16 10 650 https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/12195e3e706875f4469b6ff791ea9674.pdf 4a2988f26c02d4148da367bd2ccaee5d PDF Text Text DRUMVOICES: THE MISSION OF AFRO-AMERICAN POETRY Table of Contents Preface CHAPTER I: Introduction, Black Poetry: CHAPTER II: Views, Visions, Conflicts The Black and Unknown Bards: Folk Roots I. Origins of Black Expression II. Black Folk Roots in America III. IV. V. Spirituals Folk Seculars Folk Anthology Section (Sample) Spirituals Go Down, Moses Slavery Chain No More Auction Block Shout Along, Chillen Swing Low, Sweet Chariot Steal Away Deep River Folk Seculars He Is My Horse Did You Feed My Cow Song Many a Thousand Die Freedom �. .. Table of Contents (cont'd) Folk Seculars (cont'd) Rainbow Roun Mah Shoulder John Henry Hammer Song A Big Fat Mama How Long Blues CHAPTER III: African Voice in Eclipse(?): I. II. III. CHAPTER IV: Overview Literary and Social Landscape The Vo~ces on the Totem Jubilees, Jujus and Justices (1865-1910) I. II. III. CHAPTER V: Imitation and Agitation (1746-1865) Overview Literary and Social Landscape The Voices on the Totem A Long Ways From Home (1910-1960) I. II. III. Overview Literary and Social Landscape (A) To 1930 ( B) 1930-1960 The Voices on the Totem (A) The Coming Cadence: Pre-Renaissance Voices (B) Poets as Prophets: The Harlem Renaissance (C) Minor or Second Echelon Poets of the Renaissance (D) Renaissance Fallout: Negritude Poets and Pan-African Writing (E) The Extended Renaissance: 30s, 40s, 50s �, _I I( . (/ ... Table of Contents (cont'd) CHAPTER VI: Festivals and Funerals: I. II. III. CHAPTER VII: Black Poetry of the 196Os and 197Os Overview Literary and Social Landscape The Voices on the Totem (A) 'Soon One Morning': (B) 'Griefs of Joy': (C) Reflections on the New Black Poetry Conclusion: Threshhold of the New Black Poetry The Poetry of Wings Afterthoughts BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX I. General Research Aids II. Periodicals III. Anthologies IV. V. VI. Literary History and Criticism (A) General (B) Poetry Folklore and Language Discography and Tape Index (A) Collections (Phonograph) 1. Single Poets (Phonograph) (B) Single Poets (Tape) � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document Text Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_08_07 Title A name given to the resource Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, Table of Contents, typed manuscript Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/839134654590aa228d96d64ebb17ed52.pdf 1b88eb0395861cd3ee34f04d56678e0e PDF Text Text III EXPLORING BLACK POETRY: FORM AND MEANING There are many exciting and rewarding ways to pursue Black Poetry inside and outside of the classroom. However, the student must remember that he is studying "Black" Poetry and not simply a Black imitation of European or American poetry. This caution is given because students, steeped in the Western literary tradition, often recognize only those superficial similarities between the Black Poetry and the white writing traditions which dominate literature. The problem is aggravated by our knowledge that the Black poet is sometimes at odds with himself as he grapples with the very language of those whom he deems his oppressors. Then there is the anachronism of a Phillis Wheatley or a Jupiter Hammon--Black poets removed from the daily brutality of plantation slavery. Additionally, there is Paul Laurence Dunbar who resented his "curious" fame as a writer of dialect poetry. Equally complicating is the case of the brilliant Countee Cullen who did not want to be known as simply a "Negro" poet, or that of contemporary poet Robert Hayden who feels the Black poet should not be limited to "racial utterances" or haye . his work judged by standards other than those applied to other poets. Ironically, Cullen and Hayden (despite their pronouncements) write with a racial pitch and consciousness seldom seen in any Black poetry. So it appears that, with rare exceptions, the Black poet exhibits 104 �' I a racial consciousness regardless of what he "says." When he does not display this consciousness or predicament directly, he alludes to it in his fight and fire. For example, while Dunbar's "Sympathy" makes no definite reference to Blacks, slavery or social injustice, it is clear--after we know who wrote the poem--that the "caged bird" is symbolic of Black people. McKayJs two sonnets follow a similar pattern. Neither poem mentions race, but their titles ("The Lynching" and "If We Must Die") have much contextual relevance for us. The foregoing observations lead us naturally to a consideration of theme, structure and meanin5 in Black Poetry. In any poetry the three components are inseparable. But throughout history, discussions of them--which is most important, and so on--have sometimes occupied as much space as the poetry itself . But Black Poetry is not only a fludity of theme, structure and meaning; it is also interdependently associated with the psychological, social, political and religious attitudes, forms and manners ·or the Black Experience . Certain themes in Black Poetry are recurring because the plight of Blacks in America has not been radically altered over the past 350 years. Social alienation, physical and psychological aggression, cultural and physical rape, general exploitation and miscegnation--all continue to arouse, enrage, anger and embitter the Black poet. Running concurrent to themes caused by these stresses are those dealing with every- 105 �thing from Black invincibility to love and religious devotion. More often than not, the Black poet who sits down to write is not in the quiet, protected confines provided by grants-inaid. Though some of the poets receive financial assistance, most are without the funds that allow for what Hart Crane called "creative leisure." While there is much love and joy poetry, a great deal of contemplative and philosophical poetry, the dominant thrusts in Black Poetry are cultural reclamation and affirmation, indignation and protest The student will want to ask himself the following questions on Themes in Black Poetry: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8 .. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. When and how is anger a theme? How does violence appear as a theme? Why and in what way does pride become a theme? How is religion used thematically? When do the poems stem from "Blackness II or "Racial Consciousness 11 ? What are the dominant themes in the Spirituals? What are the dominant themes in the Folk Seculars? What are the dominant themes in the Black Poetry of the 18th and 19th centuries? What are the dominant themes in the Black Poetry of the Harlem Renaissance? How and when does slavery -become a theme? In what way does lynching become a theme? What are the important symbols that carry themes in Black Poetry? What are the secondary symbols? What are the differences between themes in Folk and Literary Poetry? What thematic differences exist among poets of the Harlem Renaissance? What themes dominate dialect poetry? Structure {physical organization of a poem) in Black Poetry is inextricably tied to theme and meaning and allows the student to sample the poets' rich diversity and experimentation. We observed earlier that Black poets have written 106 , �in practically every Western poetic form, discarded some, revived still others and invented a few (Gwendolyn Brooks, for example, invented the sonnet-ballad). Essentially, however, the early song form (which allowed for leader-audience exchange and intermingling) persists (in some variation) up to this very day. The student will want to consult handbooks to literature and poetry in order to become familiar with names of poetic devices and techniques. (For further dis- cussion of technique in Black Poetry, see bibliography.) Obviously, structure, since it carries the theme and the meaning, is very important . In fact, a failure to adhere to the demands and nuances of structure can often abort the oral reading and,ultimately, the meaning of the poem. Students should read the poems aloud to themselves, participate vigor- , ously in classroom readings and ask questions on structure at every opportunity . In this way, the demands of the structure (which in Black Poetry is often akin to that of a musical score or chart) can be met and explored. dialect poems, a ballad form or structure is used. In many The poets knew the ballad allowed them the flexibility to express themselves musically; but it was also familiar to the general American reading or listening public. In this case, a Western written art form and a Black oral art form were combined to form a new poetic vehicle . (The ballad in America is derived primarily from Irish and Scottish poetry via immigrants . ) We said earlier that the Spirituals and blues - 107 �are structural cousins in that they both employ the recurring leading line and iteration (response). Since the blues were written and sung by individuals and the Spirituals developed and rendered by groups, their structural differences reflect their particular needs or aims. for syncopation However, both forms allow (uneven rhythm) and spontaniety (beats between accents). Black dialect and literary poetry also absorbed these exciting forms and improved on them. For example, Dunbar's continual use of Jump back, honey, jump back, Campbell's refraining Ring, my bawnjer, ringl and DuBois' relentless I am the smoke king, I am black. --all aid in organizing and stabilizing sound (developing rhythm) but, like the spirituals and secular folk songs, they yield to added comment, shortened or lengthened sounds, additional beats or repetition and unexpected starts or stops. Fittingly, all three poems have the word 11 song 11 in their titles. Such a pattern prevails throughout Black Poetry, whether or not it is in dialect. That Pass in the Night, DunbarJs "We wear the Mask, 11 11 "Ships and "Sympathy" are built on the call .and response pattern--but each one allows for additional repetition and the rich spontaniety and surprises so akin to Black Music and speech. 108 �Even the earlier poets, deeply influenced in their writings by literary or hymn structure\ chose the chordal ~ pattern--the musical format. Wheatley's eulogy ~ This can be seen in Phillis "On the Death of the Rev. Mr. Whitefield, 1770, 11 wherein she builds power (incremental line power) to the crecendo by repeating the phrase "Take him, ••• ! 11 In examining structure in the poetry, the student will want to consider several questions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Some of them are: What are the dominant structures in Black Poetry? What dictates structure in Black Poetry? In what ways is structure related to theme and meaning? Does structure take precedent over theme and meaning in Black Poetry? How many different types- of structures can you find in Black Poetry? What are the structural differences between the Blues and the Spirituals? What are the structural differences between the folk poetry and the literary poetry? How does the structure affect or hinder understanding of the poem? What is "Black" or "African" about the structure of Black Poetry? -#le. What ingredients in~structure of Black Poetry are European or American? How does McKay's or Cullen's use of the sonnet make this Italian-English form 11 Black 11 ? How do structures operate to influence the graphic nature of the poem? How does structure in pre-twentieth Black Poetry differ from that of the Harlem Renaissance? What are the structural similarities between the written poetic tradition and the contemporary Black song? Meaning is locked into the other two components. For one cannot ascertain meaning in Black Poetry without first reading the poem carefully and coming to grip with its themes. Black Americans possess a double vision which allows them to 109 �~~ss themselves and whites--perhaps even to laugh or cry at the situation--while they go about their day-to-day chores. In the Black artist, this vision is amplified by his particular insights and the craft in which he expresses himself. The Black poet, writing in English, is oftentimes aware of his Black self and his white self. This is a complex pre- dicament which brings great strain to the poet and aggravates his on-going proble~ ~ But it is exciting--this almost con- stant state of limbo (p.f.)cullen, McKay, Toomer, Hayden)-because it gives him a view of himself and his white countrymen that is sometimes shocking both to whites and his own people. In the poem, the poet may exhibit his dilemma via anger, rage, love, accomadation, religious zealousness, hatred, violence, envy, coded language, sadism, iconoclasm, dreams, agnosticism, existentialism, hope, saturated Blackness, despair, metaphysicsor protest. Meaning, therefore, may be the most difficult of the three components. For while structure can be seen and the theme often appears in poem titles, meaning can be elusive, encoded, puzzling. Critics and students overlook profound meanings in Black Poetry because they expect meaning to be conveyed in the manner which traditional European or American written poetry has couched it (references to Greek and Roman mythology, etc.) It is true that Black Poetry uses arche- typal symbolism, allegory and narration. But these are usually set in the context of the general and specific Black Experiences. The student has to keep in mind the nature of 110 �the Black Experience. He ought to have a working knowledge of slavery, interracial vi~lence and fraternization, the problems Blacks confront in seeking employment, the negative images of Blacks in mass media, and Blacks' view, and modification, of Christianity. The student should also become acquainted with the various brands of English used by the Black poet and the linguistic interpretations the poets bring to their subjects. In folk poetry, the Black psyche expresses the love, joy and pain via the parables, aphorism{ fables, songs and t-- ditties in a phonological frame brought from Africa. African survivalismscan also be found in the wordings, idiomatic nuances, style and spirit. The student ought to be aware that spirituals often contained coded messages for leaders of the Underground Railroad; that folk songs often held calls for defiance, endurance and revolt--in such symbols and images as rainbows, rivers, lightening, howls, letters, trains, horses and other animals. Stories also carry morals-- but they are moral lessons for an enslaved or oppressed people: How does one "keep on keeping or/§0 Or "keep on gettin' up"? The ironies and paradoxes also come through in the written poetry where, for example, Benjamin Clark persistently asks A slave is what? and a ssails Christianity for enslaving a person who bas been ... bought, or stolen from himself, • • • Fot' so,-,,:Hd 1 pa.L-n-y pelf. 111 �One sees this double vision and cynicism in James M. Whitfield, who does not say America 1tis of thee, Sweet land of liberty ..... or 0 say can you see By the dawn's early light, •••• but America, it is to thee, Thou boasted land of liberty-It is to thee I raise my song, Thou land of blood, and crime, and wrong. Obviously, Whitfield was aware of American patriotism and the songs associated with it. But he chose to satirize a patriotic zealousness and a Democracy which overlooked and excluded large numbers of its citizens. Further indication of this dualism, this time with a Christian motif, is McKay's "The Lynching" in which the killing of a Black man is made analagous to the crucifixion of Christ. McKay, a converted Catholic, was well aware of the sentiment and guilt which this poem must have aroused in the consciences of Christians. As with theme and structure, then, the student will want to probe meaning in Black Poetry. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Some questions are: How does meaning work hand-in-hand with structure and theme in Black Poetry? What experiences contribute to meaning in specific poems? How does one know when one has gotten the meaning the poet intended? What are some of the broad keys to meaning in Black Poetry? Identify some double entendres in Black Poetry. What is the function and meaning of religion in Black P.oe.try? 112 �7"! 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14 . 1.5. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 2.5. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. How do sounds and rhythms convey meaning in Black Poetry? In your opinion, around what themes are the most meaningful poems written? What is the meaning of the Spirituals? What is the meaning of the Fo1k Seculars? How do Meanings differ among Black and other poets? What is the meaning of "Black" or "Blackness" in Black Poetry? What is the meaning of Africa in Black Poetry? What is the meaning of America in Black Poetry? What is the meaning of archetypal symbols (rivers, land, stars, etc.) in Black Poetry? What is the meaning of allegory ( le,ngthy storytelling) in Black Poetry? How is meaning hidden or -encoded in Black Poetry? Why is meaning hidden or encoded in Black Poetry?To/for whom does the Black poet write? Can the Black poet couch "Black" meaning in English? What is -t he nature of the Black poet 1 s language? Are there essential differences between the Black and white poets• languages? Does all Black Poetry contain both literal and figurative levels? Does Black Poetry demonstrate the inner-workings of the Black folk psyche? What is the Black world view? What is the Black poet's view of time, life and death? Does the Black poet believe in reincarnation? Is the Black poet an atheist? Is Black Poetry suicidal? D·oes despair play a big role in Black Poetry? What is the Black poet's view of love? Classroom and Research Activities Obviously, in asking and answering the preceding questions on theme, structure and meaning, the student will need to reinforce his inquiries and comments with in-class discussions and out-of-class research. We said earlier that students ought to pay close attention to Black popular culture. From course beginning to end, the student should avail himself of every opportunity to listen 113 �seriously to Black Music. of forms and concepts. This practice allows for saturation For music is the widest shared art form in the Black community and poetry is the written form closest to it. Therefore, the student must be prepared to look for musical implications and patterns in the poetry. This search will be made more rewarding and exciting if some of the following in-class activities are organized: l. 2. 3. 5. 6. 8 .. Ritual exercises--i.e., games utilizing voices, hand-clapping, foot-stomping, rhythmic instruments (tambourines, thumb pianos, triangles, rattles, maracas, harmonicas, etc.), gestures (dancing, etc.), and the call-and-response patterns. Use of the classroom as a listening laboratory where music is heard, discussed, imitated, etc. (this way students develop a 11f"eel" and "ear" for Black Music and phonology.) Dramatic readings from the dialect and literary poetry; this particular approach could involve all media--dance, music, slides, musical instruments, responding voices, etc. _ Also, other group projects involving panels, choruses, bands, classroom participation, films, tapes and records. One exciting kind of group or individual project is to study the written poetry in conjunction with the current Black popular song lyrics. The use of visual aids enhances most projects. There are numerous films and slide packages available through distributors of educational materials and other sources. Dance, Voice, ijusic or Social Science students taking ~lack Poetry classes can develop themes and projects that coincide with their on-going studies or interests: e.g., ''Dance in Black Poetry," "Black Poetry interpreted through Dance, 11 "Anger and Frustration in Black Poetry," "Black Poetry as an Extension of Black Music," . "The Black Poet's view of the Black Family," "Putting Black Poetry to Music," "The Singing of Black Poetry," "Black Poetry as .History," "Black Poetry and the Struggle for Freedom," etc • . Use of Black Poetry as a dramatic vehicle in which poems are organized around a larger idea or sequence 114 �of historical events. Here, interested students may want to put together a play from existing poetry. Countless other combinations and arrangements will open up for the student willing to think creatively and experiment . For example, many song writers and singers (notably Babs Gonzales, Isaac Hayes, Marvin Gaye, Roberta Flack, Curtis a.viJ Mayfield, Leon Thomas, Smokey "Bill" Robinson"- Nina Simone) possess a poetic versatility and richness which surpasses that of many literary poets. The student may want to tap this hitherto unexplored area for potential ~eseo.r,c,h pt' W\1'1ii'nj {>i"o..t~c.U• Additionally, there are numerous field language projects which will allow the student to pursue regional Black speech patterns,. using tape record~rs, notes, etc. Such material can be compared/contrasted to the written poetry and make for an exciting report which should be shared with the class. Collecting and contrasting of contemporary oral poetry IS and language~always good since researchers and classmates can make on-the-spot comparisons between the material being studied and that which is newly introduced. In conducting the out-of-class research, the student will find numerous resources (and some disappointments), depending on the library holdings, to guide him along the way. 1:h.e Back issues of A,;.--Crisis, 0 pp or tun it y, Black Orpheus and Negro Digest/Black World magazines (see bibliography for more listings) are often on microfilm or in their original forms. Reading of early Black �journals and newspapers help~one understand poetic temperament of the times. The student must remember that some ol:Jtiite newspapers and journals also published Black poetry. The out-of-class preparation should include an absorption of social history, literary criticism and biographies of the poets. We hinted above that students will often find their searches frustrated by unavailability of needed materials. In such cases; students may want to examine holdings of other libraries or archives in the area. Many state or local archives will have documented areas of Black literature. Although there may be problems at each turn, the persistent student can sometimes uncover a gold mine of information in the most unexpected places. One of these problems is that many libraries place Black literature in the same category as Social Sciences. Therefore, it is important to look beyond Humanities for the Poetry, criticism and commentary. But the student who is seriously bent on finding his materials and sources, may find, ~lso, that he has helped iron out some classification problems and "attitudes" at his campus or community library. As stated before, there are many ideas, topics and themes around which to organize a study of Black Poetry. for discussion and writing papers are: 1. 2. 3. 4* 5. Black Poetry of the Harlem Renaissance Black Poetry of the Post-Renaissance Black Women Poets The Black Poet as a Wanderer Blues influence in Black Poetry 116 Some topics �,l 1 I 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. Jazz influence in Black Poetry Black Poets of the Beat Movement Black Poetry and Pan-Africanism Black Poetry and Integration Black Poetry and Black History Church as a theme in Black Poetry Religion as a theme in Black Poetry The Verse Sermon as a Poetic Form The Ballad in Dialect Poetry Africa as an Image in Black Poetry Whiteness as a Symbol in Black Poetry Black Poetry of Colonial America Slavery as a theme in Black Poetry Lynching as a theme in Black Poetry Interracial association in Black Poetry Black Poet's view of America Love as a theme in Black Poetry Militancy in Black Poetry Violence in Black Poetry Freedom in Black Poetry Universal themes in Black Poetry Identity Crisis in Black Poetry Black Poetry as a galvanizing force for social action Black Dialect Poetry Black Speech in Black Poetry Structure in Modern Black Poetry Meaning in Black Poetry Pride in Black Poetry Soul in Modern Black Poetry Image of the Black Woman in Black Poetry Image of the Black Man in Black Poetry This list should bring about other associations for the student. For each topic contains several others, and the new ones call to mind still others, and so on. However, the student should involve himself deeply in Black creativity and thought so as · rl,e. l exi· t y, b readth and miss . i on of Bl ac k Poe t ry. t o perceive~comp 117 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_07_48 Title A name given to the resource Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, typed partial manuscript, p. 104-117 Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/1c779df79fbbb4f980e827c7f536fab7.pdf 963b676802bd7eff3564eebf47c24b44 PDF Text Text I ) 0 I 1 7 �• 1. 1Ula. 1 • ) ,. �• to ha.trona.liit1c. ) l t), l M. �b , II 1 / o. �,If. Sue.ha. a.n I\ rec.o_gn I z. es �" J t �( , �c.onten;pora.ry /l �Fo I\ • • �i �I �.f.vrthe.r 1 11 t �-the pm /} �the ba.lla.d 5pec1f1ca.lly, • �lt! . . (_ 16. I'. .- 0 1~ct:.di a. .n l.;,SS ndl ss 11 t 0 -· q e ~ r ~. a b ho p d 0 s n1n to n b C .n !:a:·. • .r ' OI· op l p le" n a : a a., 1 G ru , tr th C. ll ., th u l lo .,., i 1 a u 1."' 1,;, d k ,. g , , i, 1 co on... D 0 . he pee a ~· "" 0 . s ·.J.i.bli..,. , .bo · i Sttt �J ) ��a.. yet I\ I ���Sud, a.n excha.r.ge.. /\ �0 . • �r ...... - o~ ... , 97 -~ ¥YM.o ,1, ;then., -th4:'t ( · I\ "·· >.> to b !.'l 1 • � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_07_43 Title A name given to the resource Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, typed partial manuscript, p. 37-51 and p. 96-103 Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/abd1685fc5394406f8d809b3de894257.pdf 0c824690b474d6fce2da8b36959f0075 PDF Text Text BLACK POETRY OF THE POST-RENAISSANCE AND CONTEMPORARY PERIODS The psychological, social, political and economic issues that conf'ronted Blacks after the Civil War and Reconstruction, p.ersi-sTed through the Harlem Awakening. The collapse of the American economy in 1929 signale~also,the collapse of white patronization of Black artists. However, several of the budding institutions)publications and social undertakings-begun before, during and after the Renaissance--have lasted up to this very day. And while the primary thrust of Black writing during the twenties was cultural reclamation and racial af'firmation, the literature since that time has been dominated by variants on the theme of sociaJ/IIA ,/i {..!!!9e~\~mos-r. l ~tnJ-tJI. m. writings of the Post-Renaissance and Contemporary period; protest is the most salient feature • .,......,...... 1,his factor, ~ ~ coupled with the appearance of new Black academic critics,~~~t off literary debates that still reverberate in Black letters. The two most vocal positions are l) or art remain free of overt 11 that Black literature protest 11 --thus avoiding "restrictions" which protest imposes on the creativity; and 2) that the Black artist's continuing responsibility is to engage in protest, to forge his work into weapons of liberation. These two views of the Black artist have always shadowed the developing Black literature. But it was not until the emergence of a Black critical "establishment" that the views received widespread attention or registered great inf'luence. 96 At this writing, �I ' I ; NEW TRENDS AND DEFIANCE: MODERN AND CONTEMPORARY BLACK POETS (1900-PRESENT) During the first three decades of the twentieth century, Black Americans underwent social, political and psychological changes that would leave indelible marks on both their's and the nation's futures. W.E.B. DuBois' "The Song of the Smoke" (1899) announced the Black man's uncompromising rejection of the plantation tradition and his defiant leap across the thresh-hold of the new century. Elsewhere DuBois prophetically noted that the biggest problem of the twentieth century would be the problem of the "color lineti.} Black writers and scholars had begun to record the Black experience in the nineteenth century. But it was during the first quarter of this century that Black scholarship, creativ\t$ and organized attacks against social injustice 7 reached their greatest intensity. Dunbar, who died in 1906, was the first Black poet to achieve international recognition. And the publication of his Complete Poems in 1913 was a si gnificant literary event in ~~ American letters. The publication also heralded the new mood of creativity and self-reliance, and spurred the embryonic Black national racial consciousness. During this period (1900-20), other Black poets were working in their respective spheres to hammer out individualistic as well as folk-influenced works. At the same time two major poetic developments were 72 �,• J : the issue of the writer's social responsibility constitutes one of the most vigorous on-going debates in the history of Black American l i t e r a t u r e . ~ , fhe two major living Black • poets, Gwendolyn Brooks and Robert Hayden, are at sharp and critical odds on this particular issue. Hayden has refused to place conscious racial concerns over the craft of poetry, holding that many of the new Black poets are minor versifiers with political ambitions. Miss Brooks, who stepped into the middle of the Black Poetry Movement of the late sixties, has shifted to the 11 Black first, poet second" position and holds the younger writers in high esteem. She noted that if she had died before she was fifty, she would have "died a Negro faction." In modern history, these debates have taken place in the midst, or on the heels, of tremendous successes on the parts of Black writers. tet while the important Renaissance writers were prize-winners, it was not until the publication of Richard WrightJs novel,Native Son, in 1940, that a Black writer received attention on par with the best white writers of his day. WrightJs achievement was followed two years later by Margaret Walker's (Yale Poetry Prize for For My People), ten years later by Gwendolyn Brooks' (Pulitzer Prize for Annie Allen, poetry), and twelve years later by Ralph Ellison's (National Book Award, Invisible Man). Many of the Black writers of the 1930-1945 period sustained themselves by working for the Federal Writers' Project of the WPA. Some of their own writings, as well as important 97 �taking place side-by-side: one white and one Black, although there were some exchanges between the two. White America was in the midst of poetry revival which was characterized by various "New Poetry movements. 11 The revival was signaled and given impetus by the establishment of Poetry: of Verse (edited by Harriet Monroe) in 1912. new poets were part of the 11 A Magazine Many of the Imagist" school and were greatly influenced by Greek, Roman and Oriental symbolism and imagery. ~g~tr~ provided an outlet for much of this new writing. At least two Black poets participated in the development of the 11 r,lew 11 poetry in America: and Fenton Johnson. William Stanley Braithwaite James Weldon Johnson, though usually iden- tified with the Harlem Renaissance, also was a contemporary of then~ wet~ and published his first volume of poetry, Fifty, Years and Other Poems, in 1917. Braithwaite was a critic, poet, and anthologist who helped to launch the careers of a number of important white poets. 1 He edited anthologies of Elizabethan, Georgian and Restoration verse and a series of yearly anthologies of magazine verse which he began in 1913. He also wrote criticism and reviews as a member of the literary editorial staff of the postQD ~~B.,q~qr,~.l}~. Judged against the poets of his time, Braithwaite comes off well. Like Phillis Wheatley, he conformed to the forms, styles and poetic conventions of his day. Hence, one rarely gets a hint, from reading Braithwaite's poetry, that he is Black. Fenton Johnson, James Weldon observed, wrote poetry expressing Black 73 �cultural and historical studies, resulted from this work. During the same period, Black literary activity flourished despite the fact that, at times, Black unemployment reached ~ up to fifty-six percent. Most of the Renaissance poets and fiction writers continued publishing, as did the historians and social critics (DuBois, Charles Johnson, Locke, Benjamin G. Brawley, and others). A new Black critic, J. Saunders Redding, had written a critical study in 1936. And in 1~41, poet-scholar Sterling Brown collaborated with Arthur P. Davis and Ulysses Lee on monumental work The Negro Caravan--the most ambitious 1 anthology of Black literature yet published. Another pub0... lishing landmark of the period was The Poetry of the American Negro (Hughes an,d Bontemps, 1949). Both works carried earlier In~~ yer as well as contemporary poets. ~ -ween 1930 and· 1960"another group of poets, many of them teenagers at the close of the Harlem Renaissance,~ began to publish. In addition to Margaret Walker, Hayden and Gwendolyn Brooks, new names included Melvin Tolson, Margaret Danner, Dudley Randall (publisher of Broadside Press), Samuel Allen (also Paul Vesey), Frank Marshall Davis, Ray Durem, Owen Dodson, James Emanuel, Bruce McM. Wright, Alfred Duckett, Myron O'Higgins (who colloborated with Hayden on a 1948 booklet of poems), M. Carl Holman, Russell Atkins (founder of Freelance in 1950), Donald Jeffrey Hayes, Richard Wright (who also wrote poetry), John Henrik Clarke (:- editor of Ereed2W1g:I,§.), Lance Jeffers, Naomi Long Madgett, Gloria c. 98 Oden, Zack Gilbert, Hoyt Fuller �"disillusionment and bitterness." His "note of fatalistic despair" was "so foreign to any philosophy of life the Negro in America. had ever preached or practiced." (The observation was not entirely correct; for an examination of Black folk literature [the spirituals and bluesJ will reveal shades of Fenton Johnson's philosophy.) Johnson, who was also a jour- nalist, published three volumes of poetry between 1912 and 1916. His work appeared in the anthology Others and in Poetry ·• · Other Black poets writing and publishing in the first two decades of this century were James David Corruthers, ' Leslie Pinckney Hill, Georgia Douglas Johnson, Alice Dunbar Nelson and Angelina Weld GrimkJ. Social and artistic revolt dominated the early years of this century--culminating in what has come to be known as the "Roaring Twenties" or the "Jazz Age." The white dialect writers of the nineteenth century had passed from the scene but there appeared yet another, more insidious, brand of stereotypical writing among whites: 1\ II that dealing with the • Black noble savage allegedly untainted by the decadent systems and machines of the \kstern world. This kind of writing (no doubt a continuation of some of the ideas in Jack London's work, e.g., The Call of the Wild, 1903) stemmed from the rediscovery of the Black man as a subject for realistic fiction and drama. Writers either sensationalized the under- neath of Black life or revived the latent white notions of 74 �(editor of Negro Digest/Black World) and Lerone Bennet Jr. (historian ). pre o.t1cl Many of these~post World War II poets were writing during the Renaissance but did not publish or achieve recognition at that time. Black poets writing before the sixties were recorded in Rosey Pool's Beyond the Blues (1962) -and Arna Bontemps• American Negro Poetry (1963). Some themes in Black Poetry of the post-Renaissance period are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Lynching Social injustice (discrimination, segregation, job bias) Paradoxes in Christianity The Black working-class man War Communism, Socialism, class struggle and other "le.ft II movements Black .Music (BeBop, Jazz, Blues, etc.) Black stamina and endurance Problems or the Black veteran Comparisons of Racism and bigotry abroad with similar situations in the u.s. Southern or rural Black life Black urban life Black women, especially mothers Patriotism Greek and Roman mythology and culture Racial slurs, stigmas and nicknames Black historical figures Academic pursuits Slavery Religion Poverty Status-climbing Many or these themes and preoccupations closely parallel political developments and pressures of the period. And. , Mt ove~o.LL ,are ltheyt.._too removed from the Ahistorical concerns of Black '• poets whom, Hayden notes, are "traditionally associated with protest." Nor are . these themes remote to the contemporary 99 �perspective. The bibliography provides more listing and direction for students wanting to study this period in depth. BLACK POETS OF THE HARLEM RENAISSANCE Although folk poetry had long been a spine of Black ' creative life and Black poets had endeavored in the English literary tradition since the middle of the eighteenth century, Black Poetry came officially and authentically of age during the Harlem Renaissance. Sometimes called the New Negro Movement, the Negro Awakening or the Black Renaissance, this period ran the length of the decade of the ·l92Ofs and er shed with the stock market. As was the case with their predecessors, Black poets of the Renaissance employed an exciting variety of styles, themes, techniques, and were arrayed along a diverse scale of ideologies ·with debatable achievements and successes. Students of the Renaissance usually concentrate on five figures--Claude McKay, Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes, James Weldon Johnson and Jean Toomer--although a number of lesser known writers showed great gifts and powers in their works. At least two of the lesser known writers--Arna Bontemps and Sterling Brown--deserve close attention. Other youthful voices who contributed to this exciting decade were Waring Cuney, Frank Horne, Gwendolyn B_e nnett and Helene Johnson. 77 �Black Poetry. For the student will note that while some of today's poets are not always well-read in either their own or the general literary tradition, they are usually politically-charged and often·relentlessly cynical in their appraisal of American society. Indeed, the contemporary poetry (which will only be alluded to here) ties all the loose ends of Black Poetry in to one amalgamating knot: A knot of stresses and twistings which constitute, in the words of Jane Cortez, Festivals and Funerals. For it is in the contemporary period that more poets than ever before are writing, publishing, and establishing unprecedented worldwide . recognition and distribution. , (\Y\l'tlS) If Alain Locke could observe~that the Renaissance movement saw Black poets working as a grouphood, then an updated observation of Locke's reaction would acknowledge that Black poets are influencing each other before our very eyesJ--·o n television, on recordings, tapes, through a proliferation of printed collections and anthologies, via correspondence, through literary competition, at conferences and workshops, and through numerous new journals and other periodicals. The New Black Poetry movement--and its related ideological and aesthetical spin~outs--is, Hayden notes, one of the most "significant" developments of the contemporary era. The poets are not in agreement on the questions related to the Black aesthetic, to whom they (should?) direct their works, the use of racial consciousness, or the criteria !'or a "Black" poem. But most of them 1re discussing and examining these 100 �~-- Of the sevenkwriters, only Cullen was ,born in New York City and(as the adopted son of a minister) he was raised "in the conservative atmosphere of a Methodist parsonage." The other writers came from various other parts of the southern, eastern and midwestern United States. Not only were the poets drawn to Harlem--the Black capitol of the world at the time-but so were the musicians, painters, dramatists, cinematographers , dancers, singers and scholars. Added to this atmosphere of creativity and scholarship--in New York and ' other urban areas--was the presence of World War I veterans. The veterans came home with a new sense of assurance and conf'idence after having been genuinely received by other nationalities and races abroad. So) r , like the works of their white counterparts, much of the writings of Black poets and fictionists were a reflection of the war and post-war optimism. This spirit--which did not anticipate the Great Depression of the thirties--was one of jubilance and indulgence. Tbo white population, especially the writers, rediscovered Blacks and Blacks rediscovered themselves. Critic James Emanuel. notes that many whites went to Harlem to forget the war and "engage their new Freudian awareness." Students will see that many Black Poets unwittingly aided in the etching of the "new" stereotype of the "pre-civilized" primordial Black American/African. In most of the poets there is a romanticization of African--a depiction of a mood quite foreign to the contemporary realities of Harlem, 78 �issues. James Baldwin (novelist, essayist, playwright), who succeeded Wright as the leading Black literary lion, has said that any Black man in the least perceptive "must be constantly on the verge of insanity." Indeed, LeRoi Jones (now Imamu Amiri Baraka, and an acknowledged leader of the New Black Poetry movement) appeared in the mid and late sixties as the embodiment of Baldwin's revelation. Like Baraka, many of the new Black poets "rage" in scalding lyrics that denounce American moral bankruptcy, send broadsides against "Uncle Toms" and the Black middleclass, and perform their poetry with a verbal vitality that rivals the old time preachers. More than ever before, Black poets are writing their poems to be read aloud--to move audiences to action. All contemporar Black poets, however, cannot be loosely lumped into the pattern ascribed to Baraka (who is an enigmatic, complex and multi-talented man). Indeed, many of the new poets align themselves with neutral writers, the "mainstream" of white poetry, "third world" activities 1 and other political, religious or ethnic co.M ·p-;s., ·· . One · t'lewt1nd important factor in the new poetry is the$Ttw,+,e of~emerging African nations. Black Americans and Black Africans now fraternize in great numbers. Svc;k <U1 ~.. VJ,~ ..' " · h~S provided both subject matter and energy for the new poetry. Like the Beat poets of the fifties, many Black poets submerge themselves in everything from the occult to Eastern mysticism to private imagery 101 �Washington, D.C., Philadelphia or Detroit. The formalist poets--McKay, Cullen (a great admirer of Keats) and, to some extent, Toomer-- worked in the traditional s forms and styles. All three wrote sonnets with McKay achieving the most force and notoriety in this form. A native of Jamaica, McKay published his first volume of poetry in the island dialect when he was 20 years old. In 1920 he published a volume in England (Spring in New Hampshire), and his first bqok in the U.S. was Harlem Shadows (1922). Johnson called McKay the "most powerf'ul voice" of the "post-war group." And critics have continued to agree with Johnson's 1922 assessment that McKay "was preeminently the poet of rebellion." Active in the general literary life of New York, McKay was an editor ' of Liberator magazine, rubbed shoulderi~amous persons of the day (W.E.B. DuBois, George Bernard Shaw, Isadora Duncan, H.G. Wells, etc.), and wrote novels. He also traveled widely as did most of the other poets. Cullen, a devout "formalist" in his personal life and writings, published his first volume of' poetry (Color) in 192.5 but resented the stigma of being called a "IJegro" poet. In doing so, he was anticipating the clash of ideology and aesthetics which would take place in the 1960's. During this later debate over the significance of race in the poet's life and work, Robert Hayden would take a stand similar to that of Cullen's. Cullen, a teacher observed, may have written the "first rime royals in f\.merica. 79 11 Indeed Cullen �and symbolism.. In general, however, the protest of earlier ~ulie,rt times continues to be ,.;. ; and the devices and referents are more often folk or cultural. Prevailing themes of con- temporary Black Poetry include: l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. Black Music (including instruments and salutes to musicians themselves) Religion: Islam, Bahai, Voodoo, African ancestor cult, Christianity War Interracial dating and marriage Art (Black art, especially) Sensuality Violence Urban life Rural life Social injustice (denouncements of racism, colonialism, Imperialism, capitalism, etc.) Assessment of the "system," the "establishment, 11 etc. Love (especially among Black men .and women) Black pride (self-development, community development) Africa (names, places, dates, heroes) Christianity {support and satire) Whiteness as evil. Blackness· as good Attacks upon hypocrisy and artificial self-restraint: upon those who are not "for real 11 Forecast of doom (for the Western World; America especially) Astrology, numerology, ancient knowledge Black Nationalism, Pan-Africanism, Negritude, Soul, etc. Black History Rejection of drugs, alcohol and other so-called indications of Western 11 decadence 11 The list could go on ad infinitum. However, the student must respect the individuality of the poets and treat their works as separate flashes of power and creativity within the vast Web of the Black Experience. Much of the new poetry is avail- able in the numerous new anthologies, some of which are The New Black Poetry (Major, 1969), Black Fire {Jones and Neal, 1970), The Black Poets (R~nd.al~ 197J), New Black Voices 102 �of wrote in all4the most difficult--and outdated--\lestern forms: • heroic couplets, four-stress couplets, Spenserian stanzas, etc. Many critics, however, have consistently misjudged Cullen's achievement in that they are often too blinded by his formal style and techniques. In "Heritage," for e.xample, he employs all the conventions and stereotypical treatment of Africa and the Black past; but the student must look for deeper meanings and double entendres. He must see through the consciously formal style to the dilemma of the Black intellectual caught in the midst of the failures of Reconstruction, the frustrating promise of the period and his personal credo. Cullen's The Ballad of the Brown Girl (1927), an anthology he edited (Caroling Dusk, 1927) and Copper Sun (1929) are further indication of his discipline, power and variety. Like other Renaissance poets, he won numerous awards and citations for his poetry. Cullen also wrote The Black Christ (1929) while he was in Paris on a Guggenheim Fellowship. Toomer, a mixture of seven racial strands and a student of the occult and esoteric thought, is being revived today (in some quarters) as the towering genius of the Harlem Awakening. Robert Bone ( ~ We/i:J;!D lioJUlJ ~ .Aw.e.l!j ~) said Toomer was the only Black poet who participated on an "equal" plane with the major writers of the era. His repu- tation rests almost solely on a single book, Cane, published in 1923. It was met by a lukewarm reception among members of the critical establishment, but avant-garde writers and 80 �/ I) t I, (Chapman, 1972) and The Poetry of Black America (Adoff, 1973). Today's poets have inherited the psychosocial ambivalences and complexes of America, seen the almost constant economic depression among Black masses, witnessed America's persistent lynch-vogue and recurring riots, and felt the $a.Ma. alienation and rejection known to their forefathers. >1he»,~a.t ~any observers say A.the "break-away II strand in new Black America--and consequently in the New Black Poetry--was to be expected. Whatever the student's conclusions, it is evident Black Poetry is now an indelible part of man's literature. 103 �critics praised the book. Cane is a patchwork of poems, stories, and at least one play. The poems interlace the stories which are usually preceded b~ poetic epigrams. Toomer is concerned with Black religious zealousness, sexuality, agrarianism and oppression, primarily in the south (Georgia) but in urban centers as well. Toomer's work is complex and has to be read several times before it can . be fully understood and appreciated. Like most of the poetry of the Renaissance, his is the work of a brilliant intellect sometimes intimidated by white condescension and other times by Black indifference. Also, like the other writings, it sees Black hope in the strength of Black common folk. Hughes, Bontemps, Johnson, and Brown, all worked .more blatantly with folk themes and idioms. Toomer exploited the , Black mass mind in bis work; but be was essentially an observer. poets. Hughes, Bontemps, Johnson, and Brown are true folk But each of the three men also experimented with, and sustained an output of, diverse "literary forms" of poetry. Hughes, especially, will remain known--as will Dunbar-as the poet of Black folk life and language. Hughes recorded the Black mood and character like no writer before or after him. In "The Negro Speaks of Rivers~ Hughes signaled spiritual '- unity of the Black world. Coming as it did in 1919, the poem is often seen as the official opening of the Renaissance. Hughes wrote in every important literary genre and even invented some. His ltfeary Blues (1926) firmly established 81 �him as a poet of tremendous talent and potential. Con- sidered a major American writer, Hughes would be the only Renaissance figure to stay afloat and prominent up to the tumultous sixties. In his poetry, Hughes advances three primary concerns: the wedding of Black music and poetry, racial affirmation and pride, and social protest. His first volume, as well as Fine Clothes to the Jew (1927), vibrantly illustrate the three themes. Johnson's "Lift Every Voice and Sing" (1900, with music by his brother, J. Rosamond) was being "sung generally by the colored people throughout the country" by the time of the Renaissance. The song is widely regarded as the Black American national anthem. However, Johnson's work as NAACP field secretary, diplomat, lawyer and social historian, often , dwarfed his efforts as a poet. A great deal of his importance rests on The Book of American Negro Poetry (1922), the first such anthology, in which he not only introduced the poetry, but noted the most important Elack contributions to American culture. He published two volumes of poetry during the Renaissance: God's Trombones (1927) and St. Peter Relates an Incident (1930). In addition, he co-edited with his brother two collections of spirituals. Johnson also wrote lyrics for popular songs and musicals and has been called the true "renaissance" man. 'fh11J , the student will want ~ to look at the conposite man to understand the implications and motivations behind his poetry. Arna Bontemps, who did not publish a volume of poetry 82 �f/ during the Harlem Awakening, had individual poems appearing regularly in Crisis, Opportunity and other magazines of the period. He also won several prizes. As anthologis~, poet, critic, historian, librarian, and writer of children's books, his broad vision and endeavors inform his poetry with both colloquial and universal concerns. Brown also published in the magazines and periodicals of the period. involvement with seen in poems like His intense the folk idioms and themes can be 11 0dyssey of Big Boy," "Southern Road," "Memphis Blues" and "Long Gone." Though there is no single thematic or stylistic thread tying the poets of the Renaissance together, it is clear that they generally knew each other and were tremendously aware of the importance of their combi'ned and specific undertakings •. The student must recognize that there is no monolithic pattern in the works--and approach the diversity and achievements accordingly. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_07_46 Title A name given to the resource Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, typed partial manuscript, p. 72-83 Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. Description An account of the resource Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, typed partial manuscript, p. 72-83. Pages 75-76 are missing. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/de2f56106a81ae4463b421983844115c.pdf aa3c9a7f05a4f4280b428f7aa8f2afae PDF Text Text .,. . BLACK POETRY OF THE POST-RENAISSANCE AND CONTEMPORARY PERIODS The psychological, social, political and economic issues that confronted Blacks after the Civil War and Reconstruction. persi-sTed through the Harlem Awakening. The collapse of the American economy in 1929 signaled, also 1 the collapse of white patronization of Black artists. However, several of the budding institutions)publications and social undertakings-begun before, during and after the Renaissance--have lasted up to this very day. And while the primary thrust of Black writing during the twenties was cultural reclamation and racial affirmation, the literature since that time has been dominated by variants on the theme of sociaJ/AA l1!9e~\hlflOS1; writings l~l 'inJ-uilu· . of the Post-Renaissance and Contemporary period~ protest is the most salient feature.~ 1,his factor, ~ ~ coupled with the appearance of new Black academic critics,~~~t off literary debates that still reverberate in Black letters. The two most vocal positions are l) or art remain free of overt 11 that Black literature protest 11 --thus avoiding "restrictions" which protest imposes on the creativity; and 2) that the Black artist's continuing responsibility is to engage in protest, to forge his work into weapons of liberation. These two views of the Black artist have always shadowed the developing Black literature. critical 11 But it was not until the emergence of a Black establishment 11 that the views received widespread attention or registered great influence. 96 At this writing, �I , • the issue of the writer's social responsibility constitutes one of the most vigorous on-going debates in the history of Black American literature.-----.... , fbe two major living Black • poets, Gwendolyn Brooks and Robert Hayden, are at sharp and critical odds on this particular issue. Hayden bas refused to place conscious racial concerns over the craft of poetry, holding that many of the new Black poets are minor versifiers with political ambitions. Miss Brooks, who stepped into the middle of the Black Poetry Movement of the late sixties, has shifted to the "Black first., poet second" position and holds the younger writers in high esteem. She noted that if she had died before she was fifty., she would have "died a Negro faction." In modern history., these debates have taken place in the midst., or on the heels, of treme~dous successes on the parts of Black writers. ¥et while the important Renaissance writers were prize-winners., it was not until the publication of Richard WrightJs novel.,Native Son., in 1940, that a Black writer received attention on par with the best white writers of his day. Wright's achievement was followed two years later by Margaret Walker's (Yale Poetry Prize for For My People), ten years later by Gwendolyn Brooks' (Pulitzer Prize for Annie Allen., poetry), and twelve years later by Ralph Ellison's (National Book Award, Invisible Man). Many of the Black writers of the 1930-1945 period sustained themselves by working for the Federal Writers' Project of the WPA. Some .:>f their own writings., as well as important 97 �cultural and historical studies, resulted from this work. During the same period, Black literary activity flourished despite the fact that, at times, ~lack unemployment reached up to fifty-six percent. Most of the Renaissance poets and fiction writers continued publishing, as did the historians and social critics (DuBois, Charles Johnson, Locke, Benjamin G. Brawley, and others). A new Black critic, J. Saunders Redding, had written a critical study in 1936. And in 1~41, poet-scholar Sterling Brown collaborated with Arthur P. Davis and Ulysses Lee on 0.:. monumental work, The Negro Caravan--the most ambitious anthology of Black literature yet published. Another pub- lishing landmark of the period was The Poetry of the American Negro (Hughes an.d Bontemps, 194 9). Both works carried earlie,r In-~ yer as well as contemporary poets. ~ween 1930 and· 1960Aanother group of poets, many of them teenagers at the close of the Harlem Renaissance, ~ , began to publish. In addition to Margaret Walker, Hayden and Gwendolyn Brooks, new names included Melvin Tolson, Margaret Danner, Dudley Randall (publisher of Broadside Press), Samuel Allen (also Paul Vesey), Frank :Marshall Davis, Ray Durem, Owen Dodson, James Emanuel, Bruce McM. Wright, Alfred Duckett, Myron O•Higgins (who colloborated with Hayden on a 1948 booklet of poems), M. Carl Holman, Russell Atkins (founder of Freelance in 1950), Donald Jef:frey Hayes, Richard Wright (who also wrote poetry), John Henrik Clarke(~ editor of ;EreeqQmk:!a~), Lance Je:ffers, Naomi Long Madgett , Gloria C. Oden, Zack Gilbert, Hoyt Fuller 98 �(editor of Negro Digest/Black World) and Lerone Bennet Jr. (historian ). pre o.rid. Many of these~post World War II poets were writing during the Renaissance but did not puhlish or achieve recognition at that time. Black poets writing before the sixties were recorded in Rosey Pool's Beyond the Blues (1962) -and Arna Bontemps• American Negro Poetry (1963). Some themes in Black Poetry of the post-Renaissance period are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20 .. 21. 22. Lynching Social injustice (discrimination, segregation, job bias) Paradoxes in Christianity The Black working-class man War Communism, Socialism, class struggle and other "left II movements Black ,Music (BeBop, Jazz, Blues, etc.) Black stamina and endurance Problems of the Black veteran Comparisons of Racism and bigotry abroad with similar situations in the U.S. Southern or rural Black life Black urban life Black women, especially mothers Patriotism Greek and Roman mythology and culture Racial slurs, stigmas and nicknames Black historical figures Academic pursuits Slavery Religion Poverty Status-climbing Many of these themes and preoccupations closely parallel political developments and pressures of the period. And. , Mt ove~atL ,are lthey};lioo removed from the "historical concerns of Black '• poets whom, Hayden notes, are "traditionally associated with protest." Nor are . these themes remote to the contemporary 99 �Black Poetry. For the student will note that while some of today's poets are not always well-read in either their own or the general literary tradition, they are usually politically-charged and often'relentlessly cynical in their appraisal of American society. Indeed, the contemporary poetry (which will only be alluded to here) ties all the loose ends of Black Poetry in to one amalgamating knot: A knot of stresses and twistings which constitute, in the words of Jane Cortez, Festivals and Funerals. For it is in the contemporary period that more poets than ever before are writing, publishing, and establishing unprecedented worldwide . recognition and distribution. . ('"r-tis) If Alain Locke could observe~that the Renaissance movement saw Black poets working as a grouphood, then an updated observation of Locke's reaction would acknowledge that Black poets are ini'luencing each other before our very eyes J--·o n television, on recordings, tapes, through a proliferation of printed collections and anthologies, via correspondence, through literary competition, at conferences and workshops, and through numerous new journals and other periodicals. The New Black Poetry movement--and its related ideological and aesthetical spin~outs--is, Hayden notes, one of the most "significant" developments of the contemporary era. The poets are not in agreement on the questions related to the Black aesthetic, to whom they (should?) direct their works, the use of racial consciousness, or the criteria for a "Black" poem. But most of them 1re discussing and examining these 100 �issues. James Baldwin (novelist, essayist, playwright), who succeeded Wright as the leading Black literary lion, has said that any Black man in the least perceptive "must be constantly on the verge of insanity." Indeed, LeRoi Jones (now Imamu Amiri Baraka, and an acknowledged leader of the New Black Poetry movement) appeared in the mid and late sixties as the embodiment of Baldwin's revelation. Like Baraka, many of the new Black poets "rage" in scalding lyrics that denounce American moral bankruptcy, send broadsides against "Uncle Toms" and the Black middleclass, and perform their poetry with a verbal vitality that rivals the old time preachers. More than ever before, Black poets are writing their poems to be read aloud--to move audiences to action. All contemporar Black poets, however, cannot be loosely lumped into the pattern ascribed to Baraka (who is an enigmatic, complex and multi-talented man). Indeed, many of the new poets align themselves with neutral writers, the "mainstream" of white poetry, "third world" acti vi ties 1 and other political, religious or ethnic co.Mp-;$•' · One · neiv and important factor in the new poetry is the sr..,-,,+e, of,.._ emerging ~African nations. Black Americans and Black Africans now fraternize in great numbers. S~k <U1 ~h1.11,~ . ' ,. . _ · hetS provided both subject matter and energy for the new poetry. Like the Beat poets of the fifties, many Black poets submerge themselves in everything from the occult to Eastern mysticism to private imagery 101 �and symbolism,. In general, however, the protest of earlier ~\llie,rt times continues to be /\ ; and the devices and referents are more often folk or cultural. Prevailing themes of con- temporary Black Poetry include: l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. Black Music (including instruments and salutes to musicians themselves) Religion: Islam, Bahai, Voodoo, African ancestor cult, Christianity War Interracial dating and marriage Art (Black art, especially) Sensuality Violence Urban life Rural life Social injustice (denouncements of racism, colonialism, Imperialism, capitalism, etc.) Assessment of the "system, 11 the "establishment, 11 etc. Love (especially among Black men and women) Black pride (self-development, community development) Africa (names, places, dates, heroes) Christianity (support and satire) Whiteness as evil Blackness as good Attacks upon hypocrisy and artificial self-restraint: upon those who are not "for real" Forecast of doom (for the Western World; America especially) Astrology, numerology, ancient knowledge Black Nationalism, Pan-Africanism, Negritude, Soul, etc. Black History Rejection of drugs, alcohol and other so-called indications of Western "decadence" The list could go on ad infinitum. However, the student must respect the individuality of the poets and treat their works as separate flashes of power and creativity within the vast Web of the Black Experience. Much of the new poetry is avail- able in the numerous new anthologies, some of which are The New Black Poetry (Major, 1969), Black Fire (Jones and Neal, 1970), The Black Poets (RPndalL, 197J), New Black Voices 102 �I II , I, (Chapman, 1972) and The Poetry of Black America (Adoff, 1973). Today's poets have inherited the psychosocial ambivalences and complexes of America, seen the almost constant economic depression among Black masses, witnessed America's persistent lynch-vogue and recurring riots, and .felt the ~o.Me I '·· alienation and rejection known to their forefathers. >1hen,itttLt ~any observers sayAthe "break-away" strand in new Black America--and consequently in the New Black Poetry--was to be expected. Whatever the student's conclusions, it is evident Black Poetry is now an indelible part o.f man's literature. 103 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_07_47 Title A name given to the resource Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, typed partial manuscript, p. 96-103 Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/02c5346ec81eba7904d30718e262a595.jpg 3dbcd61cab46a733f1e7cfed1edc05f6 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data photo Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ed Meese Description An account of the resource This photo shows Ed Meese speaking at Southern Illinois University of Edwardsville. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1989 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource .jpg Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 98_099_Meese_001 https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/40bce565ef820a4cd897ca76d6f7aa41.jpg 86e7080ae45a1aea21ab69d642f6e144 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data photo Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ed Meese Description An account of the resource This photo shows Ed Meese speaking at Southern Illinois University of Edwardsville. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1989 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource .jpg Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 89_099_Meese_002 https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/ecc42ce0bf0743d121ea0f39fb46e269.jpg 145aef34aa8e1f38d5b33d39fe2aaebe Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data photo Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ed Meese Description An account of the resource This photo shows Ed Meese speaking at Southern Illinois University of Edwardsville. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1989 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource .jpg Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 89_099_Meese_003 https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/609e2d50f96e8e2efb70bcfdcd5fe18d.jpg 90f7243b08ea0aee2b6fee469ac6c326 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Jean Kittrell Digital Collection Event A non-persistent, time-based occurrence. Metadata for an event provides descriptive information that is the basis for discovery of the purpose, location, duration, and responsible agents associated with an event. Examples include an exhibition, webcast, conference, workshop, open day, performance, battle, trial, wedding, tea party, conflagration. Participants Names of individuals or groups participating in the event Kittrell, Jean Becker, John Lehr, David Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 8/19-27/1989 Event Type Jazz festival Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context JMK_EDINBURGH_FESTIVAL_1989 Title A name given to the resource Edinburgh International Jazz Festival, 1989 Description An account of the resource 1989 Edinburgh International Jazz Festival held in Edinburgh, Scotland, where the Jazz Incredibles performed and were awarded Most Entertaining Group. The festival is held annually and is a week-long festival. John Becker, the banjoist for the Jazz Incredibles, impressed audiences in Scotland so much with his melodic single-string technique that he also became known locally as the "Banjo King." Jean Kittrell collected a sticker from the festival, which is featured on her music briefcase. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Relation A related resource Jean Kittrell Digital Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Edinburgh, Scotland Type The nature or genre of the resource Event Edinburgh International Jazz Festival Jazz Incredibles Jean Kittrell John Becker Red Lehr https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/b056dcd6301c199a365adfb928bbc9cb.pdf e1d296ba635d21e2930572a8bb92a063 PDF Text Text - -- ll .R 11 M \' ti I ,: E S : TheMi~sion ofAfro-Arner· c.a11 R etr BY ECGE ER. �- t- .... :'.'fl3DE.:::Jl:J;:.J.ZJK:::A"~Jil.-JJ1.KJ<~7'~D..D~:\'!JJ..N UAUIJS X:BlC\D ~ �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_09_02 Title A name given to the resource Editor's proof, Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, front matter card plate on onionskin with handwritten edits Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B.