https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/839134654590aa228d96d64ebb17ed52.pdf 1b88eb0395861cd3ee34f04d56678e0e PDF Text Text III EXPLORING BLACK POETRY: FORM AND MEANING There are many exciting and rewarding ways to pursue Black Poetry inside and outside of the classroom. However, the student must remember that he is studying "Black" Poetry and not simply a Black imitation of European or American poetry. This caution is given because students, steeped in the Western literary tradition, often recognize only those superficial similarities between the Black Poetry and the white writing traditions which dominate literature. The problem is aggravated by our knowledge that the Black poet is sometimes at odds with himself as he grapples with the very language of those whom he deems his oppressors. Then there is the anachronism of a Phillis Wheatley or a Jupiter Hammon--Black poets removed from the daily brutality of plantation slavery. Additionally, there is Paul Laurence Dunbar who resented his "curious" fame as a writer of dialect poetry. Equally complicating is the case of the brilliant Countee Cullen who did not want to be known as simply a "Negro" poet, or that of contemporary poet Robert Hayden who feels the Black poet should not be limited to "racial utterances" or haye . his work judged by standards other than those applied to other poets. Ironically, Cullen and Hayden (despite their pronouncements) write with a racial pitch and consciousness seldom seen in any Black poetry. So it appears that, with rare exceptions, the Black poet exhibits 104 �' I a racial consciousness regardless of what he "says." When he does not display this consciousness or predicament directly, he alludes to it in his fight and fire. For example, while Dunbar's "Sympathy" makes no definite reference to Blacks, slavery or social injustice, it is clear--after we know who wrote the poem--that the "caged bird" is symbolic of Black people. McKayJs two sonnets follow a similar pattern. Neither poem mentions race, but their titles ("The Lynching" and "If We Must Die") have much contextual relevance for us. The foregoing observations lead us naturally to a consideration of theme, structure and meanin5 in Black Poetry. In any poetry the three components are inseparable. But throughout history, discussions of them--which is most important, and so on--have sometimes occupied as much space as the poetry itself . But Black Poetry is not only a fludity of theme, structure and meaning; it is also interdependently associated with the psychological, social, political and religious attitudes, forms and manners ·or the Black Experience . Certain themes in Black Poetry are recurring because the plight of Blacks in America has not been radically altered over the past 350 years. Social alienation, physical and psychological aggression, cultural and physical rape, general exploitation and miscegnation--all continue to arouse, enrage, anger and embitter the Black poet. Running concurrent to themes caused by these stresses are those dealing with every- 105 �thing from Black invincibility to love and religious devotion. More often than not, the Black poet who sits down to write is not in the quiet, protected confines provided by grants-inaid. Though some of the poets receive financial assistance, most are without the funds that allow for what Hart Crane called "creative leisure." While there is much love and joy poetry, a great deal of contemplative and philosophical poetry, the dominant thrusts in Black Poetry are cultural reclamation and affirmation, indignation and protest The student will want to ask himself the following questions on Themes in Black Poetry: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8 .. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. When and how is anger a theme? How does violence appear as a theme? Why and in what way does pride become a theme? How is religion used thematically? When do the poems stem from "Blackness II or "Racial Consciousness 11 ? What are the dominant themes in the Spirituals? What are the dominant themes in the Folk Seculars? What are the dominant themes in the Black Poetry of the 18th and 19th centuries? What are the dominant themes in the Black Poetry of the Harlem Renaissance? How and when does slavery -become a theme? In what way does lynching become a theme? What are the important symbols that carry themes in Black Poetry? What are the secondary symbols? What are the differences between themes in Folk and Literary Poetry? What thematic differences exist among poets of the Harlem Renaissance? What themes dominate dialect poetry? Structure {physical organization of a poem) in Black Poetry is inextricably tied to theme and meaning and allows the student to sample the poets' rich diversity and experimentation. We observed earlier that Black poets have written 106 , �in practically every Western poetic form, discarded some, revived still others and invented a few (Gwendolyn Brooks, for example, invented the sonnet-ballad). Essentially, however, the early song form (which allowed for leader-audience exchange and intermingling) persists (in some variation) up to this very day. The student will want to consult handbooks to literature and poetry in order to become familiar with names of poetic devices and techniques. (For further dis- cussion of technique in Black Poetry, see bibliography.) Obviously, structure, since it carries the theme and the meaning, is very important . In fact, a failure to adhere to the demands and nuances of structure can often abort the oral reading and,ultimately, the meaning of the poem. Students should read the poems aloud to themselves, participate vigor- , ously in classroom readings and ask questions on structure at every opportunity . In this way, the demands of the structure (which in Black Poetry is often akin to that of a musical score or chart) can be met and explored. dialect poems, a ballad form or structure is used. In many The poets knew the ballad allowed them the flexibility to express themselves musically; but it was also familiar to the general American reading or listening public. In this case, a Western written art form and a Black oral art form were combined to form a new poetic vehicle . (The ballad in America is derived primarily from Irish and Scottish poetry via immigrants . ) We said earlier that the Spirituals and blues - 107 �are structural cousins in that they both employ the recurring leading line and iteration (response). Since the blues were written and sung by individuals and the Spirituals developed and rendered by groups, their structural differences reflect their particular needs or aims. for syncopation However, both forms allow (uneven rhythm) and spontaniety (beats between accents). Black dialect and literary poetry also absorbed these exciting forms and improved on them. For example, Dunbar's continual use of Jump back, honey, jump back, Campbell's refraining Ring, my bawnjer, ringl and DuBois' relentless I am the smoke king, I am black. --all aid in organizing and stabilizing sound (developing rhythm) but, like the spirituals and secular folk songs, they yield to added comment, shortened or lengthened sounds, additional beats or repetition and unexpected starts or stops. Fittingly, all three poems have the word 11 song 11 in their titles. Such a pattern prevails throughout Black Poetry, whether or not it is in dialect. That Pass in the Night, DunbarJs "We wear the Mask, 11 11 "Ships and "Sympathy" are built on the call .and response pattern--but each one allows for additional repetition and the rich spontaniety and surprises so akin to Black Music and speech. 108 �Even the earlier poets, deeply influenced in their writings by literary or hymn structure\ chose the chordal ~ pattern--the musical format. Wheatley's eulogy ~ This can be seen in Phillis "On the Death of the Rev. Mr. Whitefield, 1770, 11 wherein she builds power (incremental line power) to the crecendo by repeating the phrase "Take him, ••• ! 11 In examining structure in the poetry, the student will want to consider several questions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Some of them are: What are the dominant structures in Black Poetry? What dictates structure in Black Poetry? In what ways is structure related to theme and meaning? Does structure take precedent over theme and meaning in Black Poetry? How many different types- of structures can you find in Black Poetry? What are the structural differences between the Blues and the Spirituals? What are the structural differences between the folk poetry and the literary poetry? How does the structure affect or hinder understanding of the poem? What is "Black" or "African" about the structure of Black Poetry? -#le. What ingredients in~structure of Black Poetry are European or American? How does McKay's or Cullen's use of the sonnet make this Italian-English form 11 Black 11 ? How do structures operate to influence the graphic nature of the poem? How does structure in pre-twentieth Black Poetry differ from that of the Harlem Renaissance? What are the structural similarities between the written poetic tradition and the contemporary Black song? Meaning is locked into the other two components. For one cannot ascertain meaning in Black Poetry without first reading the poem carefully and coming to grip with its themes. Black Americans possess a double vision which allows them to 109 �~~ss themselves and whites--perhaps even to laugh or cry at the situation--while they go about their day-to-day chores. In the Black artist, this vision is amplified by his particular insights and the craft in which he expresses himself. The Black poet, writing in English, is oftentimes aware of his Black self and his white self. This is a complex pre- dicament which brings great strain to the poet and aggravates his on-going proble~ ~ But it is exciting--this almost con- stant state of limbo (p.f.)cullen, McKay, Toomer, Hayden)-because it gives him a view of himself and his white countrymen that is sometimes shocking both to whites and his own people. In the poem, the poet may exhibit his dilemma via anger, rage, love, accomadation, religious zealousness, hatred, violence, envy, coded language, sadism, iconoclasm, dreams, agnosticism, existentialism, hope, saturated Blackness, despair, metaphysicsor protest. Meaning, therefore, may be the most difficult of the three components. For while structure can be seen and the theme often appears in poem titles, meaning can be elusive, encoded, puzzling. Critics and students overlook profound meanings in Black Poetry because they expect meaning to be conveyed in the manner which traditional European or American written poetry has couched it (references to Greek and Roman mythology, etc.) It is true that Black Poetry uses arche- typal symbolism, allegory and narration. But these are usually set in the context of the general and specific Black Experiences. The student has to keep in mind the nature of 110 �the Black Experience. He ought to have a working knowledge of slavery, interracial vi~lence and fraternization, the problems Blacks confront in seeking employment, the negative images of Blacks in mass media, and Blacks' view, and modification, of Christianity. The student should also become acquainted with the various brands of English used by the Black poet and the linguistic interpretations the poets bring to their subjects. In folk poetry, the Black psyche expresses the love, joy and pain via the parables, aphorism{ fables, songs and t-- ditties in a phonological frame brought from Africa. African survivalismscan also be found in the wordings, idiomatic nuances, style and spirit. The student ought to be aware that spirituals often contained coded messages for leaders of the Underground Railroad; that folk songs often held calls for defiance, endurance and revolt--in such symbols and images as rainbows, rivers, lightening, howls, letters, trains, horses and other animals. Stories also carry morals-- but they are moral lessons for an enslaved or oppressed people: How does one "keep on keeping or/§0 Or "keep on gettin' up"? The ironies and paradoxes also come through in the written poetry where, for example, Benjamin Clark persistently asks A slave is what? and a ssails Christianity for enslaving a person who bas been ... bought, or stolen from himself, • • • Fot' so,-,,:Hd 1 pa.L-n-y pelf. 111 �One sees this double vision and cynicism in James M. Whitfield, who does not say America 1tis of thee, Sweet land of liberty ..... or 0 say can you see By the dawn's early light, •••• but America, it is to thee, Thou boasted land of liberty-It is to thee I raise my song, Thou land of blood, and crime, and wrong. Obviously, Whitfield was aware of American patriotism and the songs associated with it. But he chose to satirize a patriotic zealousness and a Democracy which overlooked and excluded large numbers of its citizens. Further indication of this dualism, this time with a Christian motif, is McKay's "The Lynching" in which the killing of a Black man is made analagous to the crucifixion of Christ. McKay, a converted Catholic, was well aware of the sentiment and guilt which this poem must have aroused in the consciences of Christians. As with theme and structure, then, the student will want to probe meaning in Black Poetry. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Some questions are: How does meaning work hand-in-hand with structure and theme in Black Poetry? What experiences contribute to meaning in specific poems? How does one know when one has gotten the meaning the poet intended? What are some of the broad keys to meaning in Black Poetry? Identify some double entendres in Black Poetry. What is the function and meaning of religion in Black P.oe.try? 112 �7"! 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14 . 1.5. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 2.5. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. How do sounds and rhythms convey meaning in Black Poetry? In your opinion, around what themes are the most meaningful poems written? What is the meaning of the Spirituals? What is the meaning of the Fo1k Seculars? How do Meanings differ among Black and other poets? What is the meaning of "Black" or "Blackness" in Black Poetry? What is the meaning of Africa in Black Poetry? What is the meaning of America in Black Poetry? What is the meaning of archetypal symbols (rivers, land, stars, etc.) in Black Poetry? What is the meaning of allegory ( le,ngthy storytelling) in Black Poetry? How is meaning hidden or -encoded in Black Poetry? Why is meaning hidden or encoded in Black Poetry?To/for whom does the Black poet write? Can the Black poet couch "Black" meaning in English? What is -t he nature of the Black poet 1 s language? Are there essential differences between the Black and white poets• languages? Does all Black Poetry contain both literal and figurative levels? Does Black Poetry demonstrate the inner-workings of the Black folk psyche? What is the Black world view? What is the Black poet's view of time, life and death? Does the Black poet believe in reincarnation? Is the Black poet an atheist? Is Black Poetry suicidal? D·oes despair play a big role in Black Poetry? What is the Black poet's view of love? Classroom and Research Activities Obviously, in asking and answering the preceding questions on theme, structure and meaning, the student will need to reinforce his inquiries and comments with in-class discussions and out-of-class research. We said earlier that students ought to pay close attention to Black popular culture. From course beginning to end, the student should avail himself of every opportunity to listen 113 �seriously to Black Music. of forms and concepts. This practice allows for saturation For music is the widest shared art form in the Black community and poetry is the written form closest to it. Therefore, the student must be prepared to look for musical implications and patterns in the poetry. This search will be made more rewarding and exciting if some of the following in-class activities are organized: l. 2. 3. 5. 6. 8 .. Ritual exercises--i.e., games utilizing voices, hand-clapping, foot-stomping, rhythmic instruments (tambourines, thumb pianos, triangles, rattles, maracas, harmonicas, etc.), gestures (dancing, etc.), and the call-and-response patterns. Use of the classroom as a listening laboratory where music is heard, discussed, imitated, etc. (this way students develop a 11f"eel" and "ear" for Black Music and phonology.) Dramatic readings from the dialect and literary poetry; this particular approach could involve all media--dance, music, slides, musical instruments, responding voices, etc. _ Also, other group projects involving panels, choruses, bands, classroom participation, films, tapes and records. One exciting kind of group or individual project is to study the written poetry in conjunction with the current Black popular song lyrics. The use of visual aids enhances most projects. There are numerous films and slide packages available through distributors of educational materials and other sources. Dance, Voice, ijusic or Social Science students taking ~lack Poetry classes can develop themes and projects that coincide with their on-going studies or interests: e.g., ''Dance in Black Poetry," "Black Poetry interpreted through Dance, 11 "Anger and Frustration in Black Poetry," "Black Poetry as an Extension of Black Music," . "The Black Poet's view of the Black Family," "Putting Black Poetry to Music," "The Singing of Black Poetry," "Black Poetry as .History," "Black Poetry and the Struggle for Freedom," etc • . Use of Black Poetry as a dramatic vehicle in which poems are organized around a larger idea or sequence 114 �of historical events. Here, interested students may want to put together a play from existing poetry. Countless other combinations and arrangements will open up for the student willing to think creatively and experiment . For example, many song writers and singers (notably Babs Gonzales, Isaac Hayes, Marvin Gaye, Roberta Flack, Curtis a.viJ Mayfield, Leon Thomas, Smokey "Bill" Robinson"- Nina Simone) possess a poetic versatility and richness which surpasses that of many literary poets. The student may want to tap this hitherto unexplored area for potential ~eseo.r,c,h pt' W\1'1ii'nj {>i"o..t~c.U• Additionally, there are numerous field language projects which will allow the student to pursue regional Black speech patterns,. using tape record~rs, notes, etc. Such material can be compared/contrasted to the written poetry and make for an exciting report which should be shared with the class. Collecting and contrasting of contemporary oral poetry IS and language~always good since researchers and classmates can make on-the-spot comparisons between the material being studied and that which is newly introduced. In conducting the out-of-class research, the student will find numerous resources (and some disappointments), depending on the library holdings, to guide him along the way. 1:h.e Back issues of A,;.--Crisis, 0 pp or tun it y, Black Orpheus and Negro Digest/Black World magazines (see bibliography for more listings) are often on microfilm or in their original forms. Reading of early Black �journals and newspapers help~one understand poetic temperament of the times. The student must remember that some ol:Jtiite newspapers and journals also published Black poetry. The out-of-class preparation should include an absorption of social history, literary criticism and biographies of the poets. We hinted above that students will often find their searches frustrated by unavailability of needed materials. In such cases; students may want to examine holdings of other libraries or archives in the area. Many state or local archives will have documented areas of Black literature. Although there may be problems at each turn, the persistent student can sometimes uncover a gold mine of information in the most unexpected places. One of these problems is that many libraries place Black literature in the same category as Social Sciences. Therefore, it is important to look beyond Humanities for the Poetry, criticism and commentary. But the student who is seriously bent on finding his materials and sources, may find, ~lso, that he has helped iron out some classification problems and "attitudes" at his campus or community library. As stated before, there are many ideas, topics and themes around which to organize a study of Black Poetry. for discussion and writing papers are: 1. 2. 3. 4* 5. Black Poetry of the Harlem Renaissance Black Poetry of the Post-Renaissance Black Women Poets The Black Poet as a Wanderer Blues influence in Black Poetry 116 Some topics �,l 1 I 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. Jazz influence in Black Poetry Black Poets of the Beat Movement Black Poetry and Pan-Africanism Black Poetry and Integration Black Poetry and Black History Church as a theme in Black Poetry Religion as a theme in Black Poetry The Verse Sermon as a Poetic Form The Ballad in Dialect Poetry Africa as an Image in Black Poetry Whiteness as a Symbol in Black Poetry Black Poetry of Colonial America Slavery as a theme in Black Poetry Lynching as a theme in Black Poetry Interracial association in Black Poetry Black Poet's view of America Love as a theme in Black Poetry Militancy in Black Poetry Violence in Black Poetry Freedom in Black Poetry Universal themes in Black Poetry Identity Crisis in Black Poetry Black Poetry as a galvanizing force for social action Black Dialect Poetry Black Speech in Black Poetry Structure in Modern Black Poetry Meaning in Black Poetry Pride in Black Poetry Soul in Modern Black Poetry Image of the Black Woman in Black Poetry Image of the Black Man in Black Poetry This list should bring about other associations for the student. For each topic contains several others, and the new ones call to mind still others, and so on. However, the student should involve himself deeply in Black creativity and thought so as · rl,e. l exi· t y, b readth and miss . i on of Bl ac k Poe t ry. t o perceive~comp 117 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_07_48 Title A name given to the resource Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, typed partial manuscript, p. 104-117 Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B.