 1399 ) , Some Simple Songs and ;( Few More Ambitious Attempts (Philadelph ia, 7 1901 ) a~d r.10; Y.O '!.r :Ji1eet 8a1:e (P1~ _adel p·, :.a, l':'')6 ) . I Charles / D9uglas Clem published Rhymes of a Rhymster (Edmond! Okl aboma, / _,.,...,,. -.,.._ , , 1896) and A Little Souven r (n. p., 1908 ) • . ~ Sa::i Lucas (1345? ?) cont ribu t ed to t he post ar transitional shaping Vith Careful :Man Songs ter (Ch i cac;o, 1881). i mpression t hat Lucas was a troubador of sorts. 0:-:e gets t he Bishop He nr y McNeal Turner, well known among h is contemporaries, published meditation and exhortatory verse in The Conflict for Civil Ri ghts (Washington, D.C., 1881). Revels of Fancy (Boston, 1892) �reflected t he t houghts of William J. Candyne. Prose was int eluded b~r Frank Barbour Coffin (1370? 19.51) in Coffin's Poems with Ajax' Ordeals (Little Roc k, 1892). James Th omas Franklin published one volume of poetry (JG m.s, Memphis, 1900 ) and one of prose and poetry (Mid-Da Book for Home and Holiday Reading (Memph is, 1893) • not extant . ( '"' c·? U ~-- !..J. - , --;:;,., .... - .ressamine apparently is Poems of To-Day or Some ,/ror:i t he Everglades or 1 c' a . ... \. ' , Qn3 ) .!.,. - ) ~1aC" ~· .._. - u • ' J1- 1· Joshua Mccarter S1mpson (1 320? ' ..., Car (Zanesville, Ohi o,) in 1874. s1--ed "'··j c,·"" •·d t:' - d ~- Ale-r.rt' s i -r -d .,_ • ., I,. • • • - - J..Pj v .i.. - e,..LL;.~ • 76) released The Emancipation Simpson included a prose satire called "A Consistent Slaveh older's Sermon. 11 The Open Door (189.5) was publish ed in Wi nfield, Kansas, by F.\s. Alwe11.(/Aaron ~e ord /\ h,, Thompson (1883~1929) was a . member of a fa mily t h at caos10:ttna a trio of poets. Thompson and his sisters, Priilla and Clara, brought out seven volumes of poetry between 1899 and 1926t -the middle of t he Harlem Renaissance. Priscilla Thompson published Ethiope Lays (1900 ) and Gleanings of Quiet Hours (1907). Clara Thompson released Songs from t he Wayside (1908 ) and A Garland of Poems (Boston, 1926). Aar on Thompson published Morning Son€is (1899 ), Echoes of Spring .-e~-e:ro,e"l~~~ and Harvest of Thoughts (1907). Epb.Pes, in its ? • second edition of 1907 , bore a h andwritten, comp=..,-entary introf-duction by James Whitcomb Riley. Their subjects are t h e conventional ones of t he oa? century. Charles Henry Shoeman published A Dream and Other Poems in Ar{Arbor in 1899. Magnolia Leave:..; was published by Mary Weston Fordham in Charleston, @ �South Carolina, in 1897. Straddling similar fields of expression, as did Alex ✓ Rogers, James Weldon Johnson, Nathaniel Dett and others, George Hannibal Temple (a musician) brought out The Epic of Columbust Bell and Other Poems in 1900. Benjamin ~Theeler followed bim in 1907 with Culling from Zion 's Poets (t1-f obile, Alabama). Several dozen other Afro-Americans wrote poetry during the la~er part of t he~ an~ arly~ centuries. ( 135~t ?':> Among them were Robert Benjaminl\Poetic Gems, 1883), Lorenzo 00 !) (IISl/iN!) (~/q3J./,) Dow BlacKSOlt, Walter He derson Broolr~ John Edward Brue~, , O"l#ff?) Alexander numan Delaney, 1Josephine Delphine Hear<L, Joseph Osa. v ) .11 - Cephas HollyN ....A· f • Jackson (A Vision of Life, 1869), Henry ~-H~> <fll~ 7) llen Laine4{Footprints), :Hary Eliza Lamber1k Lewis Howard (lZ •lw4f2'1> / I Latime~ Grace Map~ J ournalist William H.~ . Moo e 1 Moss~~h fames Robert Walk r Poetical Diets). Gertrude Other occasional poets who were ·q uite popular among t heir contemporaries included Solomon G. Bvown, William Wells Brown, Ka.tie D. Chapman, W~~I. Crogma.n, Frederick Douglass, Leland 1-1. Fisbe --_,.:;- and Virgie Whitsett. a few of J ~.lili:~~fP9eM~ Some notable turn-of-the-century poets, . . will be heard from late3:, werei Benjamin Brawley (critic and social historian), Charles Roundtree Dinkins, David Bryant ul on, Gilmore F. Qrant, H•r• Johnson, Otis M. Shackelford, Walter M .r . Rayson, Jefferson King, J.r . Palsey, E. Todd, Richard E.f . Toomey, Irvine W. Underhill, Julius C. Wright and others. li'or more on these poets, including delightful pictures of some, see �Brawley•s The Negro Genius (and other wor ks), Sherman's Invisible Poets and Kerlin' s Ifogro Poets and Their Poems. Kelly Miller's Race Adjustment appeared in 1909 as a partial answer to some of the evils and ills plagui ng Blacks. 0 But against the b"locaustal "panorama of vio!.ence n~ nd 1::i loodslj ed, the title of Hiller's book seemed al nost 'h ollow. Tbe NAACP was born in 190~ and a y ear later Duf ois was put at t he hel m of its publicity de~artment and made ed itor o Crisis. Ech oes . A \ •. from t he 1906 Atlant a riots, in wh ich @ Blacks were "butc!1eredl,;'/ could sti~l be hea~d reverberatinc i n speech es and fear-seized ~ ack lJes.rts0 (For more on t his senseless and sadistic mur der of B~a.ck~ see .John Hope Franklin's Fro '..l Slaver:•· to Freedom and Ralph Ginzberg ' s ~00 Years of' L~"nching.) On t~e lecture-circuit rampage, D ois heatedl:r criticized President Th eodore Roosevelt; wh o had declared) .~ "Rape is t he greatest cause of l :rnching . " ,_/ The nat ion was trying to turn back the clock, as evi denced by t h e nostalBic minstrelsy, a nd was conductins a BOOd "sabotage" of Reconstruction. And Blacks were fe verously mobilizing to keep from bein6 sold "back into a n~w for m of slavery ." - - -- - -- -- - - - - - , {ft, N""O"" ~,...,. po._1' l ~ fJtt.L,,1 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_09_08_09 Title A name given to the resource Editors proof, Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, Chapter IV. Jubilees, Jujus, and Justices, typed with handwritten edits, p. 130-207 Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/3041b4a07dbf0e274e6633e36adec2f5.pdf f02691cb7777307a60e956b67e222b83 PDF Text Text Gi) (cy CHAPTER III_ _ _---1 AFRICAN VOICE I N ECLIPSE~ JMITATION@ AGITATION 1746 ' 1865 I Slaves, though we be enroll'd / Minds are never to be ~sold - from David Ruggles' Appeals, 1835 M I u:i Overview C-- As we embark on a survey of the chronological development of /lack written poetry, it is important to remember that any study of such literature concerns that which is "written" and "available." The fact that one writer has made more works accessible to the public than another writer does not make him/ her the "greater. 11 In every era, quiet and important writers have been passed over in favor of litera ture that is more "timely," 'tlamboy~~t " a : "::~.~~ant(!: ::: : : :: Ct..t 9 9ii I :Ii I jEsj Oift1Bclllillli 3 a '!!"C! 1 ■ 2'"" '-.:' ■,. .... !!!! • ' ... ■ ..., ~ks 1(21£ ::ii/se••JJ• J •AIP, this 1¥ certainly is not an t o re . o e ,.1 anthology, /\ are ~ 11 [ will allow ~ ., 'r ua psal&g. 5o, while t-ep"esen"li,~e sa.m p L,ngs o ~ Pot$y ti VSed mments on styles, themes, subjects, language s, fecL ,a.re po.~~uLu,l'J ilYlpo~a.ttTfb o.n vnde"fflmt(h9 0J:'°-rh other aspec s • .n t r A The poems included, it is "' "',,..,.,._ _ ,.;V and t .L.. tCPI ccess to comparisons, ----- thf -,.+1~ ,,. 11J e,u,Ly po€t;y. eader and teacher immediate - entati ve analyses. · There \ also is no ove~iding effort to explain t he works in a "-"" 1~ �poem-by-poem breakdown . However , eo.c..t-i· c.ho..~Y' wi.LL 6u,Y oh al historical "running 11 a na lysis of' several poems with emptasis ~~s fa. ;,id.yt.a..r,. on how the poems can be read silently and aloud. · • one o F l1t t Le"'-$1" u ~~T"od dc--u. duJy fll' II 1/J, Literary and Social Landscape C - Blacks have been in t he Western Hemis phere almost as long as whites. Af'ter 1501 , most of the Spanish expeditions to t he New World included/ 1 ✓, So,., lack explorers.~ the time the @) slaves - to-be were brought on a Dut ch vessel to Jamestown in 1619, t h e presence of Blacks had been felt f'or at least@ year s (s ee Bennett, Franklin). Crucial to an understanding of early_J{lack poetry are the circumstances surrounding slavery and t ~ religious moods of both England and/ America. political and olonial~ evolutionary Briti sh America d id not follow t he Greco-Roman tra.:p dition of' t h e well:: ;. inf'ormed s lave. It was quite unlikely, ., then, that a "revoluti onary".)fiack poet would emerge from a social and literary landscape so charged with self'-righteou~ness ' and;(eoclassicis m {or from thej{omanticism of t he 180C::S ). Fight 11 (written in 1746 and published in Lucy Terry's "Ba 1895 ) could hardly be called 11 protest"; neither could the wor k of Phillis Wheatley, co nsidered the finest ..flack talent of th e 1olonial era, caught between contrivances of the enment and the approachi ng grip of the romantics. '1I [ Enlight The neoclassical �tradition that reached its height in the poetry of England's Alexander Popet had already begun to die out with the death of Pop) !ln■:," in 1744. All over/olonial America, however, white poets were imitating the stiff-collared conventionality of that period. The moral issues considered by most • ill - poets j ilack and white) ~universal brotherhood of man, quest for reason and order, the Jeffersonian ideals of freedom, liberty and representative government ~ were removed from the everyday brutality of slavery. Some of the most liberal men of the day (Jefferson, Washington, Hume) implicitly justified slavery by suggesting that Blacks were in some ways inferior. Despite Jefferson's pontifications on humanitarianism, he was unable to reconcile the disparity between his public stands and bis failure to manumit his own slaves. Although Jefferson carried on a written correspondence with)3lack astronomer and mathematician{ Benjamin Banneker, be considered Phillis Wheatley' s po-e.-. rry "beneath critic ism. 11 On the general American scene, the Revolution behind, a national literature had begun to emerge. Fascinated with American employment of new technology (Franklin's lightning experiments, printing presses, etc.) and the prospects of unexplored regions of the New World, writers started recording travels and observing the mixture of races and religi~ns. Although religious fervor was s t i l ~ i @ J I I sni ds 1SE b s j II t& 5 J:Irzlr ; I s es 1 political problems dominated. 4 Between 1790 and 1832 the new American government was being ~ CW,:; . consol id ated_, and the writings ofAmen -¼--i:ire William Bradford, �John Winthrop, Cotton Mather , Thor.m s Shephard, Roger Williams, Edward Taylor and Jonathan Edwards were succeeded by t he mbryonic nationalistic works of Franklin, Jefferson, :William Cullen Bryant, Charles Brockden Brown, Washingto n rving, William Gilmore Simms an:l James Fenimore Cooper. r rving, Cooper and Bryant were to become the early writers taught to American school children.1forten called the "New England Renaissance," the early decades of t he 9th /e ntury saw increasing tension between New England puritanism and~ outhern aristocracy over the question of slavery. over slavery Debates continued up to t he beg inning of t he Civil War. '\._, The early part of the century also saw the birth of many of rl;e developrnenToP white America's great est writers_, along withAromanticism and rugged individual is w. Mys tif'ied by the noble savage (Indians and sometimes Blacks) and challe nged by the "new frontier," Americans began to romanticize their situation and especially that of explorers, who became the first original _,ff lk her oes. White writers who dominated the period from 1826 1865 included Edgar Allan Poe (poet and short:: story writer, credited with creating the fir st detective in American fiction), Nat haniel Hawthorne (co ns.idered the first great American novelistk The Scarlet Letter), John Greenleaf' Hhittier, Henry Wadsworth J Longf'ellow, James Russe \ LoHell, Oliver 1vendell Holmes, Harriet Beecher Stowe (one of the first white American novelists to feature a ,/lack protagonist in fiction-1-Uncle /° /\,\ Tom's Cabin), Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, 73 �Her man :ful ville (considered to have written one of the h andful of ngreat Tl American nove lsk f·lob:r Dick), Walt Wr.i t r:a D ( terrr.ed the "gr eatest" American poet~ Leaves of Grass) . r i marily po 11 t ica 1 activists Otb er writers, ~:-;;ti: ti onis t :i).,, inc 1 uded John C 1- . Calhoun, 1.-Jilliam Lloyd Garrison, and Abraha.r.1 Lincol n. their m-m and Using lack material , a nm;1ber of wbi te composers i mmortalized the era in songs ~ r;1an:- of t "h er,1 nationalistic. It Ha .c~ during t"hi~ period t bat Francis Scott Key wrote !'T~"' e St ar S:;-,z-. r:.. 6 l ed Banner ." 1i1ep:1en :1oster ~ as since ':een ac cused to music the s o~s s that were sung by slaves . of for Blacks to learn to read~ but many slave~ owners indulged their cbatte in i:1r i ti n 6 exercises as personal pasifimes and h obbies . \,J many of ~he early ack poet: ~ S~ grew up in relati ·1e security. To be totally free , David Walker observed in _ is Aopeal (1829) ) .. 1as to ~e economically insecure, socially ostracized a.nd psychot, logically oppressed . - Consequently, t h ose slaves pr i vi lel ged to read and write invariably took European literary models . Poets, of course, were not the only ones writing . In addition ~a.o/ to a olitionists-essayists, ttke Walker and Frederick Douglass, this period of lack literary activity was high li gh ted by exciting slave n a ~ iji]t:ek1 so sri fa r2 n: & snrts of @§C@P@d :.ialtfi i slrna 4 The most popular of these, and one of the first recorded, was Th9 Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equia.no, or Gustavus Vassa, the African (1789 ). Arna Bontemps includes it in his Great Slave Narratives (1969). �' L • .. ,... (\_\t •.{it\ '/ ~ \\'\nl !. • 1 - VaSSa, wh o al s o included ~ some notable verse~ co~structed a story pattern that was to becor:e fa miliar to readers •~arly America: - that of t he escaped, freed or run ~away slave wh o '--' reported his or her hardsh i ps and struggles . Vassa describ es ,.., his life in Africa up until t h e time of h is kidnap Jing . With .._,/ vivid memory and detail, he establish es the orig inal bases for what we have come to call t h e "African f ontinuum" in America. It is not just mere coincide nce t hat t h is statement fro ~ 1789 1'H' ,t - - fi ts"parts of j iack America of today. We are almost a nation of da ncers, musicians, and @ poets. Thus every great e vent ••• is celebrated in public dances which are accompanied with songs and music suited to t h e occasions . Vassa 's debut into this li terar:r genre was followed by hundreds of other narratives, many of t h em fakes . Early Negro Writing: ....__., Dorothy Porter, in 1760ql 837 (1971), has discussed the problem of determining auth enticity of t he narratives . ,ew,e►iT-,,1 Mrs. Porter is librarianJ\of the Hoorland Foundation at Howard Universityi wh ich houses an outstanding collection on t h e @oak sb,r lncluded ~ ~ heA~ lack pas ~ -,:n µ2._) nstitutions and laws of beneficial societies; speeches before mutual aid and educational societies; the re port of the earliest annual convention for the improvement of free people of color; arguments for and against coloni zation; printed letters, sermons , petitions , orations, lectures, essays, religious and 75 1161 5 �moral treatises , and such creative mani festations as poems , prose narratives, and sh ort essays. Mrs. Porter thus sums up the intellectual and literary output • • t.\l'iT· of the 1t'\ (f I &,.mef\,c. • AfricanpA The word "Africanf " was used generously by most writers and speakers of the era. not empl~~<:i; it was Y.e.~Lctced. "Black, II" When "African" was ~Y sy~o11ym.s-:=S<Jc.'1 (li ''C loured, 11 "an Ethiopian Princess_" . ., .. _at&& - Placed against the sometimes sophomoric and heretical accusations of some of today's / lack critics, these early displays of pride in the African heritage make! one want to sen,i1!_'mf,,ny uninfo1'me.!('~~,e~'f1• back to school! In addition to the plethora of pamphlets, broadsides, b ooks and news orga1that emerged fromjlack individuals and insti tutions during the period up to the end of the Civil War, there was also much political-social consciousness , raising through oration. In the early year ~ great religious and political leaders such as Richard Allen, Peter Williams, Absalom Jones, Prince Hall (founder of / lack Masonry), Paul Cuffee and Daniel Coker, took up projects of "mutual aid" for Africans. Their work set the stage for missionary, abolitionist and self-help ~ tv.Y programs undertaken later by people ttire Jarena Lee, Frederick t\ Douglas s , R. Hartin Delaney, Sojourner Truth\..., and Alexander Crummell,•L•r•---908HWWg•-,,........li■l■l•se• The intellectual , religious and moral work of Blacks in the North was paralleled by the development of folk materials 7(p �(the songs and stories) of Blacks on/ outhern plantations . In genera~ few states , Nortb or South , allowed educational or vocational opportunities for Blacks. Thus the energies of early J lack writers and intellectual5..>= Mrs D 1 k i L; ~ re B211tn &ttci 'ifillic11n __fa, r,,,, m itteJ fo .---_ various "African" societies and free sch ools, a nd the promotion of literacy and self-betterment among newly freed slaves. n7iil ( J Jill bl LBS IICF C t .iuib j bhc Yr J g; g;yz1 Rella a J The Rev Allen , popular religious crusader and founder of tre Beth el African Feth odist Epis copab Church , seems to have been referring to the sa.'i!e ;(lack "sensib ilit~r" describ ed by Vassa when he said (in 1793 ) t hat b e was conf i dent that there was no religious sect or denomination that wo1ld suit the capacity of the colored pe ople as well as the 11eth odis • Sure I am that reading • •• sermons will never prove so beneficial to t he colored people as spiritual or extempore ('"I preaching___ •••• Huch evidence exists, t h en , of Blacks banding together fo r "mutual" co ncerns in t h e early days of America. Tbe h orrors of slavery, t he psychological: pressures of / orthern "freedom," white reprisals in wake of slave revolts (such as t h ose led by I Gabriel Prosser in 1800, Denmark Vesey in 1822 and Nat Turner in 1831), made for a most unsettling atmosphere (see Walker's 77 �Appeal). Reporting on white America's "need" to ven t its fears and hatreds on Blacks, Winthrop Jordan (Wbi te / ver Black, J ✓ 1968 ) noted that whites initially feared t bree t h ings: .J. oss of identity , lack of self-control and sexual license. In an effort to escape the "animal within h i mself the white r.ian dej:_, based t h e Negro, surely, but at t he same time b e debased himself." And a young Frenchman., Alexis de Tocqueville, visiting America in 1831, said racial prejudice was "stronger in t h e states that b ave abolished slavery than in those where it still exists." Needless to say., creative literature of the "artyn sort (though much of it was being done at the ti me) was not t he number one pri ority for Black ,J f: a l 7 3 2 iil a tuts f <;!evertbeles~ a literary tradition did develop and flouris h in ~,,,,.,_,.__ / lack America. The example of t he narratives (including t h ose • ? by Ha.rrant., Douglass and Truth ) led to publications by the ,J,,ct first f lack novelist and playwright, William Wells Brown. Brown's novel was Clotel: x or,,zj-ie President 's Daughter (1 8531 and h is play was called Escape: ._¢r ~ ,K Leap to Freedom ( 1857). The second novel by aJlack American was The Garies and their Friends (1857) by Frank J. Webb . Delaney published t he t h ird novel , Black, or the Huts of America, in 1859. Webb were b oth published in England. The works by Brown and Brown also worked~ in t he cause of abolition and other social=reform programs. His Anti-Slavery Harp (1848) contained songs and poems whose themes are implied in the book's title. The pattern of the jlack educator, intellectual or artisan carrying on the dual rol creator and activistt, characterizes the h istory of.f-ack \ f �creativity in America. YetJ r. any critics / lack and white, unaware of the stresses and demands on}'flack artists1 do not approach their sub jects with ....., o..n understanding o~ thl's. f.n.c-"t, j ,,,.. Political journalism (see Dann's The Black Press, 1327;; _ 90), als~} was a strong vein in the development of_)3lack American '- writing. Beginning with John Russwurm (the second..$lack colle ge graduate and first p ib ack newspaper editor ~ Freedom's Journal, 1827; 29), and evolving through Ruggles' Hirror for Liberty (£1rstpack magazine , 1838 ), Douglass• Monthlyl(l 844J ~ ) o'::'t h Star (1847), to Hamilton's Anglo-African Magazine (1 859), t he tradition ofj lack journalis m and research on the African ex perience was firmly established. Huch of the journalistic writing (like t he poetry) took pros or cons on tbe questio n of i~gration, colonization or tbe elevation of t he J lack ,aa.n' s plight in America. During the early and middle years of the ~ entury, white travelers through the Soutb collected and compiled slave I song~eculars and}½irituals. the weU.sf''''"j f-or- These songs !ilJllil later pt-ovtded much of the ;(lack and white writing the mes. On the eve of the Civ il Har, t h e Dred Scott decision (a hlow to to slaves and abolitionists) h el~step up the demands for the abolishment of slavery. Brown's The Black Man ( 1863) was a capsule of one era closed on the blasts of cannon and ze another that opened on t h e sound of jubilant shouts. �III - Co) THE VOICES ON THE TOTEN "Mean mean mean to b e free" 3 I c..... ~ - 1-Robert Jfa·:,rde n M -- - Against the foregoing bac kground , t h e poets of/ olonial ~ volutionar:rf lavery America appear curious, tearful , exciting , paradoxical, frightening and puzzling. Bib lical i : -,1 a s ery, classical allusions and t h emes, b atred of slavery a r.d a r.1b i guous prai se for s lave1masters, recollecttons of Africa, ap peals and co nder,matior:s ,h all become enmeshed in the i n tricate linguistic M and psyc'!:': ological webbing of t h is early poetry . I n 1770 , at 1 years of a g e, t h e pri7ileg ed slav e g irl Ph illi s 1· .. eatley be came the first/ in Eng lish and Americijn poetry. A 1erican ::- 00tr::r lack "exception to the rule" And for d ecad e ~ stud ents of Mi" \ ~a.a g ose ab out t he ir recitations and researcl} a n t houg!1 n ot'ting or no o ne of i mportance 1-: appe r..ed ✓ befweeV\ he~-lliYt e It was not until 1893 t h at L~cy Terr7 ' s "Bar's Fis:1t 11 - Lt1-:o acc ount of a l 7L~6 I nd. ian r:~assa cr e i~ .Deerfiel d, M ::ass ac::n :se tts ~ c ar,ie to pU 1)l ic li c:: t. a,--,_ot~e @ A :~c. r eaders l1 ad ::-et :-,)a.rs t o Hait before Oscar 'Te,:eli::1 i ~ '2.. '7 1-} d i s covered J up i ter .!a:.-.: :·.1on ' s "An Eveni n.; T ~"} OU 6 ~t , Salvation ½:- C1:"} rist, j-itl1 Penitential Cries" (1761) i n t h e New.:York Historical Society, t bus establ ishing Hammon as t~e first published African poet in America . �:It h<4s bee.-, ,;, ctn c_ho.p"f:i~ " ~ r:1e ntio~1cdAearlier ~ t~ a t . :a:::-- 2. nt;:; olocies o:-~i t Fi5.1t. 11 11 :'3n.r ' s Tb i s i s undcrstanda '.~ :1..eJ s i ~:.c e ::iss Terr:· ( 1730 '18jl) never uro te., or at lea ::i t pre sent ., d , a n:r ore iiterar:' worl:s . America' s 11 first i-Tegi-•o poet, '1 t ~ en , is L·1p or ta nt prLlaril:~ for b eing just t h at 'M"fir st . !.,ike L.ut.y7i,.y New England slaves., ~ Fh;Uis - 1:n:. eatlcy , Vassa and ot1: er dd,1a t ed as a c!1 ild a ~1d ,_,r ou ,:;i__,: t _, to New England (Rh ode Isla nd) . S~ e witnessed t !1e I nd ia n raid -:•ra.s ~ wh\'-t.._ Sh.ow! • reported in h0 r ~ -line doGgerel) ••• w,,l\..a flair for stor:rtell i :-:z . Hence,) d e spite the poe::1 ' s 11 0., v iously weak literary ::neri t, 11 t l-1i s ,)(lack writer perforr1:.ed one of t:-:e earliest services of t t e 1 1 poet-tbat of' a singer of' l': istor-. ~ ~ MM- in recordincD actual na,:1e s and places in h er narrati v e . S i nce s h e was ~ f ~ ears-/old a nd a servant g irl, writing ·1as surel:r :-iot ~er primar'!fy res po ~ s i bili ty . Yet 11 Bar ' s Fig::"; t 11 ac':-}ie ves some succ ess when seen aga i nst t h e oral traditio n i n poetry: Listen my children and you shall h ear Of' the midni gh t rid e of Paul '1e v ere . or How , ch ildren ., I ' :·1 g oi ng t o tell you tbe s tory a b out raw-h ead a nd b loody- b ones ! a nd ~ere was an old woman wh o lived in a s h oe She had so many c h ildren s h e d i dn ' t know what to do . Compa r e th e f'or ego ing l ines to August 'twa s , the t wenty - fifth , Seventeen h und red 81 �The Indians did in ambush lay, S ome very t men to slay, The names of whom I'll not leave out: Samuel Allen like a hero fout, and t he elemental connectio ns will readily be seen.. One b as only to read this poem aloud to get b oth t he effects a nd ~ / Terry's apparent intentions. $ worked for an Ebenezer Wells of Deerfield, r-I assachl\t, Ill L setts; C!Jt t married a free/ children. I Wh en s h e wrote "Bar's Lvcy Fi gh "'l' s ke freedom ten years later ~ she 1 lack man , Abijah Prince, by whom she h ad six given ~ Prince later became the owner of co nsiderable land and was one of tbe founders of Sunderland, Ver mont. tvc..y Robinson (Early Black American Poets) lists t h ! L ~S and ri ghtly so. , . . . and the Princes 1-Jilliam Terr~r w:t t h Other details about 4i!!?J \..~,. an b e obtained from George Sheldon's A History of Deerfield, Massachusetts , 1 89.5. ~"''•¥e· See o..Lso £il~eK SocSTiet--n~ "tb,.e~'R.f a~ -sTave p~and nteFectual, Jupiter Hammon (1720 ?Nl 800 ?) provides yet another look into the capab ilities, mind f sets and limitations of Africans in_){o lonial America. Hammo n is ge nerally not regarded as an "important"_;it1- ack writer~ but is distingui sh ed for b eing the first African in America to publish bis verses. This be did in 1761 ( "A n Evening Th ought ," composed in December of 1760); 1778 ("An Address to Miss Ph illis Wheatley"); 1782 ("A Poem for Children"); a id in the mid 1780'"'s ("An Evening's '- Improvement tr). In his "Address to the Ne groes of t h e State of Hew York" (written in 1786 and published in 1 806)J Hammon ·)ou,er; . i 51 t • tJ ~~ ~ a tradition t h at included pamph leteers - like /\ �~-! alker., Ruggles and ot'1ers of t h e period . !Iammon 1 s "Address" sough t freedo m for younger Blacks, claim~ng t hat 11 for my own part I do not wish to b e free." Tb is statement appears., on the surface., to be t h e ulti mate in self-debasement and self-denial; but one b as to view it in t b e context of statements by de Tocqueville., Walker, and others , along with ~ the circums t ances of t he aging and religious Hammon . That Hammon himself was deeply relie ious is reflected i n his poetry-Las with ma ny j lack poets, e . g. Hayden today-I- "" ) I and he obviously lab ored under t he influence of Methodism and the Wesleyan l(evi val ( see Early .Jegro Hri ting ) . phiLL,s t e;- / . In t h e poem Wh eatley , h e notes t h at it was t hrough that "God's ,., tender mercy" t h at sh e was kidna, ped from Africa and bro.ugh t to America as a slave. And Hammon seemed, generally , to -t'he r eflec t .-..iAprevaili ng wh ite attitude toward the "dark" co ni tinent: one engulfed in i snorance, ½ar~aris m and evil . I)~\ LL\i Obviously not as well read as MIIIIIIII~1dh ea tley ., Hammon was unable t o/\f • levels. --- &:IJ~~\ln • I M t ----- universal and intellectualll 11 ••dll 8or n a slav ,,~~zt belonged to t he influential f amily of Lloyd 1 s !Teck on Long Island and was e ncouraged his masters to write a nd pu ::ilish poetry . by There is not a great deal of informat i on a va i lab le on t h e life of Ha mmon; but i t is difficult to unders t a nd why an intelligent / lack man., wh o lived such a long life, mirrored almost complete ignorance of the horrors of slavery Ldespite the !? 1't·daily local newspaper and verbal accounts and dis cussions of the �11 peculiar i nstitution . " ~ fammo n I s 11 terar:• mod, '1-o.S. : the co nventional material of hymns of t h e period. :Stiss t::w Thougbt , 11 sa :s bttats ht r as tts @1116£ b!F :I i:Jp •:9••·J•f••••• nA n Eveni ng wh ich ~~YPorter tells u s was probabl y 11 cb a nt ed du1. . i ng t 1-::G delivery of a sermo n ," begins: Salvation comes by Ch rist alo ne; The only Son of God; Redemption now to every one, 0. That love h is only word. Dear .Jesus we would fly to thee, And leave off e v ery Sin, Thy tender Mercy well a gree; Salvation fro m our kin~ . .. Like U,c.y Terry , Hammon was not primarily a. poet . And h ence, unlike approaching Phillis Wheatley , one s h ould not spend too i;mch time or b e t oo h arsh in criticizi ng ( or complai ni ng a b out) h im. The b asic structure of the English hymn _/ wh ich merged with the / piri tua14.t as Hammon i nterprets it is a. n alternat ion of iambi c tetrameter and iamb ic trime ter comb i ned with a rath er clums:r a. a b ---- rhyme scheme . Compared to other 1-;yrms, it is no worse a nd is better t h~ n n_:an¥ y .. £ ~espite !t the times, pressures ;t /,1/ { · and c ensures , however ,l(Pte la L assurance to the slave , • Cr llJ l!1 to ace • In Christian :faith t hou h ast a s hare , 0 Worth all t h e g old of Spain. �work~ •••••:•J•n-?•~•m critically introduced in Robi nson 's anthology, in Stanley Ransom 1 8 America's First Negro Poet, t he Complete Works of Ju piter Harmnon of Long Island ( 1970) ..._,,s.nd in Barksdale~ and Kinnamon's Black Writers of Americ (1972); . a.L~ a.p_p£(Lt'S critical-biographical attention •~in Vernon Loggins• The Negro Author ( 1931) ..- J. Saunders Redding ' s To .fake Black ( 19 3 9 )-! ~ /Be-;;i-m In B"1wtey~ "the Ne~ iirtc::::' :tl •-• r:3&00.i Gu1tj1 n 1). 3 B1 : i;llilbd I 2 Ji ( :W,~Jillll •if!t h>'l!!& 0 Q t'.Wilaff Ther8 h a~ :li,e en sub stantial critical-biographical Jt l:::;~~t4?~)-t 1 treatment of Niss 4§h t iW 1-1) K Poet ! lid f&ll CbdS.!:dGI &biblh 1Uo1<p'o uiU ti •~-:w1 &Q 1 s I By far t he most gifted and com ~ plex poet until Dunbar , Phillis Whe atley was also privilef ged ~ as a young child and allowed access to the Boston library of """'\ John Wbeat1t:1J. to whom she was sold after being brought fro m Senegal when she was six or seven years old& ,r],ger • 11asi1 1lv • ~J,e 1am1 1 sa d ~1Jti>eJ By the t;Je •Ab er teens she had learned to speak and write Englisht and/\ acquired a :New England education) which put great emphasis on the { ible and the classics. Her poetry,~L~ o ~ ' ,,, {, ,.Y ·• · ll · I reflects deep interest in and knowledge of religion; but it is also steeped in classical allusions and conventions of the neoclassical writing school. attention to Miss Theatley (who ~- pt, .,_..,,;$,l __./,, { ~ ~ Critical like Dunbar , lived a sh ort life) has,\hoor1 botbr;;:.;ir~ rMi unkind . Benjamin Brawley (The Negro Genius) reports tha t Jefferson viewed her as beneath t he dignity of criticism. Yet , other great personalities of t he day generously praised and received her work . George �Wash ington, so moved by her poetic tribu te ( 11 To His Excellency General Washington 11 ) , invited t he young poet to visit hi m at h is camp at Cambridge, Massachusetts -an invi tation which she ~ k ~ later acceptedj &Qi was treatedµ royalty. Phtlwl J ■ i:fueatley 's earliest verses were penned during - . f her adolescence . "On the Death of the Rev. George of Whitefield: '""177ot " re.fleets the elegaic theme l\.1~ioh much of her poetry. fi1ezi1pi'iil Manumitted and sent with other members of the Wheatley family to London in 1772, because of frailness and poor health , - ;J,~as received like a visiting dignitary in London's literary circles and hailed as the "Sable :i:viuse. 11 The next year (1773), while in London, she became (at ~year~old) the first African, arrl t he second woman from America, to publish a book of poems : Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Horal , b y Phillis 1·. 1 , :regr o S va nt to Mr . 'W heatley only one sh e ever publi b ed, b~ on. ey , The volume, the an i mmediate success i n both England and America and won her an everlasti ng place in both C\H1 n~1tl t he h istory of English poetry in Alli 1~ Upon her return to America, zr:Gn 17 !/~isfortunes seemed to come i n such ligh tning succession that one wonders h ow she withstood adversity as long as she did. First, t h ere was the death of :Mrs. 'Wbea tle~ and then, during the 17701",s , t he deaths of t he remaining \vheatleys, The poet t hen married a Jorr{Peters, who "proved to be both ambitious and irresponsible," for whom she bore three children-/4 all of whom died in infancy. �Additi onally , t b e Peters fa ·,iil:r li v ed in s qualor a nd po•rn r ty , . lJnd~a,.~ese..c.,~Cvfnrrll,ll,t.S,~;u,s ;J.fa.lfliJ whl(,h h~J beeti toonJ'hVflltS1Ji.,Ltd htt-~aMU.y , ... \..,,11.\' like so many Hew Eni::; land Blac ks ·A Coi:lli,lentinc on t h e cir cun . s t anc es surroundi n;:;.: b er de atl-:, , Bar --:sdale a nd K, nna,·io r:: (r-n nc k - Writers of Araeric a ) ~- • , , J _, _ - s to~ac~- curdli ~s accuracy : ~ _ab . Her e a rly de a t h provi des a coRme ntar~ on t h e de sperate rnargi ~alit~ of life arilor..g :9os ton ' s fr ee Blac ks at t ::e.t t i r:e . 6 S:c P't illis ':-Tb eatl ey , s~ i p, freedom's uncertainities a nd insecur ities were overwhe l mi ng . Certainly, b ad she been initially free in Boston, she would probably never have had t he time, the oppor tunity , or the peace of mind to write poetry. For the state of freedom for t he Black man in the 1780 's -even in godly, liberty-loving M Boston- ~was indeed precarious. A-\ The preceding explanation, coupled again with the observations of Walker, de Tocqueville and others, make Hammon's statement ~ about preferring not "to be f'ree" somewhat mor ;. not plaus t.ble. / -lie-no-ted that Phillis Wheatley has been praised as well as condemned. Some critics denounce her for not being inventive and original enough, claiming that she simply followed the cont ventions and themes associated with neoclassicism: _truth , ~ / alvation, _J(ercy and )1'.oodness. Some resent her so-called "pious ~ iO t 1 �sentimentality" and a cuse her of calling on Christ when she should be calling for the abolishment of slavery. Still r,~,..,., others, during the current period, have accused her of not being "1'lack enough." /. times, however, -illiiii wi~,.; Considered ,he 1\1 tl1'e landscape of the A _ ■ •~em~U · as a genius ~ with hardly an equal amongflck or white contemporaries. James Weldon Johnson, during a comparison of Miss Wheatley's "Imagination" to Anne Bradstreet's "Contemplation, 11 saidJ ''We do not think the black woman suffers by comparison with the wbi ten etry). Duri ng her life~tim~---==~eatley published some @ poems, almost half of them elegies, five or six political . and patriot~pieces ("General Washington" and "Liberty and Peace " ), and the remainder consumed by religious and moral , J~ i ri c I subjects-~as she states in her title. M Though she qever deals ~ "" . ith the question of slavery~ and makes only,xf;Mwl reference to her own predicament-~her work sustains a high level of emotional, JV\ linguistic, religious and general poetic force. Since her greatest models were Pope, Dryden, Milton and the earlier classi cal writers, one must examine these sources to uncover some keys to her techniques arrl allusions. But one Jonl~ ha~ to read (aloud) the following passage from "Rev. George Whitefield" to feel impact: "Take him, ye wretched, for your only good, "Take him, ye starving sinners, for your food. ''Ye thrifty, come to this life-giving stream, �'~e preachers , take h i m for your joyful t heme; "Take h i m, my dear Americans , he said, "Be y our complaints on h is kind b osom laid; "Take him, ye Africans, h e longs for you , '~mpartial Savior is his title due; '~ashed in the fountain of redeeming blood, '~ou shall be sons and kings , and priests to God." 1 11 ' Ltmvenii'on • ~ (er-"ti(nlyihes0 aeS onlo.ln i~~mtnie1,.L ?o~e-'l"'lt~o.it"~~i, M1e sh~uld state t hat some of t 'he previousl:· h arsh critic ism o f ' ~ P~i Llis Wheatley has been te mpered in light of' increasing i'eminism and, especially , efforts by/ lack women wr iters, sch olars and intellectuals to re~ valuate h er wCH''K; JW.0$$0F '¼ done in e ;w,atug • , Ult heroic couple{ whic~ tJJJJcit is minated the period.« These penta1;1eter couplets (which would be · popularized in the ~ ntury as "unrhymed iambic pentameter" by Robert Frost) call for end-line rhymes to appear in twos, with ® syllables per line. Roger Whitlow (Black American e>h~LL <.s Literature) complains t hat -....~-Jheatley ".falls short in what Pope called the 'correctness' o.f diction and meter, that near-per.feet choice of word and measurement and weigh ing of syllable." One could agree , if QI were simply to imitate. 2 q;;;;;;~~~ole aim But t he re is a great evidence that mt,.h'f she-(. like~lack poets sizraws z M o.n o.vcl:\,Lv • trying to achieve "readable poem without losing the essence of the couplet. After all, as Stephen Henderson (Understanding the New Black Poetry) bas suggested, many~ lack poets have their ears and thought-rhythms attuned to the spiritual and phonological �demands of the audience that loves "extempore" delivery, even when the written lines are strict and tight. Also, in placing "Their colour is a diabolic dye" in quotations ( "On Being Brought from Africa to America "l, , ,r,•,Lll~ Wheatley suggests that others deem her color negative but 'i that she may not. This remains a possibility despite her closing couplet: Remember, Christians, Negroes, black as Cain, /) May be refined, and join the angelic train. Yet there is firm evidence that 7 ~ 1 / \ \ s not insen own sitive, at least to her •~redicament as a slav~without a fundamental and gene t ogical identity. In "To fn e Right Honourable William, Earl or Dartmouth," ..... she says: Should you, rrry lord, while you peruse my song, Wonder from whence my love or Freedom sprung , Whence flow these wishes for the common good, By feeling hearts alone best understood, I, young in life, by seeming cruel rate Was snatch'd from Afric's fancy'd happy seat: What pangs excruciating must molest, What sorrows labour in rrry P~ V breast? Steel'd was that soul and by~ no ~ sery mov'd That from a rather seiz'd his babe belovtd: Such, such my case. And can I then but pray Others may never feel tyrannic sway? / The capital "F" in "Freedom," the phrase "cruel fate," the sorrow felt for her parents and the reinforcement or the agony �via repetition ("such, such"; see Ma rgaret Walker's lines "How Long!"), place her alongside othe'llack voices that searched for answers to the pall of racial insanity that enshrouded the. Phillis wb.eatley also experiments w:i,th the hymn forui~ In "A Farewell / o America" and "An Hymn/ o Humani t~" one bounces along with her alternating lines and rhythms. Perhaps the capstone of the critical "shift" in viewing Phillis Wheatley 1 s work was the Phillis Wheatley Poetry Festival, held in November 1973 to commemorate the at Jackson State ~ 20_?~ anniversary e Colle ge, Mississippi, of the publication of Poems. At that festi va~ writer Luci Horton noted that recently yhere has been more respect for the 0 slave gi rl who, under unspeakable cir cumstances, was able to write poetry or any literature at all." Ebony magazine (March 1974) featured a five-page picture essay on the festival, organized and hosted by Margaret Walker, poetno elist and )~'irector of Jackson State's Institute for the Study ~ 1Jj of story, Life and Culture of Black Peoplec, According to EbonyJ "eighteen Black women poets converged" on the j iack college campus to salute Phillis Wheatley, read their own poems and discuss poetry and life. Other poets participating in the festival included: Naomi Long Madgett, Margaret c. Burroughs , Marion Alexander, Margaret Esse Danner, Linda Brown Bragg, Mari Evans, Carole Gregory Clemmons, Lucille Clifton, Sarah Webster Fabio, Nikki Giovanni, Audre Lorde, June Jordan, Gloria c. Oden, Paula Giddings, Sonia Sanchez, Alice Walker, Malaika Ayo Wangara (Joyce Whitsitt Lawrence) and Carolyn M. Rodgers. • ••• ,.............. _ ___ _ , .... ..., .. , -· J ·~ ..... ~ . _ .................._ _ , _ ~·-~· ~ ,.- �The festival was also the subject of a six-page picture essay by Carole Parks in Black World lii••·-,--blll!lh!lll!t...lf'l l !fo"S~b!,llll!J--•lW.f••o-•s••-•rlil11112~::"&l!ll!B,. <{/,,Yet , a most reveali ng c o:nrnen t a ::peared sh ort ly a f t e r 'th~ flestblLlr( We bruar:y 1974 ). i n M. A. Richmond• s Bi d /h e V2.ssal :::>o ar : I nterp reti ve .c.s says on t he Li fe and Poetr of Ph illis \'V h ea tl e-v and 6 eor e '(o s es Horto tl 974 ) Reacting . P-~ILU~ t,A,eC1.,ey -........ 1 to the adverse criticism of 5 j g) Ri chmo nd s t a tes : 1t!!!!!!!, These poems a re vic ario u s i n theme and i mit a tive in s t y le~ In the circumstances it hardl y could have been differen . ~h e was permitted t o cu ltivate her i nt elli gence , to develo p her feeling for language an d h er f a ci l ity i n its use, but one thing she was not p ermitted t o dev elo p : the s ens e of her own disti n c t identity a s a bl a ck noe"tc:i An d wi thout t h is t here coul d be no perl sonal di s tinc t ion in s t yle o r t h e choic e of t h emes t h ~t make for great poetry© The bar ter of h e r sou l, a s it we re, was no con~ scious contrac t 8n clos e d by a cloying embrace of sla very - at a t en der a ge , a l t ernati ves did not first intrude, and l ater, ~men she mi gh t h ave chosen one , she was dr a ined of the wi ll and pe rcep tion t o do s o . -••2-111,.tt,JPI-IILlll!IIII.JIIIIL!IIL111;•-- - • · - ,--a!llllllllls1!!111£1si!ll!!l!&..lllt111s1111a11f1 e,f,.,t1 _ ~R,tl\m.<m.o has ft"ovided wh at a ppears to be a balanced answer to the prote s tations of Reddi ng , Brown, Brawley ("no racial �value 11 ) ..., and others. It re mains to e s een ~ ,1 h ether c urr e nt and future generations of)3lac k a nd wh ite 1s tudent s ~ eh,lll~ vi ll ke e p --~eatley a "statuie in t he park " or bring :-J er ...;.,, (<Lyde.t 4.y lo ..-) () to t he t a le and "examine h er hlood and be art II ACritic al t reatoent of this firs~l ack woman of le tter s :l:::!!.:.:::J has be e n ext ens i ve : '-.Julian Mason' s Th e Poems of Ph illis Wh eatl e~r (1966 ) ; ar ks dale ~ and Kinnamon' s critic al i ntrodu ction; Ro'bert C . Y.:uncio's "Some Un pu1::J lis~ed Po e::n:: of Ph i l li s T·10 eat l ey 11 ( ~ ll..~ .nlj/1}.D;.Q. QQaf t@FJ v, XLIII, J une , 1 <? T"' , 2 °7~ i..,,f"'':'): !.:o ~'__: i :1 :: ' Th e ~~.;;::!';re .lu t'!:1or (1931); Brawley' s Th e Negro Ge nius; Redd i ng 's To Ha ke ;( Poe t Black; Shirley Graha m's The Story of Philli s (1949 ); and .Jerry Ward~ a nd Charl es ~ owe ll's art icle Freed omway s Sv nih'i8"-11tf7'1-). ~,es lno:ra eh10 e dp mar:'lf ta* Gustavus V ssa (1745 1801), one '-------~- ______, . of the mos t interesting of the early writer& _. In atw h½u!ll a er s ~vi ,ltr,c t.'1 · ~ ' jorn the seventh and youngest s on of ch i eft ~ {i n A Essake , now Eastern Nigeria) Vassa (African name: Olaudah " Equia no ) 1as first sold to a Virginia plantation owner. His j our ney s l ater took him on several Atlantic voyages and then to the Ned i terranear, where he served in the Seven Yeari Wa r . Vas s a h eld technical jobs on ships as a result of his adep4 ness at the English language and bis mastery of basic math e matics. He became a tireless worker for the abolition of slavery and worked , briefly, in behalf of efforts to colonize A, poor ~lacks or England in S1errA Leone. Vassa is chierly known ror his Narrative (1789 t which was a best-seller among abo �litionists in England and America . Slave narratives, we have -hto., observed, were a part of a branch ofJ31ack writing wl!l8i!,1gave rise to the more sophisticated autobiographies (that stretch from Douglass through Baldwin and Cleaveri which in turn laid some of the foundation for American fiction. Vassa was not the first writer of a slave narrative, as is popularly thought. Briton Hammon (no relation to Jupiter) published in London A Narrative of the Uncommon Sufferings and Surprising Deliverance of Briton Hammon, pl Negro Man ( 1760 )J and John Ma.rrant published (also in London) A Narrative of the Lord's Wonderful Dealings with J. Ma.rrant, £Black (1785) . ::3\· > Vassa, whom e turn to briefly for his efforts in poetry, included "Miscellaneous Verses" in his Narrative. His verse is interesting because it helps to establish the portrait of a complex and many-sided man; it also provides further insight into the workings of the African mind making contact with white culture and especially Christianity. While in his prose and speech-making Vassa was firm in his attacks on slavery, he proves in the end to be a believer in some ultimate force of "deliverance." In the last line of the last stanza of his "Verses" he reminds usJ iffi&t. 1£,, "Salvation is by Christ aloneJ" J'hich is, of course, reminiscent of Hammon's opening line: ® Salvation come by Christ alon ,,, Nevertheless Vassa's language is less saturated in/iblical terms than Hammon's. of And the former, as verse writer, has a better control •~he language. In the "Verses" he applies a �driving iambic tetrameter <!'.!.!3 with an a ab b rhyme scheme: Those who beheld my downcast mien Could not guess at my woes unseen: They by appearance could not know The troubles I have waded through. Lust, anger, blasphemy, and pride, With legions of such ills beside, Troubled my thoughts while doubts and fears Clouded and darken'd most my years. In the first stanz4 t!!.31 Vassa presages the duality and mental pressures that more skilled writers would describe,. It rs I 41 as.m 11 Implying that the job of the oppressed Black is to keep his head L-t\lel and up, Vassa says even those who see him in his sorriest state cannot envision the sufferings he has eni Moflt11io,, t1-.c.etaT~~ Du,eha,-. dured. /\ say, the same thing in a different way in ''We Wear the Ma.sifrtJ _ __________ And Countee Cullen would state it more than 130 years later in yet a different way. This apparent ability of Blacks to "keep cool" and adapt (see Johnson's The Autobiography of fn Ex-Coloured ~.ian) under the most trying circumstances has been promoted, nurtured and praised by leaders of the race. an early writer Vassa, then, is important as not only because of his skill, but for the insight and understanding he brings to the social and religious pressures, demands and choices around him. There is a releasing therapy in Vassa's work which acts as only one of numerous �~4' conduits for j lack angu i sh and outrase w' 1en t he ,-_o ptions were slavery or death . Vassa's Narrative is mos t accessible in Bontemps s( Great Slave Narrative s (19 6c; ). I n 1967 Paul Edwards published an edition of the Narrative i nclucling a comprehen sive introduction . Edwards also did a two-volume facsimile reprint of the first edition (1969). See als o Africa Remembered: rarratives by West Africans from the I ra of t ~e Slave Trade, edi t ed by Phillip D. Curtin (1967). Loggins assesses the arrative and Robinson provides a ha ndy biographical-criti cal introduction. Hore on Vassa can be found in Marion L. Starkey 's Striving to Hake It My Home~ _ The ~t.ory of A111erican~fro,n Africa and in '!/Jh itlow's Black American Literature. The early and middle years of the i1 tsb:- century witnessed the maturation of f lack autobiography, political journalism and abolitionist activities. George Moses Horton was @ years old when William Lloyd Garrison founded The Liberator (1831), the most influential and famous of the ab olitionist newspapers. And ~~~ ),,830 ther~ were more than @ J lack antislavery societies Jt;'.~( ~ ,. ~ I ~ in Awtii6£ lea.- lacks i'.1- t'!n .. r1 tad- r ~o!!I had been stL.~•d by ,n~-ttVM'tt,~~ ~,.,vi_ 1// slave rebellions bot h --•~and in places ~ Haiti.,... tae .. +o c.,t; tee ~ A~• Ac..r, 'fl' s rs Carribea~ and Trinidad . Especially inspiring during this i/4/:::;x " period was the 1839 revolt of slaves aboard the Spanish schooner HJAmistad. -- Led by Joseph Cinque, a Mendi-speaking �c . -· ., •~ I prince, the fi.fty slavesc'!y·killed the captain, set the crew .;.:.., adrift and demanded t ha ~ sbi p~owners steer the ship to Africa. Apprehended, the Africans were escorted by a United States brig to New Havel!, wher e t h ~ & other charges. a raced murder and Ex-Preside nt Joh n Quincy Adams defended the Africans' right to re t urn to their homeland) and in 1842 they sailed to Sierr; Leone. Ironically, neither the international ,d:i, press nor most Blacks knew o.f the connection between ~Cinque of the Symbionese Liberation g ott;:r~pparently headquartered in northern California duri ng 1973 "'i4, and the Cinque of the Amistad revolt. In light of t h e growi ng consciousness among Blacks, it was to be expected t hat« George Hoses Horton (1797.!.1883) I'" N would appear to inveigh a gai nst tyranny and slavery. Born a slave near Chapel Hill, North Carolina, Horton is considered to be the first Black to emp loy protest themes in a volume of verse. His Hope of Liberty (1829) ranged over the whole area of general and personal pr otest. The poet was first owned by a planter named Horton_, who l at er rented him in t he service of a janitor to the University of North Carolina. Horton exploited the academic environment by reading the English classics and composing poems. Often called t he first professionaljlack writer, Horton hired h is poetic skill out to student~ who paid him rather handsomely for composing "personal" poems. His second book of poems, Poetical Works of George M. Horton, the Colored Bard of North Carolina, was published in 1845. �Horton's hopes that he would gain enough money from the sale of his books to secure his freedom were never realized; and he was not freed until Union soldiers arrived in 1865, wben his last volume, I Naked Genius, was published. Horton's themes are not devoted exclusively to protea~ and he has been criti cized, along with Phillis Wheatley, Hammon and Vassa, for writing such lines as those that appear in "On Hearing of the Intenti on of a Gentleman to Purchase the Poet's Freedom": When on life's ocean first I spread my sail, I then implored a mild auspicious gale; And from the slippery strand I took my flight, And sought the peaceful heaven of delight. ••• • ••••••••••• • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Hard was the race to reach the distant goal, The needle oft was shaken from the pole; In such distress who could forbear to weep? Toss'd by the headlong billows of the deep! Horton goes on to say that "Eternal Providence" saved him when he was on the "dusky verge of deep despair" and when "the last beam of hope was almost gone." Yet Horton writes bitterly of slavery as well as lightly of love and humorously of life in general. Influences on his poetry are Byron, Wesleyanfiymnal . ~ stanzas, and other sources~ books tha-t' be bad read. In the '----"" poem from which the stanzas above were taken he pursues a ~ i}M-vf\ A JY rather monotonous iambic tetrameter••*•, But in ...._.. i poeITU ~ ........__.,. "Sls.very" {published in The Liberator, March 29, 1834), he var Q&ll the hymn pattern in the way that Phillis Wheatley does in �her hyon-ins pired works . ~Ihen firs t ef;.'ect is almost ballad-li ke: ~G bos o ,: glowed Hi th h ope, my O I gazed a s froc a ~ountain top On some d lightful pla i n; But oh l how transient was t he scene-'''\ It fled as though it had not been .0 And all r.i:r !10. es 1-1ere vain. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Is it ecause r,j:y nki:1 is black, That tbou should'st ½e so dull and slack, £J And scorn to sot n:e free ? Then l e t .:e has t en t:J t:10 grave, Also eff ective and s~stai c in~ in pouer is "The Slave's Complaint lt ) 3 stanzas with a f ina~ i ndentedJ onewhith .features word refrain) ..,, 11?orever/ ··r::i ic _" mark., colon or exclar:atio ~ his love poems1 and in '' -- -~G is followed by either question o..r .: . :Uorton 1:andles well sor:e of Lo~rnr 1 s :Farewell '' is a le to touch base with that broad and painful nderstand i ng of what it means to say goo Ibyf_,, : I leave n:y parents And all ,r y ere behind ., friends ~ to love resigned~ 'Tis grief to go, ut death to stay: FarewellM I' m g one with love away! In this and oth er pieces Horton makes €6Ud'use of dashes /Y\ l -which ...__., allow him to develop s usp ense and render h is statements more 'l'I �dran:.atic. Because of its various uses, the dash b as arrived as an important ingredient of modern and contemporary )3lack poetry. Contrary to many of bis learned contemporaries and predecessors , .Horton apparently consciously thought of, and worked toward, his freedom. This fact is reflected [both ~ n} his life's work and his poetry. His own position, coupled with .his sanguine delivery of folk wit and e phasis, can be seen in the following stanza froA 'The Slave 11 : Because the brood-aw ~ le~: ; side pig: ) e black, O Whofsable tincture was by nature struck, Were you by justice bound to pull them back □ Arn leave the sandy-colored pi gs to suck? For appraisals and selections of Horton's works see Robinson's anthology, Collier Cobb's An American Man of Letters :t;George t Moses Horton {1886), comments by Barksdale and Kinnamon, Wh itlow's study, Brawley 1 s Negro Genius, Loggins' work, Redding's study, Richard Walser 1 s The Black Poet {1967), Brown's assessmen't_JJean Wagner's Black Poets of the United States {1973) ~(c.hmooci~ ~ )\e.,.\la.!«o.L. ~oc1,.<iq f-.,\ _a,:;;:g: 3-c?At'\ ~ kel\Mo.¥1 'S .:rn V ,s,~1.e am,•Af ro-~e.-, I CW\.S Q €th f rimrieen!h Horton, of course, trails a nd precedes a long line of eeniv~y~7~ orators and poets, many of whom we know very little about today. In fact, comparatively speaking, there is a wide disparity between the readily availabl k s1!gnificant information on l_:::::/ white writers of the period and the lack of vital data on Blacks. We do know t hat the early decades of the century witnessed a developing Christian and political consciousness among Blacks too ff) �and that most northernpac k wr i ters., intellectuals and educators turned their attention t o the educational., physical erncrtrona.L and« J II a.a needs of free and enslaved Blacks. l)o►,tH.v Of these and other matters., ~~ f orter pr ovides ample proof and dis1-, cussion in Early Negro H'ri t i ng .1/-occasional verse was also somewhat of a tradition among ~a ny learned Black~ as was the practice of writing hymns , psal ms and other spiritual songs. One such recorded item is 11 ~p i r i tual Song" by Re ~chard Allen, probably "chant ed or s ung during the delivery of a sermon." Rev internal r hyme by repeating similar sounds in the middle a nd at the end of lines. Varying his meter and using an i rregular end-line rhyme scheme, he expresses the religious fervor t hat consumed many Blacks of the period: Our time is a-flying ., our moments O a-dyi ng, Ue are led to i mprove th em and quic kly iappear, For t he hour when Jesus in I 'power., In glory s a ll come i s now drawing - 1 near., ks there wi ll be shouting., and jI'm not doub ti ng, But crying and screaming for mercy ; in vain: I I �Therefore my dear Brother, let's □ now pray together, That your precious soul may ½e 0 fill 1d with flame. Another s uch example is a "New Year's Anthemn written by :Michae l Fortune and "sung in the African Episcopal Church of . - St. Th omas" on January 1, 1808. Fortune's a nthem is tra ditional in its use of materials from Neth odist hymns. tells t he congregation to d r :P / 11 He Lift up your souls to God on high/ Who, with a tender father's eye Looked down on Afric's helpless raceJ !7 Robert"Y. Sidney composed two anthems ''For the National Jubilee of t he Ab olition of the Slave Trade, January 1st, 1809." "A nth em I" begins: DRY your tears, ye sons of Afric, God has shown his gracious power; He has stopt the horrid traffic, That your country's bosom tore. See through clouds he smiles benignant, See your nation's glory rise; Though your foes may ~ ndignant, All their wrath you may despise. This sta nza is followed by a "Chorus," "S l_!/ and "Recitative." In ."A!1.them II" an abbreviat orm is employed and Sidney drops the solo and ~eeitative/4keeping only 1the chorus: Chorus. Rejoice that you were born to see, �This glorious day, your jubilee. :a-s. Porter includes Sidney also wrote a hymn , hymns by religi ous leaders Pet er 1-Tilliams" Jr . , a nd Willi Hamilton. Both men , usi ng t he English forms, celebrate freedc~1, call for mutual aid ar.:ong Blac ks and preach the virtues of the 1f ff Christian God. Willians praises the "eloquence/Of Wi l berforce" ,\ /I after whom a predominantly_Jlack niversity fwas namedl i n Ohi~. For detailed information on sources for these and similar writings see 1-rrs . Porter's Early 3egro 1'lriting: __.1760~1873. The collection includes two very touching examples of' writings "On Slavery" and "On Freedom" by Qj -year-old boys from the New York African Free School established in 1786. In reading ini,,e, the life a nd works of Daniel A. Payne ...._; ,... (18llh~ 93), one is i nmediately struck by his dedication to the task of upgrading Blac~~ . ~ducator, university president, missionary and poet, Payne Has born in Charleston, South Carolinaj of f ree parents. He was orphaned at 10 years We! - ,. / 11~ apprenticed to a carpenter and then to a tailor. Later trai ned in classical education at t h e lo cal ,Unor' s Moralist Society's s chool, he taught free )5'lac k students for a fee and slaves free of charge at night . Payne ' s travels t ook him to various places (New Orleans , Balt i more, Canada a nd twice to England ~ where he helped expand t he programs of the African Methodist Church. Trained in the Luthera n Seminary in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania , he was ordained in 1839: after preaching for several years, he was r:1ade an A. :r.•I.E. µ shop in 1852. In the political and educational spheres., he helped urge Lincoln 103 �(on April 14, 1862) to sign the bill to emancipate slaves in the District of Columbia, and spearheaded the purchase of Wilb erfor ce Universityf serving as its president for @) years. Payne devoted most or his life to the cause of free and enslaved Blacks and to writing poetry and religious history. His Pleasures and Other Miscellaneous Poems was published in Baltimore in 1850. He also wrote books on the history and mission of the A.M.E. Church. ~~pecially valued for its social and intellectual insight into 9 h~century Blacks is Payne's Recollections of Seventy Years)published in 3ashville in 1888. As a poet Payne is erudite and i mitative. Rob i nson 4a•s--z•bl~g,- observes that a major problem with the poetry is "the repe / tition of end ~~topped lines, and his diction, a hybrid of '-- classical and 8 bl1cal vocabularies, can prove distracting to many readers ." # Mu.c or this we can forgi ve , however, when we (OY\-t.,;; ..0.'°¥ pot;t understand ~enry Dumas '.s remark that "a j 1ack poet is a preacher. Certai nl:r a preacherM in :fact or as poet -knows very well the mean't n ~ and need for repetition. convi::ce us of his seriousness. I Yet Payne never fails to -rh-e So hurt was e in~wake of the 1334 South Carolina law that, e.ffective i n 1835, made .,l!'lack literacy :..11egal, Payne ·wrote '' L p (1\; capt or ' s Farewell . h We find h is enbossed co ncer n for students in t hese lines: Ye lads, whom I have taught with sacred zeal, For your hard fate I pangs of sorrow feel; Oh, who shall now your rising tale nts guide, fuere virtues reig~ a nd sacred truths preside ? 11 �revolv i ng moo ns s h o.ll ~ :t.::_/ ' t : ' :e ::::1.:o lau 11 s !I af ter t he dread s1rnt t ue do ors" .:,,: ...,J.tca t~ ..:: f •' :'"' S out:.1 Caro li:ia Blac k::: . EnguJ.i' ed in t bo r oli ,=;i c•t::: a~: . . :.c: r al .LOl~vor of i:::a ny / lack mi nist ers of t 1.1 e p ~ri ocl, t~:o -:=: oc t D. i:d or ator reflects a ge - old conc erns about dece i t a:-:r' r:i:::trust i ~1 suc'h pieces as " r:11"' ~ :,:en ta lk of I.eve ! Bnt f m do ever feel The speec-::-:. :.es ;:; :" apt ' re s uhic'!J its joys rev eal. tl,-. , istalr r., 1- o~re l·.iren J.' '"~ 0 v , i. 1.1. ti -- a,•r ·:, ·-.~ .1.. "' ~ .,. ~ .. J.V . ... v-vt..J , t_,at v i le , that ~-Jbos e bes o:;. ne ' r e Yer f e: t the sacred 0 flame . For insight into Pa:"" ::~ ! .:; lif ..::l a ~d "·10:rk~ one could go to any one of bis "c ons i d rnble n'..1:-.::. er II of ":·Jr tings . Among others, they inc lude The S0i ~i- ,: ..::n-:.;:; :-:ar :r a nd the n etrospecti on of t he Ai'rican He t __ od ist istory of ~ i =:;c or_J a l Ch ur c'h (Baltimor e, 1866) and The th e A. :-r. :s . c~, re:; (::asl'lvi l le , 1866). Josephus R. Coan:. ' s 1 ,35 (P . i'J.M elpb ia) b iographyl S ee also Daniel Alexander Payne , Christian ~d cator , ~ob i nson's comments a nd Brawley's Negro Genius . Unfortunatel~ to o li~tle is kn own of romantic poet .John $ . B ~ ~~J.u.ytan:.ibth:;,...lfa. ~ '~-, . ~ , Boyd., ,.,_especially since 'b.is wor k refle cts genuine g ifts and talents. Boyd's poetic i ~a ges are br illiant, sustained., searing and generally accurate even if they are not always �connected in a way that makes them readily a~ssible. only record of Boyd is made available by C•r • Nesbitt , The Esq., ~eputy/ ecretary and_jegistrar of the Government of the Bahamas. Nesbitt must have recognized the talent and the promis~ a nd he aided Boyd's poetry through publication in London in 1834. Boyd, it seems, was self-taught on New Pro~idence Islan~ where he remained all his life. ft,r !'"' -t ,-.r f Lif n was published in the February issue of the Boston-based Liberator. His poem 16, 1833, His 1834 volume is entitled The Vision/~and other/+Poems, /'i n Blank Verse i by John Boyd/~a man of Colour/. Practically unedited, the manuscript is what Robinson calls a "publishing scramble." Like most of the poets of the perio0yBoyd 1 s work owes debt to :Hilton, the !ible ard classical influences. 11 The Vision/ oe-:-: 1.n _ ank- Vers e 11 is immediately reminiscent of Mil ton's Paradise Lost . Boyd skirts a rhyme scheme but employs a - fairly regular iambic pentameter. ~•• ••• All things considered, his work partially cancels the criticism by Sterling Brown that .Jlack poets lag in their stylistic awareness . s brilliantly with: ought the Moon, pale regent of 0 the sky, Cres ted, an:l filled with lucid Iradiance, Flung her bright gleams across my !lowly couch; "Vision" �And all of h eaven 's fair starry O fir mament (j Deli ghtful shone in ::ues of I glittering light , Reflec t i ng, like to fleecy g old, I the dewy air . In his "•t/i t:101:). 11 Boyd encounters ch a racters of both t h e h eavens 1fJ. and the hells . Hhen the narrator , " 11 dr eame:r~/' joined the trai t1_J Fervent hosannas struck the as 0 tonish' d car, As wh e n i n the 1-:1.idb our of calmest :ni ght, C St ill ness pervadeth tha awa kened Roused by the secret p o ,1 er that lmoves th e deep, It heaves i t s l oud s urge on t h e sounding shore; The "vision " is als o peopled y "grim death and ghastly Sint who ·"lay coiled , l i ke s a ke s i n one huge scaly fold, consider their "inexpiab le doo•. - '- • " M 11 a nd Boyd 's tones are sacred and surreal a nd he asser,bles b arn lessly complex sub ordinate clauses that help build a n exciting l i nguistic 1 criend ~ as i n "Ocea n " . ~ G) lfue n t he fiat of t he most iligl:f ) Thy fountains b rst, afc op ious _y 107 �Thy secret springs, with ample store, Pour'd forth their waves from sh ore to shore 1-lide as the waters roll, oh, wave. ~SIi~ •■ Boyd ' s Hork has yet to be appraised in terms corm_R its i mpor t ance. with Robinson makes brief but significant comments on h is poe t r y •. -- Ann Plato, another romantic poet, is also one for whom there exist t ":!::~-:t:e .& 3 L important factua l dat a. Th is second_)3l ack American female to publish a book almost skirts t h e racial t heme completely. Her Essays:/ I ncluding/ Biograph i es a nd ~-:iscellaneous Pieces, /in/ Prose and Poetry was published i n Hartford in 1841. What little is known of h er comes by WfJ'( of a n i t roduc tion to her book __________..--- by Rev. J .r,1·IC, Pe nni ngton , pastor of the Colored Congregational Church i n Hartf ord, of which she was a member. First of Except .for her "To the ugust, 11 written in celebration of t he 1833 abolition of s l avery in the British West Indies, there are only allusions t o s l avery . Her book also contains essays on reli gion, modi eration, conduct and other conventional t hemes. t hemes are pretty much parallel ed by the 2 ~ poem~ .__. -s ame in her book, wh ich deal with home life, deaths of acquaintances and moral i ssues . "Reflections, Written on Visiting t he Grave of a Ve ner ated Friend" begins: Deep in this grave her bones remain, She's sleeping on, b ereft of pai t@ .,A lOS �The langua ge a nd t b0 ::mbjoc:. ,::a.tter are s toc k.., but "Forget :-re Not," e ach stanza of i:hic. c nc.. s ~-i tl1 t b e t itle, is well h a ndl ed and has fla she s of the ;;rca ci-, r.:cnt of s e lf -contro l t hat Vassa alluded to i n h is versos: ~.1 hen b i rd does Ha it t':1y ab sence lo ng, Nor tend unt o {;, ts r1or~i ng song ; 1/hile th ou ac•t sea r ching stoic pa g e, Or l i steni ng to an a ncie nt sage, ·Those s pi rit cur [!j] a CTournful rage, 3 7orge t ::e ~Tot . Her int eres t i n ora l l iterat ·re and the s torytelli ng tradition -~ is apparent i n "The !Ta ti-:es of A ,: eric~" f1he.ie she as ks: C "Tell me a stor~, f a ther, please," And t h e n I s o.t ·1~c!'l l-: is !r!'lees. Again, as i n her c onter.:pcraries, -:1e fi nd the ini'l.uences of English writers of a pre c edi~;; senera tion or so, the debt to ,J'ib lical l earni ng a nd r.n.: ch i::::i to.t ion . 1 ? or brief critical notes on Hiss Pl?,t o see . . obi r:son's :Sarl7 Black American Poets. Ske it; a l ~rJ b...,·E~Ly nu.Ted IYI .$he t-i~1P."'' :ttl\ri,,b, f.£!.Y}' , (Na.A Anoth er aboliti o:1ist- ni..ister and orator-poetA.El ymas Payson or r Rogers (1814?,v _ 61), i.f c , ""ter tc ac!1 i ng pub lic sch ools i n Rochest er, Ne1•1 York, took Dl ne of Rogers ' students 1 pa stori ng in Newark, New Jersey. '!!~=!!~~• ~ wa s ~ aj W. Logue ~ later become a n i npor t a nt social-religious leader and a _)31shop of t he A. Ii. E . J hurc 1 . .Fugitiv e slave Loguen•s bio grapby (see 'Ne gro Caravan ) a pp eared in 1859, in Syracuse, under the title The Revere nd J . 1 q -r. Lo Slave and as �a Freerr.a n. Known, as were many of the orator-poets, for rec iting his poems orally, Rogers' themes are unashamed l y abolition , Jlack betterment arxl political hypocrisy. Working politically on behalf of Blacks, Rogers appar ently designed The Fugitive Slave Law (Newark, 1855) and Repeal of Missouri Compromise Considered (Newark, 1856) to be read aloud from platform~ LikeJ ~runes w. Whitfield, who cane later, Rogers gave up hope in America's ever giving Blacks a fair deal and • - - - - - - tr-.Gm sai led for A.fr ic where he died ~f ever a - f ew days after hiA· arriva • ~lt n a, His incisi ve no-holJ s - barred J a pproach to the political climate and conditions of the time is seen in "On the Fugitive Slave Law": Lawif What is Law? The wise and sage, Of every clime and every age, In this most cordially unite, That 'tis a rule for doing ri ght. And the ringing cry of the elocutionist can be he ard later in the poem) ·t-1hen, ~ discussing the fugitive bill, he as ks and a nswers: That Bill a law? (I:' the South says so, But Northern fr e~ answer, NoJ Anticipating the fiery and torrential Whitfield (and "ang?;. vo ices " )J Rogers conti nues : Th.at bill is law, doughfaces say; But black men everywhere We'll never yield to its While life shall animate one soul, -== ce ntury �r' At times bi ti ng a nd o·.-orf earL~0 1:· l1ars!1 as a poet, Rogers ---· resounds i n t1Tbe 21.e pea:.. of t:10 ::issouri Compromise Co nsidered t1 with t h ese words: Iv nI wa nt t::e land , '! ·;!ls ? eedom 's cry; And Slaver:· a ns ?Jered, "; o rf_,9 IJ By a ll t h a t ' s sacred , I de clare 5· .zt I' 11 h a v e ,, --; o. nd lawful s h are. The lJor th er ·1 cncc :~ s~::ould g l ow with s h a me To t h ink to ro"'.J .:.c With built-in drar.:a a rx: ca:"ef,~ :.. cut s , ::Zog ers assessed t h e state or t h e nati on duri ng ~ i .s tL.ie . Jr" ,1t\r-tfi:d.v A/.Y Inf\1pz l ins-:~ ttLawZ Whatl\Law?" he purp os ely b egs t~o ~J8S~ io~ i~ order t o wring t h e emoti onal and rhet orical poHer fror-: t _ e ~,ords a nd t o evok e res p onses from a ud i enc es. 2efe~e ~cos to ~o 6 crs can also b e fou nd i n Robinso n I s Ea rly Bla c :r \. . e ic tk ~oe t s ~ $'1 e"' rYlf. r\ S £ n\l!.~1bLe t'11 eTu_. ::Iat hemati cian, ::;oc~ , c 1.1c a tor a nd ..)flack c ommunity worker, ,r Ch arles L. Rea son ( - n -, 0 1 :_ ___N ~ ,....,... , ~ore in J ew York City of ~~cw York African Free S chool.> Haitian parents . where he l a t er r etur~c~ u::: .... ·c: :1--cr of th e all_i5'lac k faculty . See ki ng th e r,:i nL::-1::: r ~: , - -- r,... - '- . i: :.:J.s, ::er r acial reaso ns, forb i dde n f u ll-:. time a tt cnda ~1c e a t t '~~ 7 · ::;ologi c a l Semi na ry of t h e Pr ote ~ tant Ep i s copal C_1 rc~ . ~ve~~ua:: ~, , ~1ev er, be e came eli gi b le ~--0. ~o.: ::.cs a.r:,d .,(e lle ~Z e t tr es (1849 ) a t ,.. th e Mew York C0nt r a l .: ~::c.._, ~ .· ·: : :~r;.r a--: 1ville, Cof rtland. County. for a profes scrsh i :) 5. -~ V' William G. Al le r! a:-id C-cor:;0 n, . there . n ,- s ;o:, rere also on t h e faculty 1 He held \'ari o,,::: od1-'c2.t i or..n : jo1:,s i nclud i ng a pr i nci palship of t:1c I nstitt.1t0 : ..,r' C..;, :..c:i.''"' '--- "t(outh i n Ph iladelph ia Hf �and grammar shcool/ o• 20 in Tew York City poe-r i.·L ile~ -f.. Cordel · a Reas on was an i nte lle ctual a nd ;. Ray was a teacher there. scholar but was not blintl to t be practical needs of Afro-=A. oricans . 1-Ie opposed plans to colonize Blacks, clai:.li ~.; r,. instead t hat they nee~ed to ~ursue v ocational careers _ere in America. Again, not pr i r.1arily a poet , Reason is co ;1petent ve~(,ie"" as a (\~ in "The Spirit Voice)' which opens with: ComeJ rouse ye brothers , rousel a peal now brea ks Prom lo1-1est island to our gallant jlakes: ' Tis sununoning you, ·who in bonds Ih ave lain, To s tand up nanf'ul on the battle I plain, and urges Blacks to fight for freedom and opportunity. The poem (whose comp lete title is "The Spirit Voice or, Liberty Call to the Disfranchised") is indebt ed to the rhyming couple ~ so famous during t h e era and which had been used with great skill by Phillis ":· eatley . It appears in William Si mmons' 1en of 1.!B.rk (Cleveland, 1887) . Reason's work is designe and move ~ Like that of other orator-poets, ;o be read aloud in order to stir le to action . Therefore be exhorts, reinf'orces, demands , warns , admonishes and issues veiled threats . His "spirit voice " (see the idea of African Spirit Fore ) longs for t he time [if when freedom ' s mellow light I �Shall break, and usher in the endless .CJ day, That from Orleans to Pass 1maquoddy I I jBay, Despots no more may earthly homage 1 claim, No slaves exist, to soil Columbia's name. The poem was written in 1841 and shows Reason's poetic abilities etched out under the strain of racism and the countless chores demanded of an educated Black of tbe period. Elsewhere ( ''Freedom") he gave this familiar cry : 0 Freedoml FreedomJ Oh, how oft Thy loving children call on TheeJ In wailings loud and breathings sl,oft, - Beseeching God, thfy face to see. How reminiscent of and "not unlike" the/ pirituals this burst isJ Certainly the stud~nt of this petf)od o0 'lack poetry will ~l$0 want to keep his rhythmic lyres attuned to the )ifiblical and innovative cadences of those ~ lack and unknown bards." sJ,ermo.t> assessments of Reason see Robinson, Brawle~~and Kerlin. For More of Reason's work appears in A Eulogy on the Life and Character of Thomas Clarkson (1847) and in Autographs for Freedom (1854). Anticipating the Afro-American poignancy and humor in this line by Langston Hughes; ( America never was America to me �and this one by Lance Jeffers: ( r) to make me mo~ American than America) James M. Whitfield (1823j~78) voiced some of the most powert ful and angry protest yet heard in.Jlack American poetry when he published Amerio~ ,aod Other.. E0ems, in Suffalo in 18.53. Barber, worker for. flack colonization, poet and pioneer journ,i alist, Whitfield had earlier authored various types of writings: Poems in 1846; "How Long?" (published in Julia Griffith•s . . . Autographs for Freedom in Rochester, 18.53); "Self-Reliance, Delusive Hope, and Ode for the Fourth of July" (in The Liberator, November 18, 18.53); "Linesi Addressed to Mr • .and Mrs. J •f• Holly, on the Death of Their Two Infant Daughters" cj.n Frederick Douglass• Paper, February 29, 18.56); and Emancipation Oration (San Francisco, 1867). Whitfield is known chiefly for America) which was received so favorably that he was . able to leave his barber:,shop and devote full time to making speeches for the abolitionist cause, working for colonization programs and general/ lack developi ment. He had personal contact with both Dou31ass and novelist Martin Delane~ who called the 18.54 National Emigration Convention of Colored Me°.! which Whitfield attended. respected and admired Whitfield. Douglass apparently But the two men differed on the question of colonization and participated in a lively dei bate. Pursuing bis ow~ osition with vigor, Whitfield established the African-American 1fiejp sitory, in 18.58, as a pro colonization propaganda organ. Tho , born in Exeter, New Hampshire; vfuitfield �spent most of bis life in Buffal~ where he barbered and cont ducted@:~ his colonization efforts . He apparently died on his way to look into the possibilities of colonizing f lack Americans in Central America. Delaney had changed his mindJ and the emigration scheme was never realized. Like most of the orator-poets , Whitfield is writing to be heard , listened to and read aloud . Consequently much of bis poetry (though not lacking in religious fervor) reinforces bis ideology and negative views of America. America, the Sweet land of liberty becomes for \fu itfieldl, "Americaj' ( I Tbou b oasted land of liberty, #\ and To thee I sing becomes It is to thee I raise my song, Thou land of blood, and crime, and wrong. Like Rogers, Wbi tfield did not believe America was capable of redemption; and, again like bis predecessor, he died onv,~} 9 /1 journell to find something better. The i dea of "giving•· up on'' T ~JL -- ~/ / America would appear thematically in the poetry of/\ later w iters #J ~ . l)o11l- Fenton Jobns on,.Lee, Baraka and some of the Mus lim poets. ,, wn4<"'- e It would also be implicit in the/\expltriat~ --.« writers and artists such as Paul Robeson, Wright, Baldwin, Chester Himes and Katherine Dunham. In a driving iambic pentameter (in couplets), which has all the openings for spontaneous interjections and expletives, ·whitfieldJ in "America, n accuses �the United States of killing the? her and of general hypocrisy. ack sons who fo ught for Here one can see Whitfield a. anticipating~current slogan, which Hayden makes use of i n ""Words in the Mourning Time": /;, Killing people to save, to free them? Though more general, Whitfield continues a similar assault ?" {stating life is hel~} in "The iisanthropisi,'' but tones down I\ I 1n . to a reverent saluteR'To Cinque": - . All hailJ thou@IJ. truly noble chief, D Who scorned to live a cowering slave; Thy name shall stand on history's leaf, £J Amid the mighty ani the brave@,•• Wh.i tfield praises the revolutionary Cinqu~ who "in .freedom's might" t Shall beard the robber in his den; and ••• fire anew each .freeman's heart. Since Whit.field's primary goal is to get a political "message" over, his poetry, as art, leaves some things to be desired. Robinson points out that Hhit.field "is genuinely angry" (despite the influence of Byron} and that the bitterness and .force in his work f fnot to be mistaken for romantic or linguistic cosl , metics. Lastly, we must note that 1-Thitfield expressed concern for global oppression; quite modern in this, he served, more or less, as a chronicler of world turbulence and a harbinger of the direct and emphatic assaults that today's_/lack poets heap upon tyranny. He viewed the "Russian Bear" (reflecting �on European despotism of the mid 180cr's) in bis poem "How Long?": 'I see tbe "Rugged Russian Bear" Lead forth bis slavish hordes, to war Upon tbe right of every State Its own ai'fairs to regulate; To help each despot behind the chain Upon the people's rights again, And crush beneath his ponderous paw All constitutions, rights ar.rl law. Selections of Whitfield's poetry can be found in the Robinson ------ ~ anthology, in Negro Caravan (1941), and in the Barksdale and Kinnamon text. Whitlow discusses ii!SI [ 31 7 7 'lt\.poetry and im l pactJ as dofe Loggins, Brown, Brawley, Wagnerr ..___,,, -&M Rutb '-' Miller ...__, . (Black American Literature, 19?l)f ~ ~ ~ . ~ The most popular)31.ack 19 was Frances E.f·T. , century poet before 1Dunbar Harper (1825 1911), the first .,.$lack American to publish a short story ( "The Two Offers, 11 1859). Born free in Baltimore as Fra nces Ellen Watkins, she was educated in Pennsylvania and Ohio, and spent most of her adult life in the cause of antislavery and other types of social reform. She worked in turn for the abolition mo; ement, the Underground Rail~ road, the A. M.E. Church and the Womfn's Christian Temperance ~~ 0 fl.PO ;agas+ According to Dunn (The Black Press )J she"-.c ontributed to news and propaganda publications. Her reform work was slackened by her marriage to Fenton Harper in Cincinnati in 1860. But after his early deat~ in 18641 she resumed her efforts, lecturing in all but two southern states and promoting / lack �self'-help programs. Her fame rested primarily on her Poems on Miscellaneous Subjects ) published in 1854 in Philadelphia. (A. ve~opular volume, it went through twenty editions by l:_874 ~illiam Still's Underground Rail~oad, 1872) • . Her literary activity was stepped up after the Civil War and included Moses, .,K Story of the Nile which went through three editions 7 by ') 1870; a volume entitled Poems came out in l87~ followed by a second edition in 1900; and attempts at prose fictio ~ in~ eluding Southern Sketches (1872, enlarged in 1896) and a novel, Iola LeRoy, published in 1892. ha.s not been located. Her first work, Forest Leave~, Critics generally agree that Mrs. Harper's poetry is not original or brilliant. But she is exciting and comes through with powerful flashes of imagery and statement. Her models are J.'rrs . Hemans, Whittier and Longfellow, and so we find an overwhelming influence from the ballad. In reading her poetry in public, Hrs. Harper was ·able to appeal to what .IC\ Johnson (Q9<.!,!,s~on~) cal-ed a "highly developed sense .Jof sound" in A.fro-Americans (see, again, statements by Rev Allen and Vassa). She apparently knew her limitations, for Robinson tells us that her popularity ••• was not due to the conventional notion of poetic excellence, Mrs. Harper was fully aware 0 of her limitations in that kind of poetry, it was due more to the sentimental, emotion: frei ghted popularity w;; she had gi ven the lines with her disarmingly dramatic voice and gestures and sighs and tears. �~ ntil the Ci vil \far, l!rs. Harper's favorite themes Here . slave ry, its harshness , and tl1e hypocris~es of America. She is careful to place graphic details ·where they will 6 et t h e greatest res 'J.lt, especia.11:" when the poen s are read aloud. An exar.1p le of this is found in 11 T'!.1e Slave I·Iotber rr: Ee is not hers, fo r cruel r.a~ds G) The only '!·rre at~~ of ho seb. old l ove O That bi nds b er breaki ng heart • .~ A. sir:1ilar play on the emotio ns is seen in poer,1s I\ in a Fr ee Land., n "Songs for the People., rr r'Double ta ndard TT (with its stil.,rings of feminis m. ) and "The Slave Auction. n A wonan is not solely in esponsible for her nfall, n she suggests Dou~le Standar~" a ddir..g~ ,-.. TT. And what is wrong in a woman's life 0 In man's canno t be right. Hi gh ly readable and less acade mic i n her use of p oe tic te ch ~ niqt1es a nd v ocabularies, ?-j:,s. Harper is nev-ertheless quite indebted t o t h e pble for ~uch of her i magery a ~d moral message. ~ And she is able to merge and modify the folk and reli gious ~ ~ , ·µ forms in a noem .;J.ke nTruth" wh"ere she opens wi tb a debt to / the/ 4 irituals: " A rock, for ages, stern a nd high, toad frowning ' gainst the earth and sky, I/ And never owed his haughty crest When a ngry sterns around him prest. Horn, springing from the arms of night, _ _ _ ___ ..__ - - - - - - r �Had often bathed h is bro1v with light , G And kissed t:.ie shadows from h is face Ui th tender love a nd gentl-~ grace. Several religious songs are suggested here; but she also loves to return to the theme of wome ~ as she does in "A Double Sta ndard " and "The Slave 1.fother." I n the b allad "Vashti n s he tells of the heroine who dared to disobey her dictator-husba nd . The strength and determination of woma nh ood is expressed i n the last t wo stanzas: She beard again the King's car.wand , 0 And lef't her high estate; Strong in her earnest womanhood, G 0 She calmly met her fate, And left the palace of the King I Proud of her spotless namei- A woman who could b e nd to grief I 1 But would not bow to shame . Certai nly a comprehensive biographical-critical study of Hrs . I' Harper is long over_ due. Selections of her work can be found ~ Negro Caravan, ~ Robinson's in, Kerli n 's critical a nthology book, • ◄ IP I n Mr :H i ller's anthology, • • • Barksdale a nd Kinnamon and in numerous other recent anthologies. Qittipo1 1 e works are critically examined by Loggins, Wagner, Whitlow, Brawley, Brown and Sherman. lJ c.,r l a %wen .t s a rf s Q ' { Like other l"1ri ters, ii ljl) l s;v;H• . g educators and activists of his day, ,,, �,-, George B. Vashon (1822h _, 78) contributed to the influential Anglo-African Hagazine which was published intermittently between 1859 ~ th; end of the Civil Har. Vashon had a goo~ solid educationi in classics and history~ at Oberlin College_, where he received his A.B. in 1844 and M.A. in 1849. ·11;,s~a'T..~~ )mowtlJchiefl'lJ for his "Vincent Og~," which Sterling Brown tells us 11 is the first narrative poem of any length by a Negro poet . ~ I ll Jd !l!ltJ'.!!113 t let Ll!L& ill •• '• 11 ~ 1:i)iiC:S 40 Jwtu1ar · u? r ~ taught school in Pittsburg; i•• 1 '•• 1-Ie~acticed law in Syracuse, served on the faculties of C llege Faustin in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, New York Central College (where he was a colleague of Reason and Allen) and Howard w~shit'\l]o n1 University in ,.p.o.1 where he was a 1 aw professor. Huch of Vashon's poetry reflects debts to his strong education and the influence of Scott and Bvron. in "Vincent 0~ All are seen " ins11ired by the courageo~s (but foolish) efforts of Vincent ', a Haitian mulatto who was 11 entrusted with the message of enfranchisement to the people of mixed blood on the isla nd." The order had corae down from t h e Con vention in France, of :..;hich Hai ti was a colony . disruption in France (due to th0 I nternal evolution, 178~ had echoed to its colonies in t ,. e Caribbea~ ·where O · ' led a short- lived armed upris,ing that cost him his li.fe when be was refused asylum in Spanish Santo Domingo and remanded to the French authorit1.es in Haiti. others, the French had O ' As punishment and a warning to tortured on the whee1=, and severed we..\"e his body into four parts cnv:b 1!11€ which .... bung up in the four ) --- I\. �leading cities of the island. i'ollowers were -either put 0 to death or i mprisoned and t.eir properties coni'iscated. f Vashon was as 1-:i.oved by O •s example as was Whitfield by Cinque•s. talizes In the lengthy poem "Vincent 0~ 11 Vashon immorf o{i in an admixture of classical and piblical language, / {J.,M pl... '1, i'!!}_ .., '4U\ using a pleasant iambic tetrameter w ___.,"2 and 15 e s sf dissonance in his rhyme schem~ which features an alternating a b a b/ a a bb . The style is somewhat reminiscent of Whitfield) who breaks his rhyme scheme (see nAmerica 11 ) ai'ter each group of etght or nine lines "Vincent O " and "A Life-Day" were both printed in Autographs i'or Freedom for 1853. For Vashon, the struggle is ve y much alive; f ? And Oge stands mid this array ,,,,,,- 0 Of matchless beauty, but his brow ( 1) Js brightened not by pleasure's play; 0 He stands unr.ioved-lnay, saddened not, M As doth the lorn and mateless birdj ( and O , dedicated to struggle, presses on. Vashon carefully weaves the graphic details or his protagonist 's execution into the narrative and anticipates the more fire-tipped pens of later?ack °(lynch.:.theme) poetsJ such as .Johnson, !-IcKay, Hughes, Brown and Dodson: Frowning they stand, and in their cold, Silent solemnity, unfold The strong one's triumph o'er the weakl M The awf'ul groan-~the anguished shriek-~ ,v\ "" The unconscious mutterings of despair/\-'\ �The strained eyeball's idiot stare 7~ The hopeless clench~ the quivering frame •. \ \ The martyr's death I IV'\ the despot's shame . The rack-~the tyrant-Lvictim,-Lall M f'<\ I Are gathered in that Judgment Hall . Draw we a veil, for 'tis a sight But fiends can gaze on with delight . Freighted with emotion and terror like much of the work of f\Qne, e') --r1 Harper, and setting the stage for such awesome poe~ as Wrigh t's "Between the w·orld and Me," McKay's "The Lynching," Dunbar's "The. Haunted Oak" and Dodson's "Lament, " Vashon ts relentless , . . narrative signals a new and sustaining power in tbe work of ~ ack poets . Compare, for example, tbe last two lines of the stanza above to McKay's couplet in his sonnet "The Lynching 11 : And little lads , lynchers that were to be, Danced round the dr~ul thing in fiendish glee. ~mKay, however, Vashon cheers up at the end: 7J Thy coming fame, OgeJ is sure; ~ Thy name with that of L:__•ov rture, And all t he noble souls that stood With both of you, i n times of blood, Will live to be the tyrant's fear Compare this ending, if you will, to the ending salute to "General Washington" by ~'Jlll~j 'Wheatley. "A Life-Day" is a a shorter poem, in three parts, and, like "Vincent ~g, is founded �........ on a factual eventl \·the love affair and eventual marriage of a young white man and a light-skinned Black. For selections of Vashon•s works see Autographs for Freedom and Robinson's anthology. For critical discussions see the works of Brown) .a Brawley~~~~«~ . As we prepare to move to the next phase in the develop ment of/ lack poetry, it is important that we tarry long enough to pay brief attention to some of the Creole poets. We select ,.. Pierre Dalcour, Armand Lanusse (1812 _. 67), Victor Sejour {1817~ 7/f74), Nelson Debrosses and Nicol R1quet. Somewhat of an anomaly in Afro-American literature and poetry, these Creole poets are nevertheless i mportant if the complete portrait of this many-sided and complex tradition is to be understood. There is nothing typically American in their poetryAf not even in terms of American imitators of English forms i and they rarely display any racial consciousness or concern for slavery and general i njustice. :Iost were i'luent in speaking and ·writing French1 and from that influence their work derives a ii'\ spicy me lody a nd an ui11bited treatment of romantic love and ·,1Jti~~ • 'I Euch of the work is also in its J !It• d sophisticated se of conve ntions and materials gained from French educati ons. The Creole poets ' works appeared as "tbe first publish ed anthology of }Te~o v9rs0 in America" i n a volume ~ ly!.r_ 13e.m~ -called Les Cenelles wrew Orleans., 1845). I~ addition to French, the Creole poets also ·wrote 1n Spanish, Latin and Greek and were generally fron the wealth~ landt owner class �and 011ned slaves. """'rry o~ wl-ion-1 h~<t 1; t,....!~-~-£!!.§.i.h~ fric.L."!J~.J/YVdr ~ e~e r,o f~, @ G.f"'Y~~t;:hvt;~ . J,,.t. J, -ff_ "1ttf; #l'th.A!"r1.'"~LbvML:,Tttr~•.-S!• A _ u.s~" tl-l,A''er• --~ ;; • About Dalcour little is kn own except that '!:le was b orn t-.;-t't1tpe, of wealthy parents who sent him. to France in the earl:r 1300 s Returni ng to 1Tew Orleans af ter to re c eiv0 a good education . his schooling , he uas unable to ac c ept t :~e racial ten!pe1"' and agai n took up residenc·J i n France. however , he ·1.-1rote a number :-lhile in lTew Orleans, 1 f' poen:s, one of' w:1ich was "Verse e :-Tri tten in t be Albu;.;1 of' :-1B.df 1;10"1.selle." The poen touch i nsl? reli ves t h e "vaulted skies" and "gentle flashes 11 ·t-1hicb, to the poet , are "less love l :,. n 1-:be!'l see n a.;ai nst the lady's eyes i> Beneath their brown lashes. Lanusse, LeJCTenelles editor, contributed to llew Orleans CTreole newspapers L'Union and La Tribune, served ns o. con~ s cripted C8;.;.federate soldier i~ the Civil .Ta~~ n t sor.~e time as pri:-icipa.l of t:1e Catholic School for I nd i gent Orpha!1s o.f Color. He also e~couraged literary a nd ot~er artistic express i on a r.:o nG fell01· artists a nd solic i ted work for Les Cenelles. He eulogized h is brother., _Tu::;1a, i n the poem ''Un Fr! re/Au To :ibeau de Son ?rere, death ~as cut you do-:,1!1. . 11 11 reca.llir!3 t h at "un.fee.ling :2:sew:1ere Lanusse ref'ers to deat'!:-1 ' a s " sor:ie other b and shutti ng :_rour e:reli ds. a :id r.1ore poignan~ i n ':Spigram, 11 11 Sor.1e1-1:-:at naught ier I.anusse s i ves the account o.f / ' a "woman of evil II u::io · wants to · "renounce t he devil• but-\., asks,~ Bef'ore pure grace takes me in h a nd , Sh ouldn't I show my daugh ter how to O get a m n? t ) ( / �e'jonr lived . . ost of his life in France ar:d @ to r ew Orleans~ visits- to his , other. returned Son of a wealthy family, ~e wrote several plays , 21 of which were staged in France and three in new Orleans in the 1850~. se'jour 's literary abilities were praised by _Tapoleon IIIJ and he rubbed shoulders with major French literary personalities of his day . His scope is wide1~ than some of the other Creole poets. ..._ "Le Retour de Nap~onn ( "The Return of Napoleon") is an elegy il!rl,½ ~ulogizing Napoleon, S~jour and a celebration all in one . praises both his and France's triumphs and glories. poem of flowing., graphic exaltation. It is a Opening on the scene of a nsea n that "groans under the burning sun.," he narrates the growt. and collapse of France as a world power: And on and on she swept., an unleashed tempest wild., and France moved on 0 ahead. To more. ••• Yet., hail, 0 All is over. captainZ Hail my 0 consul of proud bearing. Admonishing France to '~·Jeep, France., weep., 11 sfjour reminds the country that "death bas lightning struck the people's giant." Little is known about the personal life of Debrosse ~ which., according to Robinson., "seems in keeping with his Haitian-:: gained experience in Voodoo., aspects of which he practised in New Orleans. 11 In Debrosses' "Le Retour .au Village aux Perlas" ( "Return to the Village of Pearls")., he seems to anticipate what Waring Cuney sees through the "dishwater" in his poem �The Creole poet returns to tbe village to find tbat "Images." / Her spirit dances here a nd there in these enchanting places and to locate I --that flower-bosomed grove again, tbe witness of our secret passion., and too, the cherish ed brook to which my soul would on this day confide its happy memory . A cigarf maker by trade, Riquet lived all of h is life in New Orleans., where he pursued a vi light verses. 0 ous avocation of writing His "Rondeau Redouble/ Aux Fr n* Rondeau/To Candid Friends 11 ) leaves no doubt t ha himself as at least serious i n h is avocation. a French-originated lyrical poem - ot@ , m~s 11 ( "Doub le Riquet saw A r ondeau is or sometimes @, lines. -0 I There are two r hymes throughout the poe~] and the opening phrase is repeated ~~ic& as a refrain. II JI (l The form is remotely reminis ce nt of the blues an:1/ piritual forms of Afro-American poetry . Riquet '.; says that since his "candid friends are calling for a rondeauJ" he and his "T-:L: se • • • must work a wonder." ~ u K - ~ ~ 7§'66), (18? iJ _ ":J,69//tmpiled Other Creole poets included Hichel Saint-Pierre (18? mille ' ry (l8J.4;J,j75l, 7 . i Ques i \L\ JMAJIAlr f an Almanac~ of Laughter) and T·r · Desdunes, wh om,l ahn says , "is ~ - r ·e miniscent of the Senegalese poet Bira o Dio T -""' the poet is to "rhyme in an uncommon way" or he will the name of poetaster-Lfrom our candid friends." M. \ ! �The Creole poets are examined and represented b y selections in E . ?Iaceo Coleman's Creole Voices ('>Iashington, D. C., 1945) 0 and in Robinson's anthology . See also Charles Rouse e's The Jegro and Louisiana (Xavier University Press , 1937), and the l ~ 5h~<Y\• critical selectio~ r y Jahn" in Hughes Lanusse and Lecour also appear and Bontemps !5~The Poetry of the Hegro (1949, 1970) . There wer~iher poets writing and publish ing during this ~ .br-tu,Q h-t ov't' same period . Many pairlP511n~~heir works in single Jlill.,.. editions, and copies of sorae are no longer extant. Brawley refers to a poet known as "Caesar" who allegedly t-trote but whose poetry is not available . are Ea.ria and Harriet Falconar Other poe~ and their collections Poems on Slavery (London, l 788 ); a,,,- James :~ontgomer:r, James Graham, I) E. Benger, Poems on t 1e Abolition oi' the Slave Trade (Londo n, 1809); Anonymous, The Hest I ndies and Other Poer.is (1811); John Bu ll, The Slave and Other Poems (London, 1824); Rev . Hoah /4.1- ,f ; '(l.,..,/ " Y~ :-9 c. Cannon, The Rock of ~-Tisdom ••• To Hh ich Are Added Several Interesting Hymns ( :Hew Yor~-:_,~ ); Anonymous, "The Coni..J.""ilemorative Ureath: ~ n Celebration oi' t h e ::Xtinction of .-legro Slavery in the British Dominions~r London, 1835); Anonymous , Anti-S lavery i-1elodies (Hi nghar.1, :-I assach usetts, 1334); Ge or ge ~-f ui tfield Clark , compiler ., The Liberty Hinstrel ( Ne·w Yor:{, 1844); Ui lliam He lls Brown, Anti-Slavery Harp (Bes te .. , 1349); "A West I ndian, rr Charleston, S outh Carolina: a satiric V noem showin~ that slavery still exists in the country wh ich boasts, above all others, of' being the seat cf' li½ertyl Darkness Brought to ligh t (Londo n, (Derry ., -~ l~ -- - - - ~ ) �New Hampshire.,? 185;,); George H. Clark, Tbe Harp of Freedom (NeH York., 1856); and Abel Cbarles Th omas, Tbe Gospel of Slavery (New York., 1864). In 1860 Blacks represented ~ l4. ·:) o:f the United States population and were 4.,441., 830 strong. The sour tastes left ;:j- ~•L (~\vilW~) by the worst internal socia C?o until t he l960ls Jq "'!'\ andA70fs., the problems o:r caring for rotecting t he soon-to-be-released slaves., the need to develop and stai'f ... educational facilities for Blacks k all engul:fed Afro-Americans in a deluge of h orror and hope. Although it is clear t hat the works of many poets leap the arbitrarily i mposed chronological .(}., boundaries., the tempe~ents., themes, di ctional preferences and limitations discussec, generally hold for most of t~e poetry Despite the surprising successes., and t he of the period. flashe s of brilliance intertwined with mediocrity a nd comedy., therack poet would labor. long to remove nthe image of a :facen that., in the words of Corrothers, "Lietb, like shadow on the wild sweet .flowers. 11 'Ii.a I rn?? w 11 • a 2 s Sil@ 3ra~sUtilrd I pJ iilliliiill?li ain tis tlir fcwug1f11s ii11u11s!1• 1autJ lli' tgf111ilii.01Jt siS "Pfrfsen Ji1•usz111ti2Mi!M@S@Jii a iaa6tath:e � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_09_06_07 Title A name given to the resource Editors proof, Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, Chapter III. African Voice in Eclipse: Imitation & Agitation, typed with handwritten edits, p. 70-129 Relation A related resource Eugene B. 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In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/e16bb192d1b16103f777882a54c32042.pdf 6e9cb4d46bd2295d61d4f733d71a5276 PDF Text Text 0--V 0 CHAPTER II THE BLAC K AND UNKNOWN BARDS 7~ , l o black and unknown bards [ of long ago, ~✓ How came your lips to touch the sacred fire? - '- James Weldon Johnson t-1\ (j) Origins of Blac k Expression c:, In this chapter, as in subsequent ones, e.mpha.~3 ;wH..LJoe on ~ic,~i,t1g J Let..c:\<.. ?t)~""TT-y ~ within the spirit and letter of • African-American cultural t radition . Unfortunately, many early sch olars either played down or i gnored African influe nces., ~~ "tttouj4~ -~~ ISt_ - I!. @ ___ .. ¥£ .ft. f!i hu ,i. 1n s was certainly not true of all os:'-t1\erq. ~ ,; ii z G Gd! lg aSI I 1. For while some gloated over t he "findings " 'f of ') (outh ern whit e s 1 purp orting to prove that t he ;(piri tuals were derived sole ly f rom Engl ish ~ ymns and Psalms) sources /4 ~ ,q~t, .3-oL ,1.1. L Johnson (Book of America n Negro Spirituals, 192~, J t ilD,.. ~__s ~Y Work {Folk Song of t he American Negro, 1915), and othersi dist of Africanisms existing in practically allJ 'l ack American folk materials . ~ef'\> this cha pteJ ~ill e ~ . e)(a.r}une ~~I.OYl : upda ting some of the t h i nking on traditional African t't,on l . views a nd ma nneris m~~in, Jlack America. ~ ~r ief consideration _ will be given t he major trunks of the folk poetry: ,a _j piritual ~ 1 - and the / eculars (or religio~~ folk poetry and everyday wor~ -r ,; (~ and-play folk poetry) . . . . . .~.uicludedAa fair representation -.. -I of t he original folk poetry . 27 �Nost anth ologies • these items J -- - - -- - ----- Ii ell B?IWi &AIM a 3 t t l omit - - - - - - b~-t , "with out a knowledge of Svt,h i.-r Cs dtff'ricult ei~e ..the1'-' deve Lo,o~r,1' """ / . ,,,,. \ to understandAthe_;Black poet's of f='ttt.,, 1, CV "-Hl rlt iener,t,use (see Dunbar, Johnson, Brown, Hugh es, Hayden, Walker and others}. However, before discussing the origins of__,,Black - - - -.-no1"e Tl, e ~ou o F expression, we should id 1 ii ? A.,_ ~rio.~'°~ 16 i societies. or story telle~- in pre industrial African M The p ack poet, as creator and chronicler ]J "1 artisans .~ OWll 3110Lve.s LLI Afrom t h e'><' ~ ~ human~recordA~f family a nd national f!!Sgitt jilv trained to recite -without flaw-Lthe gene f M ~ lore. j 1ogies, eulogies, victories and calamities of the folk,.., griots (like ~ lead singers of ;(piri tuals) had to spic~ ~itet~ ,,,..- and r:-; ----...., no.~raTton eme1t1etJ.n Jlac "youngsters 1 ew .,. Qu,dan# (rolYl grew up (even in recent times) without § I _ -A.a sort of t It g with drama-~excitement. griot (uncle, grandmother, big brother) w- sister, mother1 • hvs1le.11 '...;;;;,' I father, pre acher, etc.). The job of the ~ injo ndent: At'('lwn SO<cWt$j I -. was so i mportant t h at ~ a n e,.rcr could cost him his life. gr iot be gan at a very early a g; ~ mastezt • - information. m~~-re~ The technique and Like the~drummer, he understudied an elder sta t e sman of t h e trade. His training demanded a certain psychological adjustment to t he significance of h is j ob C.vlt,,t-&C.. /\') which was to cont ain (and give advice on) t he,theirlooms" of t h e community. As years and centuries passed, this "f'actual" information was · Y''iiuo.. U3ed i nto a lore, myt hology, cosmology and le gend; it became a part of t h e vas t web of r a cial conscious 28 �ness and memory. .., It became t he legacy with which every new.. __, born child entered the world. Clearly, then, the myth- and legend: buildingJlack poet bas a past into wh ich to dip and a future to ~ project and protect. jc ~ And any violation of the past, present or future constitutes a serious crime against one's ancestors ¾ against one's parents, against one's blood, against one's god. So it follows that the poet-~ griot l M..-- fV\ is not some haphaz1ardly arrived~hipster or slick-talker ~ simply mouthing tired old phrases. ~ •k~ To the J lackAgrio -singer~ poet the job of unraveling the complex network of h is past and present-future worlds is a paiorul but rewarding labor . of love. We can say, then, that t he _J{lack_/xperience i n the United States continues via the African~ ontinuum: . . ., a complex of mythical (see Jahn), linguistic (see Twiggs), gestural (see Emery; Black Dance), psychological, sexual, musical, physical and religious forms. This complex is evidenced in the day-to-day attitudes and activities of Blacks: ~their sacred and secular (organized and random) expressions, t h eir physical appearancel , t h eir dress patterns and t h eir family ..; life. Not only in the United State~, but in the Caribbean, in Latin A:nerica, in all areas of t he world where Blacks live in substantial numbers~ they exhibit characf, teristics peculiar to the nature and culture of indigenous Africans. Naturally, general/ lack expression evolves from the myriad components of Jlack culture; and the artistic (song, poetry) expression- traditional / lack (African) M. 29 �com.muni ties did not separate l_ife. f'rom art i is a :nore soph is l, f_otA"' 'r°'f~\_r,,t •t.lK' "'~_.,al,.~ It\ - ticated J/Jff!!llll" w 1119"'1'from,.,the general "storeh ouse) 1111 has yet idtnTi~sed --- 11 ti/_ rnro one ___________, "tlt\-e. "" exac tiy- - t h e first Afr i can sounds or i,1 ovements were incorporated into "white tr 1-.7e ster n frames of ref'erence• or vice versa; 01, _,/ but we do know t hat it did bappen . Unfortunatel~r, inept reporting on t hefa ackj cperience has muddied t h e waters so much that one is .of.Teti S'h •c."ed ~ M4tt&V conclusio ns of" r II i iad1 1.Ri: , ~ by~ tser vati ons and 1: • be "researcher s. " I n an uni'linchingly brilliant analysis of' ~ lack African.)1ral iterature presented at t he First World Festival of Negro (1966) i n Dakar, Senegal, B il7 Juleat ouda, not ing _/ "oral literature is as old as creation," coined the phrase _;,!trch ival} iterature of )feature. important revelations, Fouda said: n Concluding 'h is "Thus in the Black Africa of tradition, literary art is an ano nymous art because it is a social art; it is a social art because it i s a functional art; and it is functional because it is humanist." research is not b ounded by color. Good Black sociologist E. Franklin Frazier (Black Bourgeosit)P~rong~_!_jthat t here were no significant carryovers (cultural transplants) from Africa to the United States. (Slavery, Frazier said, "stripped II t he African of bis culture and "destroyed" his personality . ) 1'1hite anthropologist Melville Herskovits (The Myth of the Negro ~ ) proved without a doubt that there were African "survivalisms" operating daily in Jfiac k American,! culture. 30 v~r ~e\~~ �..to'1tt 1i\e on this see Jahn ts Muntu,A:'7ork ' s findings ,~memoirs of Katherine IA~ Dunham, works of Lorenzo Dow Turner~ Negro Folk Musi c of Africa and America (Folkways Lp). 2u 0511!1 i!IINi.. Rudimentary/ lack expression and the numerous fol k forms it produced (field hollers, vendors 1 shouts, chants, wor + ongs , / Pirituals, blues, jospels, jazz, rhytbm=-~ blues, soul music) form the linguistic and modal bases for mostJ lack poetry. The early song and chant for ms were almost always accompanied by what we have come to call "dramati c ideograms 11 ~ or dances. Dance became one of the t hree basic ar tistic modes encapsu~ lated by folk expression. The other two aref-ong and/4rum. Aside from being the first means of communicating over disi, tances, the drum also played a major role in the social lives of traditional African peoples. The career drummer, like t he )flack American musician today, went through years of grueling pract ic e and preparationJ -learning not only drumming tech niques M but the legends, the myths, the meanings and symb ols /11¥··-w hich the drum was derivative. Dance always accompanied songi Fouda refers to the "acoustical phonetic alphabet";tso that the com~ plex web of oral nuances was illustrated vividly and graphicall3J Obviously, when teaching or entertaining, the artist/teacher had to present his material in interesting and exciting ways so as not to bore the audience. Thus repetition became a backbone of J lack expressionf a flexible, buoyant repetition that was designed to reinforce and increase group participation. The three essential modesl""-drum, song and dance f'\heightened 31 �the i mmediate experience, which was ecstatic, t h erapeutic, spiritual, visceral and revelatory . Added to t h ese intricate and vary ing modal patterns were t h e colorful costumes, make-up, props and i mportant subject matter. The ach ievement was not -+~t..1"o~ just~the vicarious experience but one of t h e act and s ymb ol being actualized together! While such a prospect boggles t he mind, a serious study of t h ese forms and the general tradition will prove eye-opening for many a disbeliever. Ohe. ~e.e.d onLy h~c.o1ne. enme.she.i '"' Atl'f •~pec.'t O ~~to.,k ",tu a.lp Pc.. 1o ~h• 1-U OAcl u11de.-~u.~ 'ltl,~ potnt. Early,.)3lack American oral and gestural art forms ini herited t h e qualities described thus far. dancet In language, in and, more i mportantly, in points of view (attitudes) toward time, life and death , t he cosmology of Africa "continued" (with some modifications) in the j lack culture of the Western Hemis phere. Specifically , informatio n was conveyed by way of aph orisms, riddles, parables, tales, enigmatic dances and sounds (tonal scales)~ j okes a nd poetry . ~lique and cryptic utterances, puzzles, ea- The patt ern remains irCtact today . II One 0 \ 1/ For a brilliant and cogent stateme~t on t his aspect of / CT V (P4'Jl v~sey9 Zlack expression see Samuel Allen'sA"The African Heritage" in 1 . (Jano1u"yJ1<17t) is an acknowledged auth ority on both African and Af'ro-American culture. ~r .. Black Worl"a;r' Alle n In the article, he finds African "carryovers 11 in t h e ;(lack American church (Baldwi n ), l i terature £~ (Sterling Brown, ~Cleaver) and secular life. 32 �find.Sthe tradition in_/lack poets, in the sermons offilack ministers and in family apd other social gatherings. me.t.-vo, Tbe scintillating/'lack poet~olson operates in the olq, enigmatic (word-fencing ) frame when in "An Ex-Judge at the Bar" he says: I r;; \...[ 1 I Bartender, make it straight and ma ke it two M · One for the you in me and one for the me in you. Tolson (known to carry this~ lack nature into his teaching at Langston Universit~ where he reportedly gave a student an 'F~ ..,, to the ~ power) ends the poem with an equally enigmatic mock: debts to the African tradition i_ance and ,hum. So too in the shouts and hollers ..;w..~~ actual African words and phrases were often used. 2 ./ Hence we can say that 911 traditional -...__/ African phonology and ritual, modified on the anvil of slavery, were operating and continue to e represented in different forms of , flack American expression. The African slave, forced to acquire functional use of English and to reject surface aspects of his religion, went "underground}' so to spea19 and became bit ingual and bi';)hysical. (j) ~ Hence, while much of the Raymond Patterson (26 Ways of Looking at a Black Man) is currently assembling a book listing several hundred African words that are used daily in the American 33 �thematic material of the Jlack folk tradition is taken from the harsh difficulties the slave encountered in America, t be form, spirit and phonology were essentially African . The use of polyf r hyt hms 3 and the intr o uction of syncopation, the reliance on various rhythmi c instruments (drum-related and sometimes invented), the adh erence -h-,--,....., on-European tonal scale and the employment of the blues~ one, t h e development of a distinct body of folklore and a rich langua ge to convey the lore ~ all represent the African's resourcefulness. Cross-cultural inputs are also evident • Ir) the piritual~ which, in many cases, were influenced by the English 7-'ymn and the Psalm. o_.,_. o.u.et-s lb Other considerations in .l'MIMu elude the slave's use ofaEuropean instruments (Baraka n ,._ \ out, in Black Music, that the piano was the last instrume~t to be mastered by the )3'lack musician e I house, If $ 4)~inA I G&Boii caghiJ w iilR ) ~'lack adaptation of songs heard in the "big the continual re r tyling of American fads) and t he vocabulary . See b ibliography for more on -th11 little ~known area of sch olarship . 3 Isaac Faggett, a y oung QI 5 composer-band director in '(li.<J.. ......__, Sacramento, Cali1V: has said that the word 11 po1Yf}'hythm11 (Le., many rhythms overlapping each oth er) should perhaps be replaced by or alternated with the wordl "Y 11 poly meter" or "poly metrics. V Eileen Southern, in The Music of Black Americans, sets forth a thorough and accurate discussion of t he se points. 34 She 11 �employment of / i blical i magery a nd language i n so ngs a nd sermons. / Langston Hughes noted t hat t he ~lues usually dealt fw i t h the theme of the rejected lover and personal depressio n. Hugh e s 's f irst volume of poems, in fact, was entitled The Weary Blues. However, the /iues, like the / piri tuals, do not simp11 preach resignation or submissiveness . _lhJ•~w1!L) Rather, as J ~ r~~and Howard Thurman (The Negro Spiritual Speaks of Life and Death ) note, underneath the complaint is a "plaint": or change ! t h ings must get bett er For as the slave said: / Freedom, ~• Freedom, h ow I love t hee! -- Freed~ eedom, how I love t he e! And before I 1 11 be a slave I 1 11 be buried in my grave And go home to my Maker and be Free! II C'f) Black Folk Roots in America "Get it together or leave it alonerr i Jackson Five )}l e-- Black poets have been writing in the English literary tradition since t he middle of t he eighteenth century. But notes with some detail b ow t h e Africans (made slaves) had to learn to use t h e instruments of the New World. Professor Southern als o relates how~lack music influenced wh ites in the early days of America. 35 �it is the fol k literature - Lthose productions of t he e veryday ('I\ mus t be examined before a literary or poetic tradition can be viewed in its entirety . There are few persons in the United States who have not been touched or influenced (in one way or another) by the folk expression of ~ lack America. White Americans began collecting)3lack folk lyrics and stories in the early ~ars of t h e nineteenth century (see bibliography) . In the same century , this aspect of~ lack culture reached wide audiences via at least three major veh icles. The first was the abolitionist movemen~ which E v. featur ed_)3iack poets (Francis Harper , James Whitfield, Benjamin Clark, and oth ers), orators and prose writers (David __, Walker , ~ rick Douglas Russwurm••·) -~ . ;~■), and journalists (John The second veh icle was the national and Euro pean tours (i n t he 187ot s) of stud~nt choirs from Hampton Institute and Fis k · { ,' J ubile e Singer;\ University '~Tbe abolitionist movement popularized anti-slavery and freedom song) and the c ollege ch oirs gave wide exposur e to t he~p irituals, considered by most sch olars (of,;Black culture ) t o be t he first authentic poetry of~ lack America. The t h ird major veh icle was t he publication (in t b e l ate=ninetee nt h ce nt ur y ) of Brer Rab~ it tales by Joel Chandler Harris . I n studies and wri ti nes, Harris r ecognized t be mythi c worth in j'lack fol~+ ales a nd exposed readers t o s uc!:1 cl1 aract ers as Brer Terra pin , Brer Bear , Brer Fox, Brer ·.101£' and others . Hany of t hese tales and characters have African counte rpart s . 36 �if III spirituals: C::- Use {£:: 11 Tryin I to get home 11 of the word "spiritual" to describe or identifyJ 1ack religious or church life is, in many ways, a corruption of the modal adaptations of African life in the United ~tate ~ Learned interpretations, outlined against new information and empirical tenacity, reveal the entire/ lack world as 11 spiritual 11 : i.e., informed by and responsible to a "higher order" i the order of God or ·the • gods. ' This spirituality drapes the interdependence V and integration of various modes and points of view flowing through and evolving from the community(!) Such a 11 6V feel 11 -aad "sense" is witi nessed in '111~ exuberance, spontaneity, ecstasy, trance, tongue ~ talking, racial flavor and flair in dress/( church or nightclub), and songified comm ications systems which are · the backbone of \Iv- . {Jr\ Afro-American lif • 11.Work describes this phenomena as "this difi ference and this oneness." Robert· Hayden eplploys an unders~anding () r,I (#I,,,, ; -..when, in a poem to Malcolm X, he,,az l ii~tmi'_y the "blazing oneness II of Allah Further proof of this fusion is seen in the emotional abandonment of church folk during picnics, socials and other events of merriment@ Listening to Aretha Franklin immediately recalls the / . ospel-blues alternation in the unity of expression. S; And it is found, without a doubt, in the works of-------- - - - . : : , r observe that the most brilliant and influential vnde~sliud ack poets have intimately~this aspect of the culture Almost without exception (and Kerlin, Brown and ~ 37 - q �the Staplet ...., Singers, the Edwin Hawkins Singers and in a :nore vulgarized manner in Flip Wilson's Rev. Leroy"...., . In t he words of one brother, "the preach er and the pimp style out h eavy." - Still, it is important that we offer the traditional portrait and breakf down of/4lack folk expression•••••:•1•1•••1•cwsllll!!IISWS•tMllll&B~G!!!JIII' - .~ . . .. .,L..,.. • • - ... ~ ( The .1-:Pirituals have been the source of continuing de ,, ate among scholars: Are they completely African in origin? Are ~...i11 <fflve oP ----.. '7 they primarilyAEnglish (Methodist, Wesleyan!__) ) . Sov~Ct{.. \ Or do they represent the coJ joining of African/European t h emes and r e l i g i o s i t y ? ~ : - ~ • 1a ef :ewaelr p e e t ~ ::;;_·➔,. : : t, ,,,.,....._,,._.~ -- iL-a- po abs s:rn!" detatcl! and ?ello'- ~e~ usi ees of and his brother, .r. :~'s,&.,, ::: :: ¥' ~ , ~t'l'\es tA,,eldot\ tbiXill: ..r.. I\ .Johnson RosamondA put togeth er the best ~known collection of these songs in The Book of American Negro Spirituals I {1925), and The Second Book of ~ r ~-Negro Spirituals (1926). The~pirituals usually deal with physical or figurative con~ tact between the singer _ or congregation ~ and God. / ..-ftll~a...---r-i (Early u. fro-Americans often used the words God, .Jesus, Savi~,1 and Lord interchangeably. For a more thorough discussion of t h is see Benjamin !1ays 'I; !The Negro' a God. ) The songs also deal with others warn young pack writers to follow example i _,,t1ack poets since the Civil War have availed themselves of integral folk rudiments -even when they did not use them in poetry. . rv.., still a fact that It is lack culture (despite the racist and techno 38 J /\ <) �a longing for rest and the ove rcoming of for midable obstacles or adversaries. Work 's 1915 study was seminal and remains a lan~ - ~L~ ~ mark re.~e""tnce war"- Oki African and_/J-ack America. rti:songs. His work provides many answers to questions and issues that had /4i, I l been (and 1f ontinueq \"'o be ) muddied by the waters of insensi tivity and careless r e s e a r c h . - "Undertaken for ~ eswdy the love of our fathers' songs, 'jAgi ves clear connections b etween ~ African and Afro-American • • song . ......_., His main ft1it-t>eS'T is in religious songs J -although his comments on form and style M 1{f are of general value: In America we hear it [ the song] and see it acted in t he barn dance, on t he stage, in the streets {i) among the children; in fact, many an occasion is enlivened by t h is species of music , t h e interest in which is intensified by the rhythmical patting of hands and feet. This rhythm is most strikingl y and accurately brought out in their work songs. Citing the emotionalism and songified intensity of the / lac k American, Professor Work says., "He worships not so much because _" ~,. ~t,916u.s ,-e.-,.s~ 1 be ought, as because he lo~ worship." This "worsh ip "I\. of course, is the kind we~rofr ;e.J ]!) 39 to earlie · t he integration �of sensuality and ecstasy into the sweeping ritual of live and i mmediate drama.. Such musical activity is "as natural to the American Negro as his breath 11 : Indeed, it is a portrayal of his soul, and is as ch aracteristic as are bis physical features. Hear bim sing in his church , b ear hio preach, moan, and gi ve '' gravery'' in h is sermon, hear t h e wasberi woman singing over her tub , b ear the laborer m singing b is accompani ae nt to bis toil, hear the chi ld babb ling an extemp oraneous tun6(9 ••· Even th ose Negroes who have been educated and wbo h ave been inf'luenced by long study, find it diffi t cult to express their musical selves in any other way . Black song, as is readily observable, possesses both pure~song (the verse and chorus plan) and chant (use of interjections and expletives) qualities: Poor man Laz'rus, poor as I, Don't you see? /'7;\ Po or man Laz'rus, poor as I, \_ V Don 't you see? When he died he found a home on h igh, \ He h ad a home in dat rock, Don't y ou see? Alluding to the deeper, more psychological meaning of these songs, Professor Work says1 "there are closer relations between - 40 �beefl the soul and musical expressions t han have~satis.factor j.l y explained. These relations can be felt, but a ny accurate description seems beyond the grasp of man 1 s mind. 11 Never theles~ this i mportant study goes on to classify a nd number these songs 01' Jove, ~ ope, )!umility. / oy, / orrow, f orrow with j ote 01' / oy, .,Faith , '-- , etermination, ,Kdoration, / atience, ,lourage a nd Like most scholars of t b e~ pirituals, t h is one points out t h at there is no b ate, resentment or v indictive ness in them. Howo."'Cl However, ~Thur ma n, t heologian a nd ph ilosoph er , bas excavated underpinni ngs of tur bulence. In The Negro Spiritual,~ Thurman tells us death was i omediate a nd '----" ever present for t he slave. In such an atmosph ere of a nxi ety and fear, the slave developed a rath er stoic attitud~ i n which he saw death as i nescapable arrl as, possibl y , t h e only remaining vehicle for mediation with t h e plantation lords. could take his own lifet i f he wanted to ~ as h e did in preference to slavery or separation fro CT family and/or loved ones. • - Tburma n 1 s brilliant analysis must be '-,.../' read by any serious student or/ lac k t h ought and culture • .Johnson (wh o also clas s ified the songsf t said a h ierarchy of poets for t h e/ pirituals i ncluded the song1ma ker (writer) and the song, leader. The leader had to remember leading lines, .Johnson, Brown, Kerlin and~ Thurman also give co~ to the "poetic" content of the / piri tuals. ? _______, and ? .Joh nson Work discuss t he preservation and promotion of '----' 41 �pitch tunes true and possess a powerful voice. (like Professor Work) believes the earliest Johnson, wa o lack American songs were built on the common Af'rican form, says th: /pirituals were written by individuals and set to tre moods of groups. Like the blues, their secular and structural cousins, the / pirituals incorporated~=.:::::==~~ all-and-respons ~ which allowed for audience (congregation) participation (either by alternatingt or interminglin4 Leader: ~ 1uf) ri} "iJ--1'-vJ { j ~ ? , .)- , with the leader): h, de Ribber of Jordan is deep and wide, ~ Congregation: One mo' ribber to cross. Leader: I don't know how to get on de other. side, Congregation: One mo' ribber to cross. .. w Heavily influenced by Christian imagery and mythology, t h e creators of the _/pirituals often ch ose the most militant of biblical personalities as their heroes. This aspect of these "poems" opens up an entire area of questions and research for and the student seeking to compare!(contrast biblical themes and e charactf rs to the )3"pirituals. Certainly there is need to exi, amine the English "Wymns and Psalms in the framework of such / -· a study. co'>d The/ pirituals should also be compared1contrasted to the/ lack 11 terary verse of the period during which they these songs t hr ough arch ival holdings, choir concert tours and t he attention paid to them by composers. �were forged-~ especially the work of Jupiter Hammon, Phillis 'Wheatley and George Hoses Horton. j IV W Folk Seculars Don wid massa's bollerin '; Don wid massa's hollerin'; 0 Don wid massa's hollerin' Roll Jordan roll. C::::-- We observed that there is a thin line between · ~ f lack reli gious a nd secular worlds. This is true for many reasons N-.. some of t hem s temming from the African tradition of i nteri, relati ng all aspects of life. As John M'Biti (Afr ican Rel igions and Philosophies ), Gabriel Bannerman-Richter and oth ers point out, t h e African takes his religion (his beliefs) with h i m where~ ever he goes . :rems i:aee IZQI n• l iahn. @1§3£3 end bfb&SE ►1'1e.7 also remind us that most African languages have no word for religion or art. The two are inseparable. Again the ways of African peoples (see Hphahlele 's 'W hirlwind) are expressed in nintegrated" terms. True, in/ lack America there is some tension between secular and religious communities ~ but so r, often { and most Blacks understand this well though they do nest always admit it) they are the same: on dti'ferent oc?nons. - wearing different hats ~ Stud:.:.,.:rain, the case of a Re , Jesse ,,; , vi Jackson or a Re\! . Ike or a RefioAdam Cla ~on Powell"1t,..~r,tdl'irn4~ We have also observed that many motifs and components of ) lack expression are interchangeable. 43 That 1s, songs and ab . l, �speeches designed for church or other religious activity are often re$ ut (modified) for a secular-t3ocial affair. are numerous examples of t h i.s practice. There During the ,iiv i l ,,/(igh ts era., we would .sing: \t I woke up this mornin' with my mind stayed on freedom ) Ir though 1ve were fully aware that church folk were used to singing it this way: ~ 11 1r I woke up this morain' w1 th my mind stayed on Jesus •••• v- el.c:H~'"C\ AA.Ts t-CompoS'e ... Hany ofACurf'is Hayfield's (and the Impressions') songs rely strongly on the material of songs sung in ~ la ck churches. Ma.yf'ield 1 s more recent tunes (see "If There's / Even Hell Below") carry the f l ack church flavor-l with their !_Rrnl ng~ admonish~ ments., thr a.ts of societal destruction., and ple,,as for love ~ ~ B - (SIIIIP also/\ :Marvin Gay,.tita. pieces ~ . "Save e Children"). Some ~ 1\ w9-y Child Running Wild") reflect works by the Temptations ( "Run the historical theme of "searching" found in / lack religious songs. -Up This same group I s "Poppa Was / Rolling Stone" describes in the name of the Lord." :::::. B•r• King s 1 "Woke This Morn n" is a blues treatment o 1 above in the/ Piri tua~~ "I Wolce Up This Morn the old Supremes singing "Stop in the Name of Loven -.; we to replace "love" with "God." "Mothe~ "i ''Bapy" and ''Goq, ~ "Captain" and "Maker7 . . "t t we When~heard ~1ed. Often the songs contain words such as "Lord" and "Sweet thing" and "Sweet Jesu~ " and "God" and "Ma ' • . The reasons for ' such usages, as we have stated, are deeply enmeshed in the 44 t �mythos of Blacks. Richard Wright's "Bright and .1 Iorning Star" (in the Jible, a metaphor for Jesus) becomes t he son of old Aunt Sue in the short story by that name. ~ Th e b ero of Joh n A. Williams I novel{ The Man Who Cried I Ami say s, "~hank, youJ - v - - _TJJB-n" to God after a sex act. "Slipping into Darkness 11 ( When we hear a tune lik~ '"~hen I heard my mother say " ~ we must understand tre\historic;l significance and function of social (therapeutic) art J just as we must understand t h e function of the mother like voice that admonishes Isaac Hayes to "shet yo mouf" ft~t. 11 When conservative J1ack Christians complained of Duke Ellington's use of religious themes in jazz, be replien "I'm just a ecumenical cat "-'- meaning he avoided fine J _ . fl\ distinctions in where or to whom he played. Tbe church has been the training ground (acade~ if you ~ ~ : r • s 1 The Negro Church in America) for most •£ 91, _~ t t t s,144~....s~, · J lack popular~ usic~as ~ell as for i•p11~a8t orators, race leaders and community businessmen. '\)\-e." ( o o.s Against the ~, 23 • ti@"discussion we can view the f olk jeculars in their ri ght perspective as a vital part of t he rich storehouse of / lack folklore. Through songs, aphorisms (my own grandmother: .._ ''You don't believe fat meat's greasy!" and "If you ain't gon' do nothing> get off the pot!"), fables ~ (see Aesop), jokes (_. minstrelsy and the J31-ack comedy tr _..., dition), blues and other enduring forms>\13lacks capture severe hardships and tribulations, folk wisdom, joys and tragedies, -~-.a~nd __J and '@_, longings and h opes cf BJ ;l during/siaver~ aftg Jr 45 O( �The/ eculars, mortso than the fipirituals, give important clues to t h e inner~workings of t he common~lack mind. And a closer look at the total folk tradition will reveal the structure and principles of folk psychology. all, liiii It is, after Si . . t hese folk materials that researcher s \1've.sTi~£1e will have t i • if they are serious about delineating t he feelings, emotions and thought patterns of Blacks. The/eculars are surer ind~ es to the workings of the folk mine'!, because t h ey are not as limited as the~pirituals. Though most Blacks in the United States are aware of and have heard ~ / pirituals, an even larger number h ave b ad sustained exposure (directly or indirectly ) to t h e secular vocalizations and gestures 01/lack culture. Contemporary ;i'iack popular music and culture cont tinue to be informed by 4lt ~ street and home utterances. An exciting reciprocity allows entertainers to b orrow freely from what they hear while the folks "run and tell that" once it's recorded. Some examples of songs, titles and other epithets borrowed directly from t h e people are: New Bag , 11 "Licking Stick" (see "honey stick" in McKay 's story "Truant"), "Give It Up or Turn It Loose, 11 James Brown's ''Brand 11 "The Payback" and It's Hell"; Harvin Gaye' s "What's Gong On" and "Let's Get i t On"; Curtis Hayfi eld' s "Superfl y"; t h e .Jackson Five's "Get It Together or Leave It Alone "; Fli p Wilson 's "What You See J.s What You Get" (and the Dramati cs' tune by the same name); Aretha Frankl in 's "Respect" and "Run and Tell That"; and Jean Knight's "Mr. Big Stuff" /Y1 to name just a few. 46 �As with the ..Zpiri tuals, whites ( primarily abolitionists) were a mong the first to collect/ eculars of whatever type. William Wells Brown, the first publishe<;llack novelist and playwright, collected "anti-slavery" songs. Thomas Wentworth Higginson, writer and abolitionist who led a/ lack re gi ment in the Civil War, collected songs be heard among his me n around campfires and during marches. Though primarily co ni, cerned with religious songs, h e also describ ed some of t he Properties of general .Jnack song delivery. One of the most important collections of these seculars was put together by Thomas w. Talley '--"of Fisk University, <l oLLe.~c,e, "; ~~htt wo.-.k 4 I Talley did pioneering work in t he identifi cation a nd -----_ ./ classilication of Negro Folk Rhymes.~ 1 f) g 1.l s 1l1s sl2act£SJ t &2!£32) ~ o t 1il Fisk scholar collected well over @ examples. §) i- g; cb'tfr examples and discussions of t h e artistic products of i??t11,~ .I. i mportan! secular fol k life can be found i n t h e works of Hugh es and Bontemps, Brewer , Spalding, Dodson, Ch apman, Brown (Negro Poetry), A ra"1ar.is (Deep Down in ,.1he Jungle) and Bell (The > Folk Roots of ontemp orary Afro-Ame rican Poetry ). ( work - {:'e ce::.;r I'------ I I ) --I ila Bell's J is somewhat vague in perspective as a result of an · i mposed ("foreign ") - i-I · ,, ~ct~ ~~ {.:J ~ Also valuable to an examination of t h e/ eculars are regi onal ·w orks ( such as Abrah a ms') including Drums and Shadows (Georgia and South Carolina), Goldstein's - ........_,,, 47 Black Life csn_ ~ �and Culture in the United States , Lorenzo Dow Tur ner's 1-1ork in the Gullah culture, Dorson's Negr o Folktales in Hich i gan, and others ( see b ibliography ). By far the most faithful representatio n of secular or religious fol k materials in t b e written poetry is in t h e work of Sterling Br own (see h is Southern Road, especially Johnson's introductio n , and h is critical comments in Negro Poetry ). Brown takes exception to Johnson's comment that dialect poetry h as only two stops /4 "humor and pathos "-/4- and i mplies that.f1ack poets up until h is time had been remi ss (or lazy) in not developing broader uses and deepening the meaning of.J'lac k life t hrou gh t h e use of folk materials. The tradition of "tall" tale} telling is, of course, s uo.t merged in the American my thos. So t he/ lack narrator fo und a flexible atmosphere into which he could introduce hi s own manner of storytelling and his own tradition of song . As he had do ne in the/ pirituals, he gained a resourceful ness in the use of language, acquired i nstruments to accompany t he song or story, and developed an a'!J ility to seize upon a good or amenable context in which to tell or sing h is story ; be also made use of t h eme s and ideas from the vast ethni c pot-t, pourri of America. the ji,irituals. Tbe j eculars grew up side t by side wi t b Tbe/ pirituals emerged from t h e attempt of the slave to web together h is disparate (ye ___ ) wound s. Spirituals represent the slave's persei verence and (in many instances) h is hope and faith in mankind. 48 The / eculars, also �developing in t he shadows of the "big house," reflect the social life of the/ lack American on t he plantation and later. In songs and ditties, the J lack American couched bis longings and bitternessesJ but voiced bis hopes and cynicisms through the oblique, e)-i tical and encoded words and seemingly unini, telligible phonetic symb ols. These African forms (see Rappin' and Stylin' Out, Kochman) have continued up to the present. Few,Jflack youngsters are "~,, able to sidef step the rigorous (and sometimes painful) verbal deX~ erity demanded by playmates during that inevitably take place. sparring matches The forms of such behavior were in~tact during slavery -when a slave might be discussing a ,__, M master's "moma" or "old lady " during a rather harmless "rap" (rhapsod~? rapport?) with his fellow field workers. Frederick I '" hisouTo\:,ioq..,•pl11'c. a{ .-:h Douglass reports '\_Narra£ive ~that slave over~ eers t h ough t . slaves sang because they were happy . not the case (s~Df ois We . know that such was ouls of Black Folki ) and t hat such refrains as "stealing away" implied a lot more than wanting 1.1,h~ti - to reach t he arms of~esus on t he cross. similar codes in his stories and poems. Henry Dumas chronicles And Mel Watkins (Amistad 2) discussed an updated version of at least part of t h is _ phfLr>omenon in _is article on f olk singer-hero James Brown. Though b e is discussing a secular character, Watkins ' revelations are similar - to ~ Thurman's: ~that in the absurd context of being owned by someone else, 1 t is not life or death that looms\so importantly. One lives, Ellison sugges ts (Invisible Man}, the day-to-day 49 �absurdity in a sort of comic-tragic vi~e. Watkins says: James Brown's initial acceptance by a black audie nce is fixed in this crucial factor. From the moment be slides onto the stage, whether unconsciously or intentionally, his gestures, his facial exf pressions and even the sequential arrangement of _is materials are external affirmations of a shared ' acceptance of t h e absurd or, more ingerf(>usly, of jiving. The i mpe4i,bly tailored suits, whic'h b e brandishes at the outset, become meaninGless accoutrements as his act progresses and, sweati n; and straining, he gets down, literall:r down on t he floor, to wring t ":1 e last drop of emotion fro .. a son3 . Watkins is incorrect ab out t h e dress becoming "meanin.s;less" to a / lack audie nce, but his general thesis is on target. Elsewhere Watkins, firmly understanding the i mportance of verbal agility a mong Blacks, sa:rsJ "f t is cor.1mon to _ ear hla.ck women discussins a ma n 's 'rap' or 'program' on t he same level ,ri,4.1 •~hey di s cuss h is ba nk account." Blacks ge nerally wi t h~old their judg , ent on ( or acc eptance) of a speaker or e ntertainer unti 1 '!-: e ex:~ i b i ts, i n b is dr es s- .::;esture-rap, t 1: at : ,e , r1de r+ stands t'-:e -: cllspri ng t l"} a t ~, r oduced the ';Z(lac k and t~~1known bard s . 11 J.c tur nin 6 hrieflyi to our h istorical assess ment, we can now see h oH t h e folk strain i :;}5lack written art e•rol ved. 50 �From t h is "s o ng " r ecord ed in t ~J e 1 '350t s ' y Dougl a ss, Dey g i c us de liquor, ..---.., And say dat 's good enoug~ for ..___ :e:1 ~ · gge r > to t h e fear of "de Cunjah Han" captured in nGullab II by Ca:apbell in t he l a tter part of the 1906,'s, __, @ De Cunjah man, de Ctrnjah man, 0 ch illen run, de Cunjah man! the dece ptively 11 s simple II eMplo:rment of folk express ions "ha ""6- prevailed as an i n portant antidote for the social maladies inherited by Blacks in the Western Hemispbere. rtne Cunjah Han" is, of course, equivalent to the rrtbing s that g o bump ~ in the ni gh t" in Ireland~ and tbus has ties to ge neral fol k supe1"sti tions and mythology. But there was also t h e rr1Ju ggah-: man 11 (Dun~ar 's "Little Brown Baby 11 ) , the "raw-head and bloody bones" and 11 obeah man. 11 11 rag -:na rfr&J "peg=le g , (in -tit" We~t-rV\dte.S 11 r) ) t h e '--' Most of these supernatural characters a.re t h r ow __. - b acks to various African religious and ritual practices. Of \ the new generation of poets, Ish mael Reed (/atechism of a ~~U I r,--• neoamerican h oodoo church ) is the innovator in the use of 2'.h.tL~<.i=e~~ super natural t h em-6s;~and v ocabulary. The t h eme of the 2nd Annual John Henr:r Memorial .Auth entic -- lues and Gospel .Jubilee ~ i Sartsrl?Sr < 1974) was ~ 1t°''"'"""' Vt\~ ·::1 _p!,f _2f!Jit{cliff Top, ltJi 11 Tryin' to Get Home. 11 t g J'f How stead t fastly the folk tradition runs like a vein througbj'lack h istory ! In the ~ , culars ( and the / piri tuals ) we repeatedly hear some,l thing si milar to the last stanza of 51 11 Ra1nbow ou Mab Shouldern: �gonna break ri ght , break ri gh t pas t hat s h ooter, goin :'1 ome, Lawd, I'm goi home. Agai ~ the use of the word "Lawdn in a "secular" song furt her bears out the communal integration of the folk::J.ression. Bu..t. J:S n.• v,.eqvLo..rly-----.. interject or exclaim "Lord" •t\nLawd" in every ay discussions. d I 111 ! 7 It is next to impossible to list all {or each type) of the ,/eculars. We have mentioned Professor Talley's pioneering efforts at classifying t h em. But many o?stacles lay in the way of recorders of secular folk life. of censureship of language. One problem was t h at Such censuring marked all types of )Slack creativity, from the slave narratives to reli gious songs. Hence the more "protesting" aspects of tbe works were deleted, as were "authentic 1~ 11 offensi ve words. 11 Anyone wh o bas h eard ack folk songs knows t hat t h ey reflect t he cont, vergence of madness, absurdity and h ope in the J'lack body . Subsequently what are known as trcurse" or "obscene" words are sprinkled throughout much of the "secular II lore. cusses the 11 Brown dist realismtr in t h e folk rhymes along with an attempt r, ., 11 to · tlassify at least some of them { fiddle- ~ hgs," "corn-songs, 11 "jig-tunes, 11 11 upstart crows 11 ) : 4l.!S!2!!S Ballads: Negro Heroes, John Henry (fol kified in song ), Work Songs, The Blues, Irony and Protest. Irony and protest, of course, run through j 1ack folk and literary poetry from the earliest days (Whitfield, Harper, anti-slavery songs) to the most recent times (Josh White, 52 • �. eon Thomas , Don L. Lee, John Ectels, \Johnie. Scott). Some observers have pointed to the silliness of nany researchers who, white as ever, appeared in person to as i jlack folk~song writers arrl singers if they endorsed "protest,n then went away satisfied with a "no" answer. Given the nature and history of race relation~ one can understand the reluctance on the partf of Blacks to tell whites the truth about " let alone about such a sensitive area as "protest." 11 anything 11 Yet in the dog-eat-dog world of survival, the folk person knows that e "If he dies, I'll eat bis co'n; An' if he lives, I'll ride 'im on." In summary we can say that unlike other ethnic i mmigrant ,, groups ( ~the Afro-American was not a willing immigrant!), the f lack American did not simply transplant bis stories ~ keeping them in their exact same form. He found American or European language counterparts for his themes and vocabularies. But his phonology, style and spirit were informed by the African tradition. The stude.n t of_)3lack folk poetry ·will want to compare and contrast the..)'feculars to other ethnic stories and songs. Boasting or "lying," for example, is one ingredient of the "tall" tale. 1 , Jl ·'(-1 How does the J lack song or story ( b o , , "Shine,i' "Signifying Monkey," "Dol~ iite, etc.) fit this motif? 11 "Frankie and Johnnie," How does it conceal deeper meanings on the issues of slavery, inhuman work conditions, or contr~ dictions in Christianity? What are the similarities between the _,z'e culars and the / pirituals? 53 Between the/ eculars and �the literary poetry? These and oth er questions (o ~ lack heroes, cultural motifs, blues themes, language and endurance) will lead one through exciting corridors of_/lack folk creativi ty and thought. ~ - (i) PottA~it,o (i2 SPIRITUALS G ,1 $e·!Til~ (>lkYl ple) GO DOWN, MOSES Go d~, Moses, Way down in Egyptlandj Tell old Pharaoh To let my people go . _i z._ When Israel was in EgyptlandJ Let my people go0 Oppressed so hard they could not stand/ Let my people go. ,J. 2 Go down, Moses, . Way down in Egyptlandj Tell old Pharaoh, nLet my people go." ,-I z-. "Thus saith t he Lord," bold Hoses said, qtJ "Let my people. If not I'll smite your first-born dea~ Let my people go." 54 �I p-,,.,J 11 No more shall they in bondage toil, £J Let my people go; Let t hem come out with Egypt's spoil, □ Let /p-,,v- }svv> my people go." The Lord told Moses what to do; D Let my people go; To lead the children of Israel through , .cJ Let my people go. Go down, Hoses , CJ Way down in Egyptland; Tell old Pharaoh, 0 "Let my people gol 11 (i) SLAVERY CHAIN ,_y Slavery chain done broke at last, broke at last, I .0 bro ke at last, /~ I ,Y""" -, Slavery chain done broke at last, Going to praise God till I die. Way down i n-a dat valley, Praying on my knees; Told God ab out my troubles, And to help me et-a He please. I did tell h im how I suffer, In de dungeon and de chain, And de days I went with h ead bowed down, And my broken fles h and pain. 55 �~ ___., PIRI.TUA~-ont+d-: Slavery chain done broke at last, broke at last, LJ broke at last, Slavery chain done broke at last, Going to praise God till I die. I did know my Jesus heard me, 'Cause de spirit spoke to me, And said, "Ri ~ ' y child, your chillun And you tJ / be free. nr done 'p' int one mighty captain For to marshalt all my h osts, - And to bring my bleeding ones to me, And not one shall be lost." Slavery chain done broke at last, broke at last, CJ broke at last, Slavery chain done broke at last, Going to praise God till I die. @ NO MORE AUCTION BLOCK No more auction block for me, J o more, no more, No more auction block for me, 1-1.a ny thousand gone. n o more peck of' corn for me, No more, no more, 56 �/ ~ .,;;:;::;:.:. SPIRITUALS (cont'd) ~ No more peck of corn for me, Many thousand gone. No more pint of salt for me, No more, no more, No more pint of salt for me, Many thousand gone. No more driver's lash for me, No more, no more, No more driver's lash for me, Many t housand gone. (v SHOUT ALONG, ,, CHILLEN Shout along, chillen! Shout along, chillen! _ Hear the dying Lamb: Oh! take your nets and follow me For I died for you upon tbe tree! L Shout along, chillen! Shout along, chillen! ~ Hear the dying Lamb! vJ, SW.!:iliT / low, lV Swing Coming for sweet ch ario , to carry me home , Swing low, sweet chariot, Coming for to carry me home. 57 HARIOT �SPIRITUALS (cont'd) I looked over Jordan and what did I see Coming for to carry me home, A band of angels, coming after me, Coming for to carry me home. If y ou get there before I do, Coming for to carry me home, Tell all my friends I' m coming too, Coming for to carry me home. Swing low, sweet chariot, Coming for to carry me home, Swing low, sweet chariot, Coming for to carry me home. @ (f) STEAL AWAY Steal away, steal away, steal away to Jesus, Steal away, steal away home, I ain't got long to stay here. My Lord, He calls me, He calls me by the thunder, The trumpet sounds within-a my soul, I ain't got long to stay here. Steal away, steal away, steal away to Jesus, Steal away, steal away home, I ain't got long to stay h ere. 58 �/ ' \ / SPIRITUALS (cont•d) Green trees a-bending, Po' sinner stands a-trembling The trumpet sounds. within-a my soul, I ain't got long to stay here. J (CJ DEEP RIVER Deep river, my home is over Jordan, Deep river, Lord; I want to cross over into camp ground. 0 children, O, don't you want to go to that gospel feast, That promised land, tbat land, where all is peace? Deep river, my hone is over Jordan, Deep river, Lord; I want to cross over into camp ground. I GOT A H,9HE IN DAT ROCK ~ got a home in dat J76ck, D~ 1 t you see? 1 / . I go..,_t a home in ~at rock, Don't rou see?/ ' Between 'ae eJth an' sky, Thought I \ ~rd my Sa vi our cry, You got a/2:~~ in· dat rock, I • Don't y/u see? \ / \\ \, Poor . an Laz•rus, P\or as I, Do . •t you see? Boo~ man Laz'rus, poor ai I, 59 , �• \ got \ \ \ don't you \ \ One of mornings, \ I Dis ole rock, \ '\ ___Q_ . Pharaoh •s I wants to stay he~fuh, Dis ole world 't been no friend to huh , I Pharaoh's arm I Oh Mary, Oh Hary, you don't ~rou moan, Oh Nary, you you moan, army got you weep. G VI ..__.,,, F OLK SECULARS Q a HE I.S MY HORSE One day as I wus a-ridin' by, Said dey: "Ole man, yo' boss will die." CJL:J "Ir he dies, he is my loss; And if' he lives, h e is my boss." I �FOLK SECULARS (cont'd) Nex' day w'en I come a'ridi n ' by , Dey said: "Ole man, yo' boss may die. 11 OLJ 11If' he dies, I'll tan 'is skin; An' if' he lives, I'll ride 'im ag 'in ." Den ag ' in w'en I come a-rid i n ' by, Said dey: ,CJ 11 0le man, yo' b oss mougbt die. L.J ' nrf' he dies, I'll eat h is co' n ; I. 1An' if' he lives, I'll ride 'im on . -- {! -DID~ II II O, FEED i1Y Cffi-J'? ''Did yer fe ed my cow?" "Will yer tell me h ow?" ''Yes, Mam!" "Yes, Mam!" "Oh , w'at did yer give 'er? 11 "Cawn an h ay . II "Oh , w'at did yer gi ve 'er?" "Cawn an hay . II "Did y er milk 'er good?" ''Yes, Ma m!" "Did yer do lak yer sh ould?" "Oh , h ow did yer r.iilk ' er ?" ''Yes, Ham!" "Swish ! Swish ! [J L.J Swish !" Did dat cow git sick ? '' 11 "Yes, }fam ! II rtwus sh e kivered wid tic k ? " '~es, Ha m!" "Oh , how wus she sick ?" "All bloated up. II "Oh , how wus she sick? 11 "All bloated up. II �FOLK SEC1JI:..A.~S (cont ' d) SONG (From Frederick ;;:_ D...:.o...:.u~ ..a.-........-. riy Bondaee and H:r Freedom, 1353) We rai se de wheat , Dey gib us de corn: We bake de bread , Dey gib us de crust; We sif de meal, Dey g i b us d hu~ ; We peel de :neat , Dey gi b us de skin; And dat ' s de wa: Dey take us in; We skim de pot, Dey gib us de liquor, V And say dat ' s go od enou8!1 for nis ger. som (Fro:n :Martin R. Delanv The r.1erica, 11 bret'hr e n, :-Jhile t 'b. e L. "Blake; or, in The An . - o-African 11a n' azine, June 1 : 5 , ) take a rest, a nd clear; Old And : as gone Old :~1as ter ' s d l:ri ng in b is gra·rn; And our to flow; He will ne ck of the slave , For he ' s O' go! �------- toLK SECULARS ( c.Ql1 t f d ) ~ on the utha sbo. r CJ MA.NY A THOUSAND DIE No n ore driver call for me, CJ No more driver call; No more driver call for me , CJ I1any a thousand di ef} ! No more peck of corn for me, 0 No more peck of corn; . No more peck of corn for me, 0 }!any a t h ousand die! No more .. undred lash f'or me, CJ no more hundred lash ; No more hundred lash f'or me, 0 Many a thousand die! @ FREEDOM Abe Lincoln freed t~e nigger, Wid da gun and wid da trigger, An I a1nft 1\?-na git whipped no mo. Ah got mah ticket Ou of' dis heah t h icket, 1 Afh I'm headin for da golden sho. 0 f'reedo m, 0 freedo m, " -- - .,. �FOLK SECULARS con f ) 0 freedom after a while, And before I'd be a slave, I'd be buried in my grave, And go home to my Lord and be free. There'll be no more moaning, no more moaning, No more moaning after a wh ile, And before I'd be a slave, I'd be buried in my grave, And go home to my Lord and be free. No more weeping, no more crying, No more weeping after a while, And before I'd be a slave, I'd be buried in my grave , And go home to my Lord and be free. There'll be no more kneeling, no more bowing, No more kneeling after a while, And b efore I'd be a slave, I'd be buried in my grave, And go h ome to my Lord and be free. There'll be shouting, there'll be shouting , There'll be shouting after a while, And b efore I'd be a slave, I 1 d be buried in my grave, And go home to my Lord and be free. �FOLK -SEOOLAE {j) (cont f-d-t-RAI11BOW ROUN I-IAH SHOULDER Evahwhuh I, ~huh I look dis mawnin, Looks lak rain, looks lak rain . I gotta rainbow, tied all rou n mah s h oulder, Ain go nna rain, ai n gonna rai n. I don walk till, walk till mah feets gone to rollin, Jes lak a wheel, jes lak a sheel. Evah mailday, I gets a letter, "My son come home, my son come h ome." Dat ol letter r ead ab out dyin , .Mah tears run down, mah tears run down. I'm gonna break ri gh t, break ri gh t pas dat sh ooter, I' m goin b orne, Lawd, I' m goin h ome. RAILROAD SECTI 0" LEADER t S Stan on da gon. Ah Ef i n Jenni ee Square, easy , l~ketch you �Lawdy, nobody For Nobody For {I> -JOHN HENRY HAMMER S ON'G Dis is de hammer Killt John Henry, Twon•t kill me, baby, Twon't kill me. Take dis hammer, Carry it to de captain Tell him I'm gone, baby, Tell h im I'm gone. E:f h e axe you, Was I running Tell him bow fast, baby, Tell h i m how fast. E:f h e axe you Any mo' questions, Tell him you don't know, baby, You don't know. Every mail day, Gits a letter, �ECULARS (contd"Son, come h ome, baby , Son come home. 11 Been all ni ght long Backing up timber, Want to go home, baby, Want to go home. Jes' wait till I make Dese few days I started I'm going home, baby, . r'rn going home. Everywhere I Look dis morning Look lak rain, baby, Look lak rain. I got a rainbow Tied 'round my shoulder, Ain't gonna rain, baby , Ain't gonna rain. Dis o le hammer Ring lak silver, Shine lak gold. Take dis hammer 61 �,..---F-G±sK-SECULAR ~ ( e G nt..!.d-) Throw it in de river, It'll ring ri gb t on, baby, Ring rigbt on. Captain, did you bear All yo' men gonna leave you, Next pay day , baby, Next pay day? SHINE AND THE TITANIC 1912 when the awful e great Titanic was "Please, Shine my knees." The water i black self on back down there' Captain said, keep t h e boiler room clear." I got a hundred- Shine sh ovelling coal, Si nging, "Lord, h my soul!" mped across the boiler room deck. Shine yelled to the Captaf, "The water's round my neck!" Captain said, 'Go back! Neit, er fear nor doubt! I got more pumps to out." ''Your words But this is ne time, Cap, y our wo s won't do . �FOLK SECULA.i.~S ( cont'd) He,..,,,sa1d fjpst 1t1 Cue r.iiddle , ~ fro m BACIIDOOR BLUES my baby standin i n the back door cryin' left my baby standin in the back door cryin' She said, baby , you gotta h ome jus as long as I cot mine . ( c,, A BIG FAT HA.r-IA I' m a b i g fat mama , got t he :neat sb akin on mah b ones, I'm a big fat ma ma , got t h e meat shaki n on mab bones, And every time I shakes, some skinny girl loses hu~ 1ome. ( HOU LONG BLUES How long, how lon 6 , has that e ven ing train Jin gone? How lo n3 , 'how long, b ay, h ow long ? Had a s al lived up on t h e hill If she' c t here, sh e loves r.e still Baby, ':1ow long , how lo ng , bow loni:; ? Standin at the station, watch my baby go Feel dis s usted, blue, mean an low How lone , !.') OW lone::; , ';:;a:Ty , ~. mr ~ long? � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_09_05 Title A name given to the resource Editors proof, Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, Chapter II. The Black and Unknown Bards, typed with handwritten edits, p. 27-69 Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/bda4b937b4255dd6e3ced4e9979ac5aa.pdf fdbdbbce3c1db47d2c196b8abdc529f2 PDF Text Text INTRODUCTION: CHAPTER I-- G BLACK POETRY: ..,VIEWS, VISIONS, CONFLICTS It ••• the double obligation of being both Negro ~d American is not so unified as we are often led to believe. n 'l,,,,. 1,_ '2"' J I -Countee Cullen i\i"\ C- In recent years,j ~l lack American po try has emerged from what appears to have been its assigned position as an illegii timate-Csometimes embarrassing-Lchild of American literature M M into an official flower in the garden of world writinfs@ Everyi where~ Afro-American poetry is being vigorously read, listened to and imitate. Disc jockeys on Black-oriented radio stations quip: "often imitated but never duplicated" ~ assuring their - listeners p~1 . 1· ve, ~ ,. ,/II 1.s a 1. that the 11 soul 11 or ~~~eJ 11 heirloomu of their tradition v~vltrs well, andlt'28 elcca in ancestrall\.11afe ,bps 1 i 111111 a , ' Howeve~ a silent reading of the DJ's casually delivered quip belies the charismatic power and verbal dexterousness in 'iiow• it is said But, inJ lack poetry, the "how" is always important and will be one of the cornerstones of the discussions in this book. To say that.Jilack poetry is read or heard all over the world is not to say that it is studied in equitable proportion to other poetry Indeed the recent rash of anthologies and individual cal lections, and the re issuing of previously published volumes, suggest that a vast literary vacuum has existed The flood of publications, coupled with the appearance of new j :i.a:ck~_ and other=ethnic publishing houses, makes this vacuum glaringly, paradoxt 1 �ically obvious The absence of/ lack poetry (orJ ~1ack literature) courses from English departments and at predominantly white colleges and public schools is ignominiously aided and abetted by the culp~ able negligence at many predominantly/5-ack learning centers ~ where for example ;istudents are exposedj to Walt Whitman, W •r • Yeats, T•f • Eliot, Robert Frost, Carl Sandburg, Marianne Moore t and Edith Sitwell but t,a.ey- receive no instructi-on!, in the works ~ of Paul Laurence Dunbar, Jean Toomer , Melvin B. Tolson, Owen Dod son, Robert Hayden, Gwendolyn Brooks and Margaret Walkers One could go on, of course, reciting the cultural and literary negligence so officially a part of the academic and grants-in-aid patterns. However, the purpose here is to explore the vast richness of)Slack poetical and mythical life. I II Black poetry presents many frustrations, challenges and problems. Instructors preparing to teach the subject must be aware of the many pitfalls, not the least among them the tendency of teacher and student alike to stray from the "study 11 of the poetry into poli tical and rhetorical catharses® "Black" is a political worcy and to study or teach any aspect of the /5-ack come embroiled in ----·-~ - 2 j xperience is to be �cs controversy and burdened with sociopolitical stress~ That thin line between the ideological implications of a poem and those ntrial ""scenes" :tn which individuals~particularly in classrooms) find -----. t Athemselves victim is a line walked by all teachers and students of the_/lack..J'xperience. In approaching_,Jlack poetry, then, one must "set" the atmosphere by dealing, from the -- outset, with substantive background materials~ the deepest philosophical, religious, ethical, artistic and aesthetic tenets o~lack lif'e and expression. a,, -e ~ purposeAintent of' this Thus!1'he t&"1' . . ._____,, is to examine the scope and range of_A'!lack poetry via folk origins, methods of delivery, language, phonology, religiosity, racial character, recurring themes, individual and group identity, and poetic devices as they are developed indigenously or borrowed from other poetic traditions. ;a;-,, I III Like all" bodies of writing, j 1ack literature stems f'rom a folkloristic trunk, making the job of' teacher or student twofold: '-- one).to deal with the great and complex storehouse .) J of' f'olk materials and themes; and two.>_,, to explore the chrono logical development of)eflack poetry--from about 1746 to the I ofopiri 10;.1 present. There are minor' _ differences" among scholars R.hlJ"t '---"' where ,.....,--- , the study of/ ✓, beqin.s lack written poetry~ For example, in The Poetry of the Negro, Hughes and Bontemps begin with Lucy Terry's "Ba Fight," the account of an Indian massacre o.c.h~elTi in Deerf'ield, Mass/\, in 1746. The Negro Caravan --(aa :tmJbt.l'hee 3 �dited by Brown, Davis and Lee) omits t b e Terry l?~ o F' Caravan was f'irst issued in 194~ while 1b,a 'Poe~y sec.Ttbn ~~//~~ was published in 1949. Cet~\/0-'fl's A begins poem. ·_ ,_ ------'--- with -Phillis Wheatle~ who f'irst published poetry in 1770. Also omitted from Caravan is the work of Jupiter Hammo~ whose poetry was published in broadside in 1760. In Ca~vqcade J.Eegro American Writing from l'.l_60 to the l?r~s.en~ ), published in 1970 and edited by Davis and Redding, neither Terry nor Hammon appears \and the poetry section beg~ ns with Phillis Wheatley. Early Black American Poets (Robinson) acknowledges Terry~ but Johnson's The Book of American Negro p~l~~n~ Poetry opens withABunbar. _ Kerlin's Negro Poets and their Poems (1923) makes no mention of' either "Bar's Fight" or its author~ but Dudley Randall's The Black Po~ts {1971) r\owe.ve V\, includeA t h e poem. A.-thl.s '!' -,,ii~ _a random survey :r.rom the dozens of' general and specialized anthologies t..-Jcl tC4.te -~ ~ that o; many teachers of f lack poetry begin with Phillis Wheatley despite the f'act that at least twoJ lack poets were writing before her. - . '\ . . . .. . . - • -t, te ~~Ai1,.,~ y i f 1 o t . , ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~~~~ ~ . ' ! • .~\J'.~~~,~~~-- 4 r �a cgl •IWI ii I I J9 tWdj I! P;gn Pi B ihddif2or ¥n ;Lash El 2 hizbo2loai ds:etsp&& a r I SJ Pl a pg 1/-@ne of the main f:' ea.iv ~es - of this 7I ,.s a. y,a. Ly s a @Ls Sit -I &i.. ; Will be the study of related and integral forms of expression such as fol1fongs, spirituals, blues, jazz, =~-= rhythm ,t: blues and what is known today as s o u l ~ C f o ~ ~ ~ a c-k,,.Zxp;rience is complex and frustrating. 1 At each juncture in the study of the poetry, #i,rt f'or example, oneAteaching it will meet difficulties 11lllllll~may vead1n~ o.ntl MIit seem insurmountable. • Some of these difficulties will be presented in familiar questions: Is a poet considered ,;(lack · if he writes cons istentlyM or temporarilyM.I- out of the "whi t e" I experience? Can a / lack poet really record/ lack experi ences T one considers the cross-fertilization of fol k and literary culture in this country, together with the existence of hybrid cultures all over Latin America and other parts of t he world, the term '-'31-ackfa perience" does indeed 4!. e~y nooT definitio j It is hoped, however, that through~continual return to the idea of the} lackf a perience {and discussion of~ lack life), the complexity and range of the term can be appreciated al s ~ 1 ( ee ( bibliography). 5 �and feelings in English? Can a white poet write a_/1ack poem (like the white musician who has developed a "feel" for/ lack music and bas learned to master the technical vocabulary of that music)? Can white people "understand",J{lack poetry? Should white critics or/ lack poetry be taken seriously? 2 p Is ack poetry primarily emotion and lacking in intellect? there a )3lack/ poetry? esthetic? Is Can a white professor teach ~ lack How does )31.ack _/'a nguage differ i'rom white language or English? And does_;ITT-ack poetry express the universal human condition? ,,\ Re4.dt ►s. sltotJ/J L t■,-·•F· 7 £ 7 • • • ~·)?) ...;r.-.- --. ask these question~ ? <4$ 4n indicat loft that they want more reaiistic and direct answers to some of the • · • issues I /4 i,,fl'=f-'1,--t"~ have consumed~ lack activists, artists, ~academicians, and white scholars of thefa ack/ xperience. -! wi,o o."'e es ~eacherS,f oni'ronting a. racially mixed clasW ~ all-J3lack classe.S -::. or • ~ ~oc:.e_ all white clas~, will sometimesl\cetJ!f'2 eni; a distressing - panorama of anger, rejection, fear , conddscension, accusation, anti-intellectualism, intellect 1 1 sno isbness, racism, dis ' ~, trust -and any number f other vombtn4uon, of the contemporary stude~ personality. (J.i kc. o'U,e. ... poeTs) poets do not fis.sert·fbe.~ The ,,Zlac / ~ ,coru 11--'\-le~ - since,\they, critically and thematically, are dispersed along a boundless spectrum of opinions, attitudes, creative For a balanced discussion of this and related subjects, see l-lpbahle le I s Voices in the Whirlwin~ 17JJ, 6 11-l 11,:s �approaches, ideologies, techniques and literary philosophies. At teacher or student preparing for either a semester or V year-long course (or for a -'3lackn unit to be integrated into a?fumanities course, an American literature course, or a J3iack interdisciplinary project) should l ' e 4 ( { ~ the literature and lore of the jlack past in order to give tentative answers and carry on adequate discussions when questions such as those above arise. After having been exposed t ~ lack poets of national statut'e ~ via television programs such as Soul and Black Journal, at campus readings and conferences,_)!(lack / rts festivals and comr:mni ty book parties / many students (es peciall:r p ack students) may be informed, at the popular level, about the opinions and reading styles of the poets. However, neith er student nor teacher must- and this point bas to be stressed /II\ again and again-l succumb to the temptation to "skip all poetry up until 1965. 11 ""' IV c::.. I True, there is great and growing interest in the / lack poetry produced out of what has been variously called the_/'lack / onsciousness ¢ lack African,,)'°vement. ower~ lack ationalis~ ack) 'rts ¥ eo/ an~ 9oes~¥,<~ Yet one who ,tt Ci "'-the )flack (or any) tradition will find himself engulfed in a maelstrom of conjecture and ideological hysteria; and the class, whose posture will be anti-historical, will be riddled with soap: opera ty~e rhetoric about revolution and liberation~ 2 zrt1 f tSIICGB Ii I Zl!IQGEJ ------ g I ; < Jimr r ; : :ld Cruse (The Crisis of the Negro 7 �Intellectual) points out that each generation of~ lack artists and activists suffers from a lack of historical/cultural tinuity. :t/.J ~ That is, -they fail to study or are unaware of - con '..J ✓ the mistakes and the pitfalls of past struggles and consequently find themselves in predicaments not dissimilar to t hose of their predecessors. Needless to say, such "cultural amnesia" is not the state from which one approaches the study of/ lack poetry. As observed earlier, the poets are not in agreement con cerning what j lack poetry is supposed to do, why it is written or wheth er whites can (or should) write or criticize it. 3 Reasons for the diverse beliefs and positions are numerous: ......,t h e situation attending t he birth and upbringing of t he poet (note, for example, the distinctions between Claude McKay and Countee Cullen); his religious affiliation (Robert Hayden is of t h e Baha'i faith; Askia Muhammad Toure is a Sunni Muslim; El-Mubajir An important point at this juncture of J lack poetry . For t h ere is growing feeling among some poets and writers (many of whomr ill not express themselves in public) that there are concerted attempts to muzzle, circumvent or circumscribe some authors because of their personal political viewy oints or t h eir brand of writing. For further allusion to this, see back issues of the Journal of Black Poetry, Black World, and other periodicals dealing with the contemporary.)'l ack / rts scene. 8 �(Marvin x) is a member of' the Nation of' Islam; & s K. Curtis Lyle was raised ..., & ,L &f!J(t£££&& ,..._ .. IS.a: & .. •• ~ ,.._ eu ~ ,. J Catholic)~ tvE.. ~ his ..( .. political leaning (which, in the case of' many writers, is also religious); his preparation f'or r lb if a crtr a ts 7! ft associations with o-ther • ..2- poets (many )!lack poets, f'or example,aSSotitf.1.€ ~nd this is - 111,Js tv1'o" historically tru~ with writers of' other races;./\ met one j lack poet in 1970 who had two masters' degrees but had not heard of' l f 1 IJ 1 bis current personal situation (does he live in the inner city? teach? time? play a musical instrument? '- write f'ull '-' write in other 3enres? read primarily_Jlack poets?); and his f'eelings on the question: 11 Are you a poet f'irst and then Black; or are you Black f'irst and then a poet?" &~ Harmless as it may seem, that rhetorical utter~has entrapped scores of' Jlack writers in ideological arrl political prisons ~ f'rom which some would like to extricate themselves by asking simply: "What dif'f'erence does it make? 11 For - -c:: many poets, however , it matters a great dea\ and they have written prof'usely on the implications of' this question and the several others listed earlier. The teacher or discussion leader must sample opinions of' writers and students, sharing the a,,J~to;t;Lf'o-t¾ , t iversity of opinions~with the same vigor and thor~ughness that IS 9 �~"eStITTe.& '"' tk~ i fstt.f ~? r ii f\Poifr.y,!' 1 Such parity allows - 21522 51, ~ or a continu&l balance in criticism, social undercurrents nd the poems th~ rs F g■ a r7 r hn Ti Novelist Ralph Ellison has suggested that he is a writer first and that his racial identity is subor dinate to that fact. Poet Robert Hayden bas taken a similar stand {see introduction to Kaleidoscope, Poems by American Negro Poets, 1967). The same position bad been taken several decades earlier by poet Countee Cullen. In bis critical~ biographical introduction to Cullen's poetry {The Book of American Negro Poetry, 1922), James Weldon Johnson observed: ( tb et4- .._/J Some critics have ventured to state that Cullen is not an authentic Negro poet. This statement, of necessity, involves a definition /' of "a Negro poet" and of "Negro/ oetry. " There might be several definitions framed, but the question raised is pure irrelevance. Also there is in it a faint flare-up of the old taboo which would object to the use of "white" material by the Negro artist, or at least regard it with indulgent condescension. Cullen himself bas declared that, in the sense of wishing for con sideration or allowances on account of race or of recognizing for himself any limitation to "racial" themes and forms, he has no desire 10 �or intention of being a Negro poet. In this / 9,.~ is ~ not onl_y within his right; he is right. talics mine.J~ Johnson went on to note that because Cullen "revolts against" racial enclosures, the "best of his poetry is motivated by race." One could make a similar comment today about Ellison or Hayden. The works for which both are internationally acclaimed delve into the deepest regions o f ~ t 1ack psyche and feeling. ') - -------- Meanwhile some younger poets-M~those who ~ gained exposure in the 1960 s-Land several poets and critics who straddle both generations lash out, sometimes not so diplomatically, at what they see as compensatory actions a nd unnecessary self-deprecation by the older poets. Pulitzer ~ riz e "'1 inner Gwendoly n Brooks said in a preface to Poems ,J'rom 9 Prison that Etheridge Kni ght was not the "stifled artiste." The comment represented an i mplied rebuttal to,;nack and wh ite "academic II poets. Elsewh ere · - _/J, e.. --.. referred to the "inelegance n of some~ lack poetry as being consistent with t h e bleak, drab landscape of h opelessness and despair inner-city dwellers. g,P (Other critics, however, support the position of poet-critic Larry Neal that t h e~ lack,)efxperience should not be defined in terms of "negatives.") G u.,tod;t'-¥ I') lateJfixties, /\ During t he ('_•_ 1J! Brooks became a kind of ttlo'Uae~r,qvt-ej\"' t he New Blac k Po etry {v\ove~ent (at least in Chicago), ceased puhi lish i ng with Harper and Row, and :)egan to rel ease h er writings t:srougb Bi-•oad3ide Press -/4.. a ~ De troi t-:'.'asey lack publish ing 11 • ◄ �bouse under the supervision of Dudley Randall• 4 He r- ~ new con • sciousness, she declares, came about as a result of having attended a .Jflack writers conference It (1967) at Fisk UniversitY. f>6."T1t.1po.Ted l ~ cl ,.sc ui,-♦o~s ) where she heard and · I\ . with poets Imamu Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones), Don L. Lee, ·Nikki Giovanni, novelist John Oliver Kil lens, and mo." y other writers, activists and artists. The violent social explosions in the cities, the Vietnam ~ t-,J/ ~a~ t.ba-t took lives and crippled ~ others, •••f.Jflack - I .,I, the persistent emergence of Africa--all, ,,,-- p, e... ' ----. said . aided in the development of her new consciousness. She has written that it "frightens II her to think that if she had died before she reached fifty, "I would have died a 'Negro' fraction." Hayden, disclaiming the Gwendolyn Brooks' - position, assumes he has been 1•Black" all along and continues to reject any singular, unarguable position on the Black, /esthetic /Jf or / the poet-first, Black-second/Black-first , poet-second contro versy. Assessing Baraka, Hayden admits that he recognizes the younger poet's power but deplores "his Black nazism." J. Saunders Redding, a dean of the lack critical establish ment, feels there is no such thing as a "Black ,A.esthetic "; Poet Paul Vesey @amuel Allen} calls it "a voyage ~ - of discovery~ ! think it will yLeld _return not as greatly as in music, perhaps, where the black aesthetic dominates an entire cultural area of the wes -tg 11 ~0iher- poets and critics, �however, ignore questions dealing with aesthetics, the level of ;6-ackness in their work, their primary audience, and the mood or spirit that influences their writin At the same timeJ there are trends, some regional and some national, that can be identifie. Ident~ fying and exploring these trends can be immensely rewarding. Some prerequisites to an understanding of trends and att ti tudes that stem from the ont going creative process. are: a study of slavery as it was instituted by Europe and refined in the United State~ an examination 0 Y5-ack social history, and a scrutiny of West African and Afro-American folklor ~ thorough student of.,..Zlack poetry wil~ The teep ' hi~sel:7 · ivilizationj he will r also · develop an C in the history of Western appreci ation for the complex web off a ack-white interf relation! All this is necessary in +' ships in America. ·/\ pr?paring to participate fully and knowledge~ t ably in the often tens •:filled readings and discussions stimulated by the works of/ lack poets and writers. I V Much of the subject matter of p ack poetry is unpleasant9since it is pervaded with the weighty memory and impact of slavery. /"'\ . And if slavery is among the lesS-M" ~pleasant items to be discussed, "-' . I ~-~~ lynching becomes even more repugnantM especially"'-so much~ such activity occurred "after" slaveµ officially ende~e But one soon sees that practically eve;.•y /\poet since .the -end of /\. Civil War has written a poem about lynching _, . The poets who do not deal with actual lynchings, as we have come to know or interpret them, write about half-lynchings , character or cultural defilement and the 13 �mental and physical destruction ofr ack bumani ty. If a discussi on of slavery is unpleasant, then, a consideration of lynching is horrifying. However, skilled di SC. U~4ia.: its will maneuver judiciously through the rough waters of such sessions k keeping emotional deluges to a minimum by admitting facts and clear interpretations. During such occasions, ;t everyone must be on guard les • the classroom become t a V' courtroom. At the same ti me, a convener who cannot preside over vigorous and thorough discussions of these painful events and details may find himseli'l C later :.iii:; trying to bridge even wider gulfs of d ubt, frustration, mistrust and alienation. Again, the ----....... ( or any aspect of . . ./ lack P,U-c.,~ r Y.ir • of the _)t.Lac1;,-.perience itself . study ,----..,,_ v{ of /"'lack poetry ) · assumes the complexities Svc 1--\ study Nevertheless f A is infinitely rewarding1 because it is a vehicle distills the particular insights and perspectives of ? ack Americans into concise and authentic forms: ..._,m erging the rich ruralf'3iblical-ur'ban idioms with colorfully luscious iCTagery and (in many cases) peerless technical proficiency in the use of literary English and Hes tern poetic forms. Fo"' U(lmpLe.J W~0\ 'I students are confronted with the various poems on lynchings, E! ► di i uic; study can be underscored by an examination of language, for m, posture, poetic toolery and ove ' all achiev +- mentor effec,tveness of the poems. "Between the World and Me,'' the In Richard Wright's ~ poet becomes the ,--====:.:::.~ the oak tree narrates the lynching in Dunbar ' s 14 11 Tbe Haunted Oak." 9 �Coo(lle,t, A Cull s "I" in "Scottsboro, Too, Is Horth Its Song " ~ " whic ~l'i'te1ni":!rtn:rn 1 white American poets .for remaining silent over unjust treatment of/lack men while they sing j .£l j'C> t ... sharp and pretty unes for Sacco and Vanzett ,, •• i LY!Hl Clo.'-« Ink'1cKay' : nThe Lynchin~" the killing or th~ lack man is made analagous to the crucifixion; a sonnet, and awesome through out, the poem descends to its rhyming couplet with a final ghCLstly irony: / And little lads, lynchers that were to be, o/ Danced round the ✓-~ul thing in fiendis h glee. '--- these poems ~, and the dozens of others t hat employ the lynching t heme i -th ere is much l')\<\Ttr\o..l discussion. tot-- ~ut,\tht'tt ~"&dy a.nd In the four poems mentioned, the poet:;!~.• such diverse .forms as the sonnet, the ballad (Dunbar) and free verse (Wright). hislowc.at be the additional~inquiry Helpful in this area will -------=~ into the development of white hate groups such as the Ku Klux IQan 15 �and tbe history of race riots in America. Riots in at least a dozen American communities in 1919, for example, helped spur McKay to write r If We Hust Die t , a poignant sonnet with its even more poignant and popular ; nding couplet} \ Like men we'll face the murderous, cowardly pack, J...; Pressed to the wall, dying, but fighting back! -'- a poem ._....,_. '' •- Winston Churchill read before the House of Commons , I during World War II, to spark bis countrymen in the dim hours• 1 during the 1972 prison rebellion in Attic\ I f journalists ~ found the poem scribbled on the wall of a cell and t h e national press attributed it to a prisoner! Of great assistance, to ~ is a knowledge of tle history of slave revolts (many f lack poets write about them) and the patterns of violence in America. Attuned teachers and students will want to consult sources such as 100 Years of Lynching (Ginzberg), back issues of f lack and liberal white news journals and papers and especially past issues of The Crisis, the official news and opinion arm of theNJlACP.. .r W ~B. n11fois, l)lllong 1h e first Blacio~ to r i ceive a Ph.D., edited The Crisis for over ~ O year~ from its beginning in 1910. For further readi gs, the teacher can I,~. / ,. refer t .o tlie extensive bibliogr phy plus appropriate sections 'rn /\ anthologies, textbooks and C>ihei-i-:~eo.K~ · sources. VI tr 11177 r " R st 1 ·: kh&t IM 211 16 r C �/ V-I arm h i mself to t h e best of his ability with the tools of criticism and a knowledge o~lack culture. He must unde~Tii11d -th·e - part "duality " plays in the lives of ;(lacks and how such "twoness" is fest n the poetry; he should reco g nize t h e k ey issues being raised Wand debated among J 'lack artists, sch olars and 17 �activists ~ and have some feel for t h e histori c al circumstances J I\ 1 outl\.wh ich t h ese issue s and deb ates grew; h e oug:1 t to under J &.c.,\,'Clt rne~s ,., kis standABaraka A referen to some/ lack poets as 11 inte grationists 11 + and "art:.r poets rr; b e wil l h ave to know what many of t h ? w W ?PU poets ;.:ean "Wh en t h ey say t h e y reje c t :.Jes tern rrrorr:is 11 and refuse to be j udged 'oy t·Jl:. i te s tand ard s (3 arak a, fo r ex a,.:pl e , talks about post-American forms), !)e wi ll also want to reco nize p.ack in-house humor and intracor.ununal disparagement in . ,,,.---, ~ . - words and ohras es t1:ire "nigger , ,r "ne ro , " "Uncle Tom , "oreo , " "colored, " "the man , " "dicty, a nut, 11 · "brother, • 11 "crumbcrusbers, 11 11 11 11 bad mouth , " "main squeeze , 11 11 b ust and • "Mr. Charlte. ," phonol oe;icaJ (For .further i ndication of t h is d ictional a nd i ch ness and t b e breadth o~ lac k ~ anguag e, see The Dictionary o.f American Slang , :Iajor•s Dictionary of Afro-American Slang , the 11 Cl Gloss • ry of Selected Terms" i n Th e Psych ology of Black Languag e (Haskins and Butts), Ab rah a m's Deep Down in t h e Jungle, Andrews and Owens' Black Language, I Claer bo.u t ' s Black Jar gon in 1-Jh i te America, Twiggs ~ Pan-African Languag e in t h e Western Hemisphere, Welmers ' African Languag e Structures , Kochman•s Rappin' and Stylin' Out, and Dillard's Black E nglish . Additionally the- ~eckittr - ·. the motiv ations of some of the poets. ~ will want to know All poets, for example, do not rate being called "poets" in the traditional (white or / lack) sense . Redding , in a recent Muhammad Speaks interview, accused some o.f t h e new J nack writers o.f lacking If moral and 18 �,•. them ''literary hustlers/y~ Observing that Baraka recently signed a l ~year contract witb Random House, Redding said such an act is inconsistent with the poet's nationalistic assertio·ns and positions. In a ~ recent ~la,Qk ~ior:J.d article, novelist;. _ poet Ishmael Reed spoke disparagingly of some of the net? -ack critics ( "Blackoi, paths") and poets ("nationtime poets," was the reference). -+JA\(.1 \. IY\odhubuT, (Oor,L,Lte) Poet-essayis"tj 'A,_c has chided poet Nikki Giovanni for being an "individual" who lacks technical abilities; and in '-2!!!!J' ~ issue of J'et magazine a reader irately asked if M~s. Giovanni deserved respect after accepting a Woman-of-the-Year award from a national white women's organization. 81#, f irre and Reed were nominated for Pulitzer/ rizes in 1973. Hayden, a member of the older group of poets, wh o was only ~ years old when the Harlem Renaissance burned out, feels that ll!lilM~hub~17 ............. (praised by Gwendolyn Brooks, Hoyt Fuller of Black World, Randall and Baraka) has potential as a poet but lacks discii pline and seems unable to separate poetic technique from ideological ranting . On the other hand, Stephen Henderson, it1,i_ author-editor of Understand~e New Black Poetry praises @_!)11,eyov~ 1 relentlessly and says his popularity is "tantamount to star~ dorrlf,; Henderson, who holds a Ph.D., is currently chairman ,4todhv of the new Humanities ~ivision at Howard Universit~ where fllre..~ : :. G1.Ve.,"foL, "> , is a writer-in-residence. :,11111,._Brooks gives k~ credit t) n e. l-"' @J \ -✓".Xntroduction'' to The Poetry of Black America much of the contemporary - for spawning lack~consciousness literature. 19 �{/4.ny serious Jidilw~!.°10'<\ oF the de ve lopme nt of/ iac k poetry must 111 1 co7,Jit1e;- sf these intense feelings and positions . One must also organize orderly discussions or readings arou~d the divergent viewju;►oug I,~ 1■ SW SP pp 7 ■ 1a as b BSCO!ilb lii0!!652 dial UCl.~"t- participants C~\"\ dev e.Lop a complete picture of theArichness ~Ylc..(..~ of ----___::;7 3 I ti-,~ ~ poetr ~4iilli the political, social and historical tensions out 1 of wbich#•-•' i-t- • ·-···~ is generated . <//Robert Hayden, for one, un~ derstarids ~his confluence -of _issues BI?-d temperment 8J as li:i.tnessed by his·· comments on the;dew )D.ack_/oetcy f with appropriate historical footnotes: The emergence of a so-called school of' Black I f Poetry in America h as been one of' the signif'icant literary developments of' the modern period. Although the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920fs brough t certain Af'ro-American poets into prominence, it was not until t h e intensif'ication of t he civil ri gh ts struggl e during t h e 1960 1 s t h at a separate group of black poets began to take sh ape. Avowedly nationalistic (th at is, racially proud) and scornful of' western aesthetics, these poets cont inued t he protest tradition, h istorically associated with Negro writers. But they were more radical in outlook than t h eir predecessor~. Unlike t h e Harlem group, t h ey rejected e ntry into t h e mainstream of American literature as a desirable goal. Th ey insisted t h at t h eir poetry 20 �could not be judged by wh ite standards, ureing its i mportance as an expression of black coq(:,, scious ness. )i LeRoi .Tones J -tbe most influential of t h e M young activist poets 4 Don L. Lee, Nikki Giovann i, Sonia Sanchez, Mari Evans, Eth eridge Kni gh t, and David Henderson attune their l yres to t h e '' blac k esthetic. 'f Not yet satisfactorily defined, t h is term, originating in t be sixties, nay b e i nter preted as a sense of t he spiritual and artist i c I: t ; pu naps, a I g values of blackness. I tee lilil6!1G&d 1&61&1 &bl ii: 2 rrnnfsed ky tbs sJs@sr "' s csacsp t J 'DJ I aIn • I l p s1 rt 3 7 J3 t f fp] I Ws 7 7 f : :h s a I e ga: d ih gs 1 773 11 I I I I 1j . 1 I t tJs f 1th ,._ ... J:~:-, _..,.,_ ......A~'4~~~-y...__,_" .... ~ ~ i ' t a el 1uc:rsnt • 11 tl ., aJnds Heron· t \la2kt ~~ iiUiiiilii iii i& .... il•i~■-• . II I ~ Ii I 7 fl Pl D a I SJ l ? :r Bneelzs 3 ii li lii~ LE!i~un\ted sTCQ,1e.S lb.bre~o.Jvre_)v\i\\Er, 1-la.-.,den) O'Ne~l ,\C/73) • 21 �( Hayden•s opening comments, then, corrob orate the opening sentence to this introductionf tbat j lack poetry - - - - - -- - is one of the most important move ments on t h e literary scene today. Yet, while it is exciting to study this "poetry in process" (if you please), the en thusiast must be on guard not to skip the tradition (the folk c:u1d ucu,.\cilions precedents)Ain favor of plunging into a,)!lack poem t h at h eaps wrath on Watergate conspirators+ or urban policemen who sh oot rioters and looters. ~•-■ t1111?6i■ r•a••■-1111J••t•illlillllt-.aPWC~&ig~11mlf!O~fl~Gllllllt0~li~c~t~-'9 ( r/k' VII t::= Many of the "literary hustlers" to whom Redding refers h ave capitalized on the topical and episodic issues-l with M little or no training in t he ~ lack tradition or writing . hu, -f Hence, t h e student mustAassume that just because a statement is "relevant," it is poetry ! The ~ lack or wh ite research er will "dig ••• deeper to the gold "/,::;; in the words of James David . / V 0 - Corr t h ers-- and "establish II a sound tradition against which M~ to measure t h e/ lack poetry of today. If the~ lack poet i n question fails, he fails because he collapses fro m t h e weight I of the past--instead of being b'uoyed up by it. In establish ing t h is sound tradition, --- must realize N\ .f irst ---------- One, that theJ iac) lxperience is not monoli thic J -al t h ough ~ ' 22 �recurring trends and broad ir.1plications do exist in the areas of language, religion, humor, dance, music and general life style. /(,-J ocMo.s , t ~· S t ~1._ _,, there is often more consistenry 1 tito.."' 1'9"\Who,t;iney)'now in ~ Blacks' /lrVewLc~~ or' popular "American II cul turj'* Ther are several reasons for such a paradoxical imbalance and lack of focus i many of them locked in the enigmatic see saw of ;nack history . Ellison observed in the 194c[s that i 1 /lack leaders ever unraveled the puzzle of the zoot suit and t h e dark glasses (meaning the secret o::,faack urban "styling" habits), they could, perhaps, take the political and psy ;--' chological eii._, ns of j lack masses from whites. Ellison's observation was accurate • .James Baldwin has written that, in Europe, he looked at the great Renaissance masterpieces and felt ashamed that his race had not produced such work. Baldwin · dad \\OT ~hew· that the great Spo..n1sn painter{-, Pablo Picasso had borrowed heavily from African motifs . . architect Letf Corbt usier ..._,, V was '-' &@!!Sf or t hat influenced byAf~~Gn The thatched-roof huts. implications of t h is part of the discussion are many and far~· ·-- --..... --.... -•-. - ·---- Ellison's, For an exciting recitation and indictment via a "cultural qui ~ listen to poet-critic Stanley Crouch's Ain't No Ambulances for no Nig , man). 23 ht (Flying Dutch ~ l1011t'fhl'n~s:e~ �-- Croucb 's and Baldwin's ob servations are tj_ mely and i n portant. ____ i-o...,. -fbo Th ey sugeest • • • ttatN~anytJA••••■• of t h e students ;;;:---_ who are in pack poetry )%lack ytudies) classes do not b ave a working knowledge of t h e tradition out of which the poetry grew. v:rt bas b eco me popular, in some quarters, to i gnore this fact_. . ,. itll R?Jis r-o.toz usihs V E775ftF ' 11J bl!SIS ildbb Sb p&hA&liig -·m« ,,,,!L. ..._l!I .srrassad. ·1Jlrn ts@@N a .. t:19 ; I l l ts) 1na :r:a &lass Ube about tho 1i1Jmai1 Th·e importance of a knowledge of the )flack literary traditio~ ~ is a · _ · ~ m.t pointAcannot b e stressed too often or too e mph atically. I nteresti ngly 1 L@!!3 t h e majority of t h e persons wh o want to know someth ing a b out ,..g'lack poetry are not preoccupied with t h e craft of poetryJ--/V\ ...__,, the hows and whys of poetry. .Li~o} ~ students and casual reader~ J _ not, an& to b e more interested in t h e sociological (some "path olog ical") aspects of t h e poetry. !)k:: 5 ----seem ----- say Tbe situation varies, of course, fro m campus to ca.mpus_:;ill!-®M a b111&0p1.1ez:'1!'59e :etree 4 2 if i!w,~ nd from)3lac k to white to interracial settings. t h e enthusia stj houL& ll • I) 3f # f?vt- keep t h e pf r suit of the w ori~ '"" "ti ght" in terms of t h e discipline demanded b y the poetry itself. Anoth er prob lem -~~~ '-,;; . .J organize segme nts . , I I t I so ugb t. s~,o"' ~ ~ l- -, -t...st "-tl .,L when~:\'a.p preciation'i vf the is bow to material is '}°""<..'-'. a.n ., - ---:--~.. approach could be ~ by one's initial conception of t h e poetry or 24 die"t;je,d �by the level of interest and preparation A casual reader, for example, would not study the same poems with the same intensity as would a senior or graduate literature majo. Nevertheless, teachers, students and poetry lovers must bear in mind that they are looking into/ ;3'l ack poetry and not merely some fair-to-middling imitation of traditional Western poetryi even though the two often converge on many point ~ Moreover, the differences are not always easy to identify; but on:'~~ssimilates the Afro-American world view into his study of the poetry will have L problems recognizing the differences than those who read the poet~ ttcol 11 Black and ·wite poets select the same words but for different reasons(!) There a,.-J are many variable ~ and one has to be cautious about hard~fast judget ment But we can say that the Afro-American poet is almost always its apt to select a word forf typographical, phonological and political dimensions@ Word selection among European and American poets, on the other hand, is more often made for allusory and intellectual reason8') This is not to say that_;(lack poets are not intellectual or that Euro-American poets are not musica. Exceptions to the foregoing groupings are legen. But it is important to identify music lsongified language) as a dominant influence on the Afro~ American poett-not just in an aesthetical or inspirational sense, but in terms of architectonics, in terms of basic (original) structures. Again we are treading on sensitive ground, because in the context of racial and intellectual mixtures, a curious melting s . pot i • likely to boi • Example: white students, well grounded in their own literary tradition but having a skeletal knowledge of )!iack/ ultur~ may want to speed up the treatment of the poetry • ' Failing to recognize that many students do· not lmow .the 25 names �and meanings of simple poetic devicesl(metaphors, similes, alli t eration, onomatopoeia), insensitive teachers and aggressive stu-t,, dents often cause premature destruction of group interests® Such situations do occu Even the best literature teachers sometimes assume students have been drilled in the use of figurative lan guag9(j) Ironically, most students have been "drilled" in the figures; but the holes from the drillings allowf..v information to go in one ear and out the othertff Many students, in the whir of words, will not aclmowledge their ignorance of the language of poetic criticism and analysis, especially if they happen to be~ lack students and thi nk the instructor expects them to be "experts" on thefa ack ~ xperienc0c:t7 On the other 9,.-an,d, t e intellectual snobbery often ~P-' { , accompanying t h e stude~ should not be tolerated in a ' )f discussion of~ lack poetry@ Luckily, however, the curves, crests and peaks of p ack poetry keep bringing all aspects of human nature full circle. Many of the ideas, theses, axioms and broad statements ma.de thus far will be re-examined on a continuing basis throughout the remainder o f t his boo~ Within the running history of Afro-American poetry, we will identify the poets' preference for lexical and phonological items; their reliance on major and minor archetypes (as they are derived from the larger a s well as the~ lack mythic tabl~ts) ; thei r feti sh for themes and positionJ (as these strains e rfnea.. occo.sionAl -, becomel\.clust e reA or I'\. . ) ; their relationships to each otp.er and ("school") the folk and/or literary roots; and their individual and/or group achievement Obviously, the folk influences are pot a~ easy to place within the chronology as are the dat ~ o..c:t"tvtt'ie.s I\ , literary of the poets. So the r eade r should think o f the folk world as one ' . iconstantly hovers over the whole of Afro-American literary and cultural life h 1 sometimes ca~li n g it to ~ts t a1~s , other times p r oviding it with just n ee.Jecl J.iF:t o.nd ma9u:,, . _/t, e � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_09_04 Title A name given to the resource Editors proof, Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, Introduction: Chapter I, typed with handwritten edits, p. 1-26 Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/97e7e9754096894f727e9f7a4879e1ac.pdf ea36f4028d6ba841eae1db28171e2a9d PDF Text Text ~ ~ I j PREFACE "'i;:r L-- At this perilous juncture in,J'l ack history, on the eve of America's / i jtentennial and a.mid~ a new wave of Third World/ umanism, Drumvoices comes as a partial rebuttal to those who say poetry's impact on ma~ind's conscious i o( 9!::v,...,.v01e._J>.s 't-ness has been insignificant. The thesisAis simple: vthat God's trombones have {: historically lared through or soothed the harsh and stark realities of the Afro= American/ xperience; and that the sources (records) of these blarings and soothl, sayine;5, locked in cultural safe-deposit boxes of drums and the intricate acoustics " of the folk, remain accessible to anyone desiring to tap them. Such source \ spirits ("roots") are what the author has tried to conjure up in Drumvoices, which owes great debts to a lengthening line of marvelous visionaries, ; known and unknown / As a reference work, this text makes a modest attempt to follow in the tradi{-tion of Vernon LogginW ~he Negro Author in America, Benjamin Brawley's Early I Negro American Writers and The Negro Genius, Sterling A. Brown's Negro Poetry and Drama and J. Saunders Redding's To Make ;/ Poet Black . 7 We have also profitt" ed immensely from related works by George Washington Williams, Benjamin E. Mays, - gohn Hope Franklin, Fralz Fanon, Loften Mitchell and Dorothy Porter . A Of the literary historians and critics, only Brown is concerned exclusively with poets /4 th! ough Mrs. Porter's many offerings also include a chect ist of~ lack poets. Loggins' study views .Zlack authors up until 1900; and Reddingi , Brown and Brawley examine them through the mid 1930s. Drumvoices combines all previous ·-~ ventures in the area of the poetryMgiving new interpretations and updating an / exciting history which began with Lucy TerrYi who wrote a poem 229 years ago. Initially conceived as a monologue and later enlarged to its present size, Drumvoices is aimed at students and teachers of)Elack poetry, literature, history and culture . will benefit . However, the author hopes that all who read from these pages The very general thesis stated above is consistent]q implied in �the book's approach . And unlike some recent works, this one does not present a consciously labored construct or aesthetical matrix, · lack/ationalism, /an- Africanism, the /J-ack/esthetic or p..ienation, though none of these alternatives " has been overlooked whenever and whereJver poets or critics have dealt significantly with them. Occasionally chronology is violate~ since any time barrier is, by definition, arbitrary0 (It was impossible to find birth or death dates for some of the early poets . ) Also arbitrary is the author's selection of poets and emphasis on various styles, techniques, themes or periods . Yet the organization of the text is somewhat original since, at the time of this writing, no single work has discussed)3lack poetry from its beginnings into the 1960s and 1970s. ----------- As a history, Drumvoices includes six chapters: I, :Entrodud::::i:on-I3lack Poetry: ~ "" III, Views, Visions, Conflicts; II, The Black and Unknown Bards-t-=Folk ~oo4;.s; L c~) ,.,.,. ,. Africanf oice in Eclipse~ Imitation and Agitation (1746~1865); IV, Jubile~, Jujus and Justices (1865/jJ-910); V, A Long Ways ,,/rom Home (1910~1960); VI, Festivals and Funerals : Black Poetry of the 1960s and 1970s. Finally, there is a / iblio graphical_;/n-dex . a The historical aspect of this two-pronged study (critical and historical) dominates . the rationale being that a text I chronicles the development of the poetry is a prerequisite to sound critical assessment . Also, the author was not unmindful of the fact that most anthologies or studies oFrecent f lack poetry are generally "loaded" and top - heavy with hoi sehold namest but none of them has extended ~ vision to include a representative ("complete" is out of the question) look at the numerous important centers where this poetry is being created. It seemed a worthwhile task, then, simply to suggest the demographic range of the new poetry . ~ ,1,•'"' the author Such is the attempt made in Chapter V~ wl:.e.J:::.e h has purposely decentralized a star-dominated pattern in the new poetry in favor of a more truthful and historical picture of its development . One can pick up �' < a journal or book in practically any library and read glowing praise of the new poetry; hence the aut S has simply referred readers to these comments instead of ret hashiI?,g them here. Unfortunately, significant were not available to the aut~ 9t ~centur;'1-ack poetry while c~ ters on these areas were being written. But Jean Sherman's Invisible Poets: Afro- Americans of the 19th Century and M.r , Richmond's Bid the Vassal Soar: Interpretive Essays on the Life and Poetry of P ~llis Wheatley and George Moses Horton, when finally received, provided additional insight and caused some slight reshuffling of this text. servic~ Of great Early Black American Poets, William Robinson's important anthology (with notes); at this writing, it remains the best such source for the period. The author is also indebted to a number of important works on@ h~century .,..ziack poetry: Jean Wagner's Black Poets of the United States: /rom Paul Laurence Dunbar to Langston Hughes, Arthur P. Davis' From the Dark Tower: Afro-American Writers, 19ooi4196O, Donald Gibson's Modern Black Poets, Blyden Jackson~ and Louis Rubin's Black Poetry in America, George P . Kent's Blackness and the Adventure of Western Culture and Joy Flasch's Mtvin B. Tolson . A book does not just happen1 and the fuel for this one has. been pouring in over a number of years and from a great many sources. Germinating ideas came from various quarters: students, friends, teachers ana..,most importantly, ~ at Southern Illinois University's Experiment in High~ ucation in East St. Louis . The literally hundreds of poets, writers and thinkers (in Watts, New York, Chicago, New Orleans, Atlanta, Detroit, Cleveland, etc.), with whom the author has met and talked through nights and days, now stand faceless and nameless, but they are as much a ~art of this book as the author himself. - Of special significance were the critical readings of sections of this text by Ted Hornback, friend and former teacher; critic Clyde Taylo) who prompted much X �r¢ hinking and ret writinglj\ and Charles Rowel~ who should have been commissioned to write the chapter on folklore. Likewise, for their patience, assistance and great stores of information, debt is ......,0wed to librariaas at California State While a book does not just happen in the mind, neither does it miraculously ,f.A- ;J appear on the page. ,,;v Hours of meticulous and relentless work~ invested by my graduate assistant Julie Blattle:s, who worked ~ bibliographical and tefua1 problems~/ ounger assistants in these matters ±fie~~eith Jefferson and Ronald Tibbs. However, a lion's share of producing this book was assumed by A/ Marie Collins, supervisor of Sacramento's Oak Park School of Afro-American a -1)[; .t.l ,t. <&,,,-...j.;( Thought, who typed criticize~ and oi:/.herwise committed herself to the project. ~ Beverly Williams, CSUS English secretary, also shared a portion of the typing r) load. Finally, my gracious editor, Marie Brown, deserves a huge salute for her encouragement, concern and continued support of the writing-research through to the end. Onward, the FOETS! Eugene B. Redmond ¥arch ,~97~ ...:!!!Y Sacramen , California �:...:,, I , ( (acknowledgements to come { 5 ms pages) .) AC !{)I GVJ i- e;·\ ~&:ftvl t NT S "'-- I \ f I( I �,;,,,.J I'I JvJ DRUMVOICES > I </ I I .'r2 ~ y...,.af - <:_ I /.:), # ., J '-{j-O(;i) � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_09_03 Title A name given to the resource Editor's proof, Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, preface, acknowledgments, title page, typed with handwritten edits, p. vii-xvii Description An account of the resource Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, editor's proof, preface, p. vii-xvii. Page numbering includes five manuscript pages for the Acknowledgements section that had not yet been written but were included in the anticipated page numbering. Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/b056dcd6301c199a365adfb928bbc9cb.pdf e1d296ba635d21e2930572a8bb92a063 PDF Text Text - -- ll .R 11 M \' ti I ,: E S : TheMi~sion ofAfro-Arner· c.a11 R etr BY ECGE ER. �- t- .... :'.'fl3DE.:::Jl:J;:.J.ZJK:::A"~Jil.-JJ1.KJ<~7'~D..D~:\'!JJ..N UAUIJS X:BlC\D ~ �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_09_02 Title A name given to the resource Editor's proof, Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, front matter card plate on onionskin with handwritten edits Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/fab06539d5cbc67286e219a6a1620c9d.pdf 711092e3362028741d138ab8c709e56f PDF Text Text Origins of Black Expression 00/Black Folk Roots in America 00/ Spirituals 00/Folk Seculars 00/Folk Anthology Section(Samp le) 00 Moses Sla · tion n Swin teal y ow, ong, Many a ousand Die, ree om, Rain ow oun Mah Shoulder, John Henry Hammer Song, A Big Fat Mama, How Long Blues 00/ ( -- �I ~ I DRUMVOICES I • It . '. . ! \ I t d, ... ,1,. IL ' - ,,, 1 1 {) l J' -t-,<6'i) '-( 1 .J. , �(card plate for DRUMVOICES by Redmond) OT:HER ANCHOR I PRESS BOOKS OF INTEREST • o/, ,, .. /. The Poetry of the Negro -z. Edited by Langston Hughes and Arna Bontemps How I Got Ovah '/if:! Carolyn Rodgers The Gospel Sound rp Tony Heilbut Black-eyed Susans r:/J Edited by Mary Helen Washington Morning Yet on Creation Day Chinua Achebe The Black Aesthetic Edited by Addison Gayle, Jr. �• f I. u 1tJ I ~· k z i{ p.:. I DRUMVOICES: I.._ «.ttL,f.. ' it, .# - ~e ~ ission Qf Afro -American Poetry _. \.# s'J Id , I;, •1JJ by Euge~e B. Redmond Anchor Press/Doubleday l. Garden City, New York i976 ) ,,,_ u{1 1,L j // -/ /.,. '4') , I < I 2 I. /7 I,, ,l I I I I �, I Eugene Redmond h ac~ poetry, drama, ed distinction in several e,.r~as ism, and scholarly articles ~ volumes of poetry. He i ha in demand as a speaker, lect~ er, consultant to various worksn&ps, symposium~ and conf before audiences at UCLA, Berkeley Brown, Yale, Howard, an Presently, Redmond is}4-ofessor of English and / oet iny(esidence at California State University, Sacramento. ISBN: (J -3i~- 0~ I tr,f- lJ Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: Copyright © 1976 by Eugene B. Redmond All Rights Reserved I Printed in the United States of Ameri ca ) :;,. 5 ._, J;.cl/i1/ AI [. { . 7S' -1,. I 7 1 I { J 1/ �E~gene B. Redmond, a native of East St. Louis, Illinois, ls a graduate of Southern Illinois University and Washington UniversitykSt. Louis) has and/achieved distinction in several areas of writin~ including poetry, drama, journalis~ and criticism. He has published five books . of poetry 111,. and recorded an album reading his own verse to musical accompani,1\ent. Co founder and publisher of Black River Writers Press, Redmond is also literary executor for the estate of the late poet vand fiction .wpiterv Henry ~ThJ.mas; " Currentfry Redmond is professor of English and poet-inresidence at California State University, Sacramento) {and is one of the c o rdinators of the Annual Third World Writers and Thinkers Symposium held on that campus. He is in demand as a speaker, lecturer, reader, and consultant to various •IDrkshops, symposia, and conferences, having appeared before audiences at UCLA, UC Berkeley, in~Harlem, in Watts, Howard University, Southern University, and many more. �/VDEDICATION In Memoriam: Georgia Douglas Johnson, Melvin Tolson, Langston Hughes, fQ ,,._j Conrad Kent Rivers, Henry Dumas, Arna Bontemps Z) ,,,- And for the still-burning lamps: Sterling Brown, Owen Dodson, Margaret ..) Walker, Gwendolyn Brooks, Robert Hayden � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_09_01 Title A name given to the resource Editor's proof, Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, front matter, typed with handwritten edits Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B.