1 10 650 https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/c1fe1cef5dbd4fdc9cc949ad1b8eeb8a.mp4 ca2ec585d0f39bcc6a245b9e74e8fb54 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Video of Encore: The Mississippi River Festival 1975 Subject The topic of the resource Mississippi River Festival Description An account of the resource 00:15:15 video overview of Encore: The Mississippi River Festival of the 1975 season of the Mississippi River Festival held at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville. Video was produced in 1976. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Southern Illinois University Edwardsville Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Copyright Southern Illinois University Edwardsville 1976 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/mp4 Language A language of the resource English https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/3ac2503ee96fab0f9a83fc41282a3f15.mp4 d5b4e951ee86778948c281a753ce138c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Video of The Mississippi River Festival, 1969 Subject The topic of the resource Mississippi River Festival Description An account of the resource 00:14:56 video of overview of the 1969 season of the Mississippi River Festival held at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Southern Illinois University Edwardsville Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1969 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/mp4 Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Copyright Southern Illinois University Edwardsville https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/64318c543bb05055901e351569ef6239.pdf 95611c7541c5d2f15765801f175c3872 PDF Text Text I ' INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I .BLACK POETRY: II ... VIEWS, VISIONS, CONFLICTS the double obligation of being both Negro and American is not so unified as we are often led to believe." Countee Cullen .\ I During the last decade, Black American poetry emer~ from its assigned position as an illegitimate--sometimes embarrassing--child of American literature to an official .flower in the garden of world writing . Everywhere, on all ·... . ·, continents, Black poetry is vigorously read, listened to·· an~ s'ometimes imitated. "Often imitated but never duplicated~ ... J~-; . ',,. ., ' ' s. , .. ' ' qµip the disc jockeys on Black-oriented radio stations--as~~~ . ,, :u ,, ~1 -'. ., their listeners that the "soul" or rrheirloom" of their trad1t1"' 1s alive, well, and locked in ancestral safe-deposit boxes~. .·.\\ · .t\ . However, a silent reading of the DJ 1 s casually delivered qu.1~_._; t belies the charismatic power and verbal dexterousness in it is said. ./, "hdw " But, the "how" is always important in Black po~t ' and it will be one of the cornerstones in the discussion~ will follow. • To say that Black poetry is read and heard all over the .. •'· .. "" world is not to say that it is studied in equitable proport1cf .. , •,, to other kinds of poetry. Indeed the current rash of apthoi ; _•: ogies, individual ~ollections, and the re-issuing of published volumes, suggest that a literary vacuum of l �' proportions has existed. The ru ~11 :, ·.. ~ 1: ,: t ! t ·! , . aouplod Vl th the appearance of new Black puJ,1 1:Jii i:. r \.r' u""" • -:a~ I th l a vacuum glaringly, paradoxical l:r 01 ) ·1 poetry (or Black literature) coursl"!:-: ~!' 1) ot 81.a'ok • l' ':") ,o 11l •n.-ne 01~:; . '". ~~r. ,: !1n', d r r eats at predominantly white college s and pu :: 1 tc ocLoolo la lpo 1- , nously aided and abetted b y the cu l pa hl o nel1;enc at . . rt7 predominantly Black learning center s --wh l c'·. ofton r llrlo111ly place Walt Whitman over Paul Lawrence Dun t ar. ,,· . B. Yoa ta and T.S. Eliot over Jean Toomer and Melvin B. To l s on, Rohert Prost ' and Carl Sandburg over Owen Dodson and Robe 2· t !!a:,clon , Gnd Marianne Moore and Edith Sitwell over Gwenrl ol y n B:rooka and Margaret Walker. -: One could go on, of course, reciting the cultural and literary negli gence so officially a part academic and grants-in-aid scenes. or t he The purpose here, howe ver, is to explore, with teacher, student and lay man, the vast richness of Black poetical and mythical life. t II The study or teaching of Black poetry presents many frustrations, challenges and problems. Instructors preparing themselves to teach the subject must be aware of the many pitfalls, not least among them being the tendency of teacher and student alike to stray from the study of tbe poetry into political and rhetorical catharses. "Black" is a political work in the United States--and in most or the world--and to study or tea.ch anything "Black" is to become embroiled in 2 ' �controversy and burdened with sociopolitical stress. That thin line between the ideological implications of a poem and those "trials scenes" so many classrooms and groups find themselves victims of is a line walked by all teachers and students of the Black Experience. In approaching Black poetry, then, one must "set" the atmosphere by dealing, from the outset, with substantive background materials. By "substantive" I mean the deepest philosophical, religious, ethical, artistic and cosmological tenets of Black life and expression. Thus a further intent of this handbook is to examine the scope and range of Black poetry via folk origins, methods of delivery, language, phonology, religiosity, racial character, recurring themes, individual and group identity, and poetic devices as they are developed indigenously or borrowed from other poetic traditions. III Like all bodies of writing, Black literature stems from a folkloristic trunk, making the job of teacher or student twofold: one) to deal with the great and complex storehouse of folk materials and themes; and two) to explore the chronological development of Black poetr~--from about 1746 to the present. There a.re harmless differences among scholars over just where to start the study of Black written poetry. For example, in The Poetry of the Negro, Hughes and Bontemps begin with Lucy Terry's "Bars Fight," the account of an Indian massacre in Deerfield, Mass., in 1746. The Negro Caravan (an inclusive • 3 �anthology edited by Brown, Davis and Lee) omits the Terry poem. Caravan was first issued in 1941 while the poetry anthology was published in 1949. The former begins its poetry section with Phillis Wheatley who first published poetry in 1770. Also omitted from Caravan is the work of Jupiter Hammon whose poetry was published in broadside in 1760. In Calvacade (Negro American Writing from 1760 to the Present), published in 1970 and edited by Davis and Redding, neither Terry nor Hammon appear and the poetry section begins with Phillis Wheatley. Early Black American Poets (Robinson) acknowledges Terry but Johnson's The Book of American Negro Poetry opens with Dunbar. Kerlin's Negro Poets and their Poems (1923) makes no mention of either 11 Bar's Fight" or its author; but Dudley Randall's The Black Poets (1971) does include the poem. This is only a random survey from the dozens of general and specialized anthologies. However, it seems that many teachers of Black poetry begin with Phillis Wheatley despite the fact that at least two Black poets were writing before her. Each one of these earlier poets was a slave, privileged by masters and taught (or allowed to learn) to read and write. Generally, they were spared the sustained hardships experienced by the majority of their brothers a~d sisters of color. But more will be said of them in Chapter III. In preparing this outline, I have allowed that some enthusiasts will want to cover the full history and range of Black poetry while others may be interested in periods or 4 �regions. I have also assumed that many persons will want to move systematically through the poetry--establishing some sense of historical development and tradition in Black history, Black music, and the broad web Black culture in general. Hence, one of the main ingredients of this outline--as we move from chapter to chapter--will be the study of related and integral forms of expression such as folksongs, spirituals, blues, jazz, rhythm & blues and what is known today as soul music; As stated earlier, however, the Black Experience is complex and frustrating. 1 At each juncture in the study of the poetry, for example, one teaching it will meet difficulties which may at first seem insurmountable. Some of these difficulties will be presented in familiar questions: Is a poet considered Black if' he writes consistently--or tempora.rily--out of the "white" experience? 1. Can a Black poet really record Black experiences Most attempts to define the Black Experience have failed. And though I am dealing primarily with Black (North) American poetry, there will be references to other parts of the Black World. When one considers the cross-fertilization of folk and literary culture in this country, together with the existence of' hybrid cultures all over Latin America and other parts of' the world, the term "Black Experience" does indeed rebel against def'inition. It is hoped, however, that through continual return to the idea of the Black Experience (and discussion of Black lif'e), the complexity and range of the term can be appreciated · (also see bibliography). 5 �and feelings in English? Can a white poet write a Black poem (like the white musician who has developed a "feel" for Black music and has le arned to master t h e technical vocabulary of that music)? Can white people "understand" Black poetry? Should white critics of Black poetry be taken seriously? 2 Black poetry primarily emotion and lacking in intellect? there a Black Aesth etic? poetry? Is Is Can a wh ite professor teach Black How does Black Language differ fro m white ianguage or English? And does Black poetry ex press the universal human condition? Black and white students will ask t h ese questions (of themselves, each other, and teacher), indicating that they want more realistic and direct answers to some of the in-house issues which have consumed Black activists, artists, academicians, and white scholars of the Black Exper i ence. The Black and white teacher confronting a racially- mixed class, an all-Black class or an all white class, will sometimes confront a distressing panorama of anger, rejection, fear, condescension, accusation, anti-intellectualism, intellectual snobb ishness, racism, distrust--and any number of oth er combustions of t he contemporary student personality. The Black poets do not make burdens lighter since they, critically an« t h ematically, are dispersed along a boundless spectrum of opinions, attitudes, creative 2. For a balanced discussion of t h is and related subjects, see Mphahlele's Voices in the Whirlwind. 6 �approaches, ideologies, teclrniques and literary ph i losophies. The teacher or student preparin~ for either a semester or year-long course (or for a "Black" unit to be integrated into a Humanities course, an American literature course, or a Black interdisciplinary project) should be come steeped in the literature and lore of the Black past in order to g ive tentative answers and carry on adequate discussions when questions such as those above arise. After J.J aving 1::ieen exposed to ~lack poets of national statute--via television pro grar.;s su cb as Soul and Black Journal, at campus reatlincs and conferences, Black Arts f es ti vals and co!:it::un:L t y book parties- - ti1an:r students (es pe cially Black students) ma:r be informed, at t he popu lar level, about the opinions and reading styles of t1.10 poets. However, neither student nor teacher must--and t his point t as to be stressed again and again--succumb to tbe temptation to "skip all poetry up until 1965." IV True, there is e;re at and growlnc interest in the Black poetry produced out of wbat has been variousl:r called the Black Consciousness/Black Power/Black Hatio ~allst /Black Arts/Neo-PanAfrican Movement. Yet one who defies the Black (or any) tradition will find himself engulfed in a ma~~strom of conjecture and ideological hysteria; and tbe class, whose posture will be anti-historical, will be riddled with soap opera-type rhetoric about revolution and liberation and will s mack, again, o:f anti-intellectualism. Harold Cruse (The Crisis o:f the Negro 7 �Intellectual) points out that each generation of Black artists and activists suffers from a lack of historical/cultural tinuity. con- That is, they fail to study (or are unaware of) the mistakes and the pitfalls of past struggles and consequently find themselves in predicaments not dissimilar to those of their predecessors. Needless to say, such 11 cultura.l amnesia" is not the state from which one approaches the study of Black poetry. As observed earlier, the poets are not in agreement concerning what Black poetry is supposed to do, why it is written or whether whites can (or should) write or criticize it. 3 Reasons for the diverse beliefs and positions are numerous: the situation attending the birth and upbringing of the poet (note, for example, the distinctions between Claude McKay and Countee Cullen); his religious affiliation (Robert Hayden is of the f Baha'i faith; Askia Muhammad Toure is a Sunni Muslim; El-Muhajir 3. An important point at this juncture of Black poetry. For there is growing feeling among some poets and writers (many of who will not express themselves in public) that there are concerted attempts to muzzle, circumvent or circumscribe some authors because of their personal political view points or their brand of writing. For further allusion to this, see back issues of the Journal of Black Poetry, Black World, and other periodicals dealing with the contemporary Black Arts scene. 8 �(Marvin X) is a member of the Nation of Islam (common called Black Muslims); K. Curtis Lyle was raised in the Catholic church; Sonia Sanchez expouses an Islamic position); his political leaning {which, in the case of many writers, is also religious); his preparation for poetry (did he go to a well-known writers school, pick his talent up via individual study or apprentice under another writer); bis associations with o:l:iher poets (many Black poets, for example, hobnob (and this is historically true) with writers of other races; I met one Black poet in 1970 who bad two masters' de grees but had not heard o:f · Melvin Beaunorus Tolson!--a Black poet praised b y the white literary establishment as having b ested Eliot, Pound, Stevens and company in his technical virtuosity ); l1 is current personal situation (does he live in the inner city? teach? time? play a musical instrument? write full write in other z;enres? read primarily Black poets?), and h is feelings on the question: "Are you a poet first and then Black; or are .you Black first and then a poet?" Harmless as it may seem, that rhetorical utter has entrapped scores of Black writers in ideolog ical and political prisons-from which some would like to extricate t e em.selves by asking simply: "What difference does it make?" For the many poets, however, it matters a great deal and they have written profusely on the implications of this question and the several others listed earlier. Th e teacher or discussion leader must sample opinions of writers and students, sharing the diversity of opinions with the same vigor a.nd thoroughness that 9 �the diverse creative works are shared. Such parity allows for a continual balance in criticism, social undercurrents and the poems themselves. be illustrative. Perhaps some examples here would Novelist Ralph Ellison has suggested that he is a writer first and that bis racial identity is subordinate to that fact. Poet Robert Hayden has taken a similar stand (see introduction to Kaleidoscope, Poems by American Negro Poets, 1967). The same position had been taken several decades earlier by poet Countee Cullen. In his critical- biographical introduction to Cullen's poetry (The Book of American Negro Poetry, 1922), James Weldon Johnson observed that: Some critics have ventured to state that Cullen is not an authentic Ne gro poet. This statement, of necessity, involves a definition of "a Negro poet" and of "Negro Poetry." There might be several definitions framed, but the question raised is pure irrelevance. Also there is in it a faint flare-up of the old taboo which would object to the use of "white" material by the Negro artist, or at least regard it with indulgent condescension. Cu~len himself has declared that, in the sense of wishing for consideration or allowances on account of race or of recognizing for himself any limitation to '~acial" themes and forms, he has no desire 10 I , I �or intention of being a Ne gro poet. I n t h is he is not only within his ri gh t; h e is ri gh t. (italics mine) Johnson went on to note that b ecause Cullen "rev olts a gainst" racial enclosures, the race." 11 best of h is poetry is motivated by One could make a similar comment today about Ellison or Hayden. The works for wh ich both are internationally acclaimed delve into t he deepest re g ions of the Black man's psyche and feelin gs. Meanwhile some y ounger poets--those who gained exposure in the 1960's--and several poets and critics who straddle both generations lash out, sometimes not so diplomatically, at what tbey see as compe ns atory actions and unnecessary self-deprecation by the older poets. Pulitzer Prize winner Gwendolyn Brooks said in a preface to Poems From Prison that Eth erid ge Kni c;h t was not t b e 11 stifled artiste. 11 The comment represented an i mpli ed rebutt a l to Black and white "academic II poets. 11 Elsewh ere }Iiss Broo ks ref erred to the inelegance 11 of some Black poetry as be ing c onsistent with the bleak, drab landsca pe of h opelessness and despair felt by some inner-city dwel l ers. (Otb er cr i t i cs, h owever, support the position of poet-critic Larry Ne a l t bat t lrn Black Experience should not be defined i n terms of "nee;ati ves. ") During t h e late Sixties, Miss Brooks became a kind of matr iarch of the New Blac k Poetry TToveLlen t (at least in Chi cac o), ceased pub lishing with Earper and Ro-:-J , a nd ~) ee:an to r e l ease h er writings t l~,rongh Br oad 3ide Pre ss --a new De tr oit - bas ed Bl ac k publish ing I 11 , .: 1 �house under the supervision of Dudley Randall, a poet, librarian, critic and translator. Miss Brooks' new con- sciousness, she declares, came ab out as a result of having attended a Black writers conference in 1968 at Fisk University where she heard and mixed with poets Ima.mu Amiri B_a rake. (LeRoi Jones), Don L. Lee, Nikki Giovanni, novelist Joh n Oliver Killens, and a host of other writers, activists and artists. The violent social explosions in the cities, the Vietnam war that took so many Black lives and crippled so many others, the persistent emergence or Africa--all, Miss Brooks said, aided in the development of her new consciousness. She has wr1 tten that it "rrightens" her to t h ink that if she had died before she reached rirty, "I would have died a 'Negro' rraction." Hayden, disclaiming the Gwendolyn Brooks' position, assumes he has been 'Black' all along and continues to reject any singular, unarguable position on the Black Aesthetic, or the poet-first, Black-second/Black-first, poet-second controversy. Assessing Bar a ka, Hayde n admits t h at h e reco gnizes the younger poet's power but deplores "his Black nazism. 11 J. Saunders Redding, a dean or the Black critical establishment, feels there is no such thing n.s a. "Black Aesthetic"; Poet Paul Vesey (formerly Samuel Allen) calls it "a voyage or discovery--! think it will y ield return not as greatly as in music, perhaps, where t h e blac k aesth etic dominates an entire cultural area of the west. 12 11 Hany poets and critics, �on tbe other band, i gnore questions dealing wit h aesthetics, tbe level of Blackness in t heir work, to wh om t hey direct their poems, and out of what mood or spirit they write. At the same time there are trends, some re gional and some national, that teachers and students can identify . Needless to say, identifying and exploring these trends is i mmensely rewarding . Some prerequisites to an understanding of trends and attitudes that stem from tbe on- going creati ve process, including tbe poets' knowledge of t heir own as well as the general literary tradition are: a study of slavery, as it was instituted by Europe and refined in t h e United States; an examination of Black social h istory , a nd a scrutiny of West Ai'rican and Afro-American folklore. The t h orough teacher or student of Blac k poetry will want to steep himself in the history of Western Civilization; b e will also develop an appreciation for the complex weh of Blac k -wh ite interrelationsjips in America, and prepare to nav i gate t h e often tense-filled readings and discussions. V Slavery is not the most pleasant situation to explore; and investi gators of Black poetry qu ickly notice t h at practically every poet writes about l y nchings--especially poets writing after the Civil 1--J'ar. Th ose poets wl~ o do not deal with actual lynchings, as we have come to kn ow or interpret them, deal with half-lynchings, character or cultural defilement and the 13 �mental and physical destruction of Black humanity . If a. discussion of slavery is unpleasant, t hen, a consideration of lynching is horrifying. However, skilled teachers and students will maneuver judiciously through t h e rou gh waters of such sessions--keeping emotional deluges to a minimum by admitting facts and clear interpretations. Durinc such occasions, everyone must be on guard less the classroom becomes a courtroom. At the same time, a convener wh o cannot preside over vigorous and thorough discussions of tr::ese painful events and details may find himself, at later junctures, trying to bridge even wider gulfs of doubt, frustration, mistrust and alienation. Again, the teaching and studyi nc of Black poetry (or any aspect of the Black Experience) assumes t he complexities of the Black Experience itself. Ne verth eless, t h e study of Black poetry is infinitely rewarding b ecause it is a vehicle which distills the particular insight s and perspectives of Black Americans into concise and autb ent i c for ms: merging the rich rural-Biblical-ur½an idioms with colorfully luscious ir:1agery and ( in many cases) peerless teclmical proficiency in the use of literary English anc1 Uestern poetic forms. When students are confronted witb t h e various poems on lynchings, for example, study can be underscoria by an examination of language, form, posture, poetic toolery and overall achievement or effeci veness of the poems. In Richard ·wright's "Between the World and i'-Te rr the lynch ed poet becomes the persona; the oak tree narrates t he lynching in Dunbar's rrTbe Haunted Oak." 14 �Cullen speaks as "I" in "Scottsboro, Too, Is Horth Its Song" which admonishes white American poets for remaining silent over unjust treatment of Black men while tbey sing: sharp and prett:r Tunes for Sacco and Vanzetti, I said: Here too's a cause devinely spun For those whose eyes are on the sun, Here in epitome Is all disgrace And epic wrong, Like wine to brace The minstrel heart, and 'blare it into song. In McKay's "The Lynching" the killing of the Black man is made analagous to the crucifixion; a sonnet, and awesome throughout, the poem descends to its rhyming couplet with a final ghostly irony: And little lads, lynchers that were to be, Danced round the dredful thing in fiendish glee. Certainly in these poems--and tbe dozens of' otbers that employ tbe lynching therne--there is much fuel for papers, classroom discussion and teacher preparation: In the four poems mentioned, the poets span such diverse forms as tbe sonnet, the ballad (Dunbar) and free verse (Wright). Helpful in this area will be the additional inquiry, by teacher and student, into the development of white bate groups such as tbe Ku Klux Klan 1.5 �and the history of race riots in America. Riots in at least a dozen American communities in 1919, for example, helped spur McKay to write "If We Must Die", a poignant sonnet with its even more poignant and popular ending couplet-Like men we'll face the murderous, cowardly pack, Pressed to the wall, dying, but fighting backf --a poem which Winston Churchill read before the House o:f Commons, during World War II, to spark bis countrymen in the dim hours; during the 1972 prison rebellion in Attica., N".Y., journalists found the poem scribbled on the wa.11 of a cell and the national press attributed it to a prisoner! Of great assistance, too is a knowledge of tre history of' slave revolts (many Black poets write about them) and the patterns of violence in America. Attuned teachers and students will want to consult sources such as 100 Years of' Lynching ( Ginz berg ), back issues of Black and liberal white news journals and papers and especially past issues of' The Crisis, the official news and opinion arm of the National Association For The Advance ment of Colored People. The scholar, W.E.B. DuBois, one of tJ-1e first Black men to receive a Ph.D., edited The Crisis for over 20 years from its beginning in 1910. For further readings, the teacher can refer to my extensive bibliography plus appropriate sections of any of the numerous anthologies, textbooks and bibliographical sources available. VI 'While I admit that inf orma.tion and opinions contained in • 16 �this handbook reflect my own biases as a teacb er, critic, activist, and poet, the prescribed patterns for teaching and studying Black poetry are ones generally adhered to across the country. ~ne organization of any course is certain to mirror at least a minimum amount of tlJe tea.cber' s own politic al and critical biases. Consequently, when lecturing on or pre- paring curricula for Black poetry, I normally allow for a flexible outline, including options in both textbook .use and period emphasis. The same bolds true for concentration or saturation of study with regards to individual poets. Teachers, naturally, will have personal preferences; in fact, like the students, teachers may even h ave de veloped attach ~ents to specific poets, attitudes about the poets or prejudices toward poets who do not reflect what they feel is a correct posture for Black poetry. Just as there is creat and liea.lthy diversity in the poetr:r and the poets, there will be divergent attitudes and critical points of view amonG teach ers and students. Some of the differentiations will be due to a ge differences (the "generation gag"?), as is tbe case with the poets, and some will occur regardless of age. The Black or white teacher should arm J1 imself to the best of his ability with the tools of cr'l ticis m and a knowledge of Black culture. He must have some idea of what part nduality" plays in the lives of Blacks and how sucb "twoness" is manifest in Black poetry; he s h ould reco gni ze t h e key issues being raised by and debated among Black artists, sch olars and 17 �activists--and have some feel for t l1e hi s t orical circumstances out which t h ese issue s and de bates grew ; be ouc;~1 t to understand Baraka's reference to some Black noets as "inte arationists" • 0 and "art;r poets Tl; be ·will h ave to kn ow Hb at many of the Hew Black poets mean wh en t h ey say th ey r e j e c t Western "forr1s 11 and r efuse to 1.:- e j udged >y 't·J:.-~i te staiJc;_ a r d s (3 ara ka, for example, talks about post-American forms); h e will also want to recognize Black in-house humor and intraconmunal disparagement in words and phras es like "nigger,!! "ne gro," '~ncle Tom," "oreo," "colored, 11 "th e man," 11 dict y ," "bad mouth," "bust a nut," "brother," "crumbcrusbers," "mai n sque eze," and "Mr. Charley. 11 (For furth er i nd icati on of tb is dictional and pbonoloeical richness a nd t h e breadth of Blac k Lan~uage, see The Dictionary of American Slang, :Te.j or ' s D~ ctio nary of Afro-American Slo.n~, t he 11 Glossory of Selected Ter ms" in The Psychology of Black La.nguac;e (Ea.skins and Butts), Abraham's Deep Down in t'he Jungle, Andrews' a nd Owe ns' Black Language, Claerbout's Black Jar gon in Wn ite America, Twi ggs' Pan-African Language in the Uestern Hemisph ere, 1-!elmers' African Language Structures, Kochman's Rappin' and St ylin 1 Out, and Dillard's Black English. Additionally t b e teacher or s-e"udent will want to know the motivations of some of the poets. All poets, for example, do not rate being called "poets II in the tra.di ti•o nal (white or Black) sense. Redding, in a recent Muhammad Speaks interview, accused some of t h e new Black writers of lacking ' moral and �esthetic' integrity' and called t b er:i. 'li tera.ry hustlers'. Observing that Baraka recently signed a 1O-year contract witb Random House, Redding said such an act is inconsistent with the poet's nationalistic assertions and positions. In a recent Black World article, novelist and poet Ishmael Reed spoke disparagingly of some of the new Black critics ("Bla.ckopaths") and poets ( 11 nationtime poets," was the reference). Poet-essayist Lee has chided poet Nikki Giovanni for being an "individual" wbo lacks technical ab ilities; and in a recent issue of Jet magazine a reader irately asked if Miss Giovanni deserved respect after accepting a 'Homan-of-the-Year award .from a national white women's organization. Miss Giovanni and Reed were nominated for Pulitzer Prizes in 1973. Hayden, a. member o.f the older group o.f poets, wbo was only 17 years old when the Harlem Renaissance burned out, feels that Lee (praised by Gwendolyn Brooks, Hoyt Fuller of Black World, Randall and Baraka) has potential as a poet but lacks discipline and seems unable to separate poetic technique .from ideological rantin g . On the other h and, Stephen Henderson, author-editor of Understand Tbe l'Jew Black Poetry praises Lee relentlessly and sa.ys bis populari t::,r is "tantamount to stardom". Henderson, who holds a. Ph .D~, is currently chairman o.f the new Humanities division at Howard University where Lee is a writer-in-residence. Miss Brooks g ives Lee credit (in her introduction to The Poetry of Black America) for spawning much of the contemporary Black consciousness literature. 19 �., .... ' Any seriously dealing with t h e de velo pment of Black poetry as a body of writing , must be m·1a.re of t h ese i ntense feelin gs and positions. One must also organize orderly discussions or readings around the divergent v iews ; in t h is way the classroom or rap sessions do not become me lees and participants get a complete picture of the rich ness and vastness of Black poetry and the political, social and ~1 istorical tensions out of which the poetry is generated. Writing on the New Black Poetry , (Th e United States in Literature, Miller, Hayden and 0' Neal), Hayden says: The emergence of a so-cal led sch ool of Black Poetry in A_m erica h as been one of t h e si c;nificant literary developments of t h e modern per i od. Although the Harlem Renaissance of t h e 1 920 's brou c;h t certain Afro-American poets into prominence, it was not until t b e intensification of t b e c iv il ri [sh ts struggle during t h e 1 960ts t h at a separate group of black poets b egan t o take s b ape. Avowedly nationalistic (th at j_s, racially proud) and scornful of western aesth etics, t h ese poets continued t he protest traditio n , h istorically associated with Negro tn~iters: But tl:iey were more radical in outlook t h an t ~ e i r predecessors. Unlike the Harlem group, t h ey re j ec t ed entry into t h e mainstream of American literature as a desirable goal. Th ey insisted t h at t h eir poetry 20 �could not be judged by white standards, urging its importance as an expression of b lack consciousness. LeRoi .Jones--the most influential of the young activist poets--Don L. Lee, Nikki Giovanni, Sonia Sanchez, Mari Evans, Etheridge Knigl1t, and David Henderson attune their lyres to the 'black esthetic.' Not yet satisfactorily defined, thfs term, originating in the sixties, na y b e interpreted as a sense of the spiritual nnd artistic values of blackness. It is, perhaps, a lo gical (some would say 'ch auvinistic') reaction to negative American racial attitudes. Perhaps tbe conce pt is best summarized by the slogan 'Black i3 beautiful.' Th ose who accept t hi s point of view regard Negro subject matter as their exclusive donmin, feeling t h at only tbose wbo have shared 'black experience' can articulate it. Older poets wh ose work shows some ali gnment with t b e Hew Black Poetry include Margaret Walker and Gwendoly n Brooks, winner of the Pulitzer in 1910. Whether poetr:r sbould be valued primarily for the unique inner experience it can provide or for its effecti veness as political or social statement is a. question 21 �that often recurs i n discussio ns of true function of art today . Hayden•s openine; comments, t h en, corroborate t h e opening sentence to t h is introduction--th a t Black poetry , re gardless of one's position on it, is one of t h e most i mportant movements on the literary scene today . Yet, wh ile it is exciting to study this "poetry in process" (if y ou please), the enthusiast must be on guard not to skip t he tradition ('the folk precedents) in favor of plunging into a Black poem that heaps wrath on Watergate conspirators, or urban policemen who shoot rioters and looters. Swirling arou nd a nd t h rough the whole range of Black poetry, t hen, is the complex and multi-leveled nature of Black life. VII Many of the 11 literary hustlers" to wh om Redding refers have capitalized on the topical and episodic issues--with little or no training in t he Black tradition or writing . Hence, the student must assume that j ust because a statement is "relevant, 11 it is poetry ! Th e Black or wl1ite researcher will "dig ••• deeper to t he gold 11 --in t he words of James David Corruthers-- and nestablisb 11 a sound tradition ae;ainst which to measure the Black poetry of today . If t h e Black poet in question fails, be fails because be collapses from t h e weight of the past--instead of being buoy ed up by it. In establishing this sound tradition, t h e teachers and students must realize, first, that the Black Experience is not monolithic--e.lthough • 22 �recurring trends a.nd broad ir.1plica.tions do exist in the areas of language, religion, lrnmor, dance, mu sic and c eneral life style. Oddly enough, however., there is often more consistency in what Blacks know ab.out popular nAmerican n culture. L~ There are several reasons for such a paradoxical i nbala~ce a.nd lack of focus--many of tbem locked in the eni ematic see-saw of Black history. Ellison observed in the 1940's that if Black leaders ever unraveled the puzzle of t b e zoot suit and the dark glasses (meaning the secret of Black urban nstyling" habits), they could, perhaps, take the political and psychological reigns of Black masses fro m whites. observation was accurate. Ellison's James Baldwin has written that, in Europe, he looked at the great Renaissance masterpieces and felt ashamed that his race had not produced such work. Baldwin was not aware that the great Italian painter, Pablo Picasso, had borrowed heavily fron African motifs, nor that the architect, Lee-Corbousier, was greatl? influenced by thatched-roof huts used in Africa b y I3alwin's ancestors. The implications of this part of r;1y discussion are many and far reaching because central to the idea of teachinc and learning is what teachers and students expect fro m eacb oth er. 4. Ellisonts, For an exciting recitation and indictment via a "cultural quiz", listen to poet-critic Stanley Croucbfs Ain't No Ambulances for no Nie;r,ahs Toni e;h t (Flying Dutchman). 23 �Croucll 's and Baldwin's o~)sor,.,- ations a r e t5. mely and i mportant. They sugc;est to us that many, if not i;rnst, of t1"e students ·who are in Black poetry (Black Studies) classes do not have a working knowled Ge of the traditio n ou t of ·wb icb the poetry grew. It bas b eco me popular, in sou e quarters, to i gnore tbis fact which Ellison and others h ave so painfully and poignantly expressed. The teaclrnr wb o assu:-:,es t h at a class of: Black (or white) students is knowledg eable a b out .t he Black literary tradition is in for real trouble and many disappointments. The fore g oing point cannot b e stressed too often or too emphatically. Interestinsly enoucJ1 , tl1e majori t7 of t b e persons who want to know something u;)out Black poetry are not preoccupied with the craft of poetry--wi th t h e h 01:1s and whys of poetry. Rather the students and casual readers, Black and white, seem to be more interested in the sociolog ical (some teachers say "pathological 11 ) aspects of the poetry. Tb e situation varies, of course, fro m campus to campus, fro m atmospl1ere to atmosphere, and from Black to white to interracial settings. Here again the enthusiast h as to draw t l1 e l :i. ne and keep the per- . suit of the poetry 11 ti ghtlf in tern!s of tbe discipline demanded by the poetry itself. Another problem the investi r;ators confront is how to organize segments when an appreciation of tl1e material is what is sought. The "appreciation" approach could be the result of one's initial conception of t h e poetry or dictated 24 �by level of interest and preparatio n . A casual reader, for example, would not study t he same poems wi t }~ t h e same intensity as would a senior or graduate-le vel English major. Nevertheless, t he teach er, students a nd poetry lovers must bear in mind that t h ey are investiga t ing Black poetry and not merely some literary i mitation of traditional Western poetry--even though the two converge ti me a nd time a gain. Here, too, the point cannot be over-emph asized b ecause in the context of racial and intellectual mixtures, the melting pot is all too often likely to b o:11 over. Example: white students, well grounded in t h eir own literary tradition and having a skelet a l knowledge of Blac k Cultur e will want to surge abead. Not reco gniz i ng t 'i.-i at many Black ( and some white) students do not know t h e meaninc s of simple poetic devices (such as metaph ors, similes, alliterat i on and onomatopoeia), the insensitive teacher and "aggressi ve" students could press on to the point of premature destr uction of group participation. Such situations occur over a nd over. Even the best teach ers of literature often take for granted that every student has been drilled in the use of fi gurati ve language. Ironically, many of t h e students h av e be en "drilled" in the fi gures; but, t he holes opened b:r -€b e drilling allowed the information to go in one ear and out t h e oth er! Ifa.ny students, in the wh ir of words i n t b e classroom and c;roup d i scussions will not say t h ey do not know t b e names of poetic devices-especially if they happen to b e Black stude nts and think the �instructor expects t b em to b e "experts 11 on t h e Black Experience. On the other hand, the intellectual s no:Jb er:r t h at often accompanies the development of student 11 clicks 11 s b ould not be allowed to prevail in a course in Blac k poetr:r. Luckily , for teacher, student and general reader, t b e curves and crests and peaks in the study of Black poetry keep brins in 0 all aspects of human nature full circle. 26 �CHAPTER II THE BLACK AND UNKNOWN BARDS 0 black and unknown bards of long ago, How came your lips to touch the sacred fire? -- James Weldon Johnson I Origins of Black Expression: In this chapter, as in subsequent ones, I will attempt to place the Black creative mind witbin the spirit and letter of an African-American cultural tradi ti.on. Unfortunately, many early scholars either played down or ignored African influences on Black American poetry. these early scholars. This was certainly not true of all For while some gloated over the "findings" of "Southern whites"--purposting to prove that the Spirituals were derived solely from English (Hymns and Psalms) sources-Johnson (Book of American Negro Spirituals, 1925), Professor Work (Folk Song of the American Negro, 1915), and others, displayed faultless proof of Africanisms existing in practically all Black American folk materials. The approach to this ch apter will be via tlle philosophical concerns, updating so~e of the thin~ing on traditional African views and mannerisms in Black America.. Then brief consideration will be given the major trunks of the folk poetry: The Spirituals and the Seculars (or religious folk poetry and everyday workand-play folk poetry). I have included a fair representation of the original folk poetry. This is appropriate, of course, • 27 �since most .anthologies of Black literature and poetry omit these items; and because without a knowled ge of them one will be hard-pressed to understand the Black poet's use of folk materials (see Dunbar, Johnson, Brown, Hugh es, Hayden, Walker and others). However, before discussing the ori gins of Black expression, we should e ive mention to t h e role of the griot-or story teller--in pre-industrial African (and other) societies. The Black poet, as creator and chronicler, stems from the group of artisans known as griots--human records of family and national lore. Originally trained to recite--without flaw--the gene- ologies, eulogies, victories and calamities of the folk, the griot (like the lead singer of Spirituals) had to spice bis reportage with dramatic excitement. Hardly a Black youngster grew up (even in recent times) with out input from a sort of griot (uncle, grandmother, bi g brother or sister, mother or father, preacher, etc). The job of the gri to, like that of the mater-ceremonial drummer, ws.s so i n porta.nt that in many ancient societ:i.es a mistake could cost hi m his life. The griot began at a very early a ge h is mastery of technique and information. Like the drummer, he understud ied an elder statesman of the trade. His training demanded a certain psychological adjustment to the si gnificance of h is job-which was to contain ( and give advice on) t b e of the community. 11 heirlooms" As years and centuries passed, this "factual" information was converted into a lore, m~rth oloe;y, cosmology and legend; it became a part of the vast web of racial conscious- 28 �• ness and memory. It became the legacy with which every new born child entered the world. Clearly, then, the myth-and legend-building Black poet has a past into wbich to dip and a future to predict, project and protect. And any violation of the past, present or future const i tutes a serious crime against one's ancestors--against one's parents, against one's blood, against one's god. So it follows that the poet--griot-- is not some haphazzardly arrived hipster or slick-talker simply mouthing tired old phrases. To the Black griot-singer- poet the job of unraveling the complex network of bis past and present-future worlds is a painful but rewarding labor of love. We can say, then, that t b e Black Experience in the United States continues via the African Continuum: a complex of mythical {see Jahn), linguistic (see Twi ggs), gestural (see Emery, Black Dance), psychological, sexual, musical, physical and religious forms. This complex is evidenced in the day-to-day attitudes and activities of Blacks: their sacred and secular (organized and random) expressions, their physical appearances, their dress patterns and their family life. Not only in the Unite d States, hut in t h e Caribbean, in the West Indies, in Latin America, in all areas of the world where Blacks live in suhstantial nurr1b ers--they exhibit characteristics peculiar to the nature and culture of indigenous Africans. Naturally, general Black expression evolves from tbe myriad components of Black culture ; and t:.1e a.Ttistic (song, poetry) expression--traditional Black {African) 29 1 f I �communities did not separate l ife from art--is a more soph1.sticated for m honed from t he genera l 11 store11ouse. 11 No one has yet put t h eir h ands on exactl~ what moment l~ ti me and where t be first Afrj_can sot1 :~d ::: or ·,;o-._cen o,:ts "'. ·Tero incorporated into '\rhi te 11 or• 1·-: e stern frames of references or vice v ersa; but we do know that it di d bappen . Unfortunately , inept reportin g on t he Black Experienc e bas muddied the waters so much that one is repulsed and borr lfi ed conclusions of some Black and 11h i '· observations and 1-y~r tc ''researchers. 11 In an uni'linchine;l:r bril liant analysis of Black African Oral Literature, presented at t he First World Festival of Negro Arts (1966) in Dakar, Senegal, Ba sile-Juleat Fouda, noting tba.t "oral literature is as old as creation," coined t h e phrase '¼rchival Literature of Gesture." important revelations, Fouda naid: Concluding his "Tlrns in tbe Black Africa of tradition, literary art is an anonymous art be cause it is a social art; it is a social art be caus e it is a functional art; and it is functional because it is humanist." research is not b ounded by color. Good Bln ck socioloBist E. Franklin Frazier (Black Bourceos is) beld(wronc;ly) t hat tbere were no significant carryove rs (cultural tra nspla nts ) from Africa to the United States. (Slavery, Frazi€r said, "stripped" the African of bis culture and "destroyed" l1i s personality. ) White anthropologist :Melville Herskovi ts (Tb e Myth of the Negro Past) proved without a doub t that t h er e were African "survivalisms" operating daily in Black Americans culture. 30 (For more thought �on this see Jahn 1 s :Muntu, 1:lork' s findin gs, memo1-rs of Katherine Dunham, works of Lorenzo Do1.-1 Turner, 1Je 6 ro Fol k Music of Africa and America (Folkways, Lp) and oth ers.) Rudimentary Black expression and t h e numerous folk forms it produced (field h ollers, vendors sh outs, c~ants, worksongs, Spirituals, blues, Gospels, jazz, r hytllm 'n blues, soul music) form the linguistic and modal bases for most Black poetry. The early song and chant forms were almost always accompanied by what we have come to call "dramatic ideo grams"--or dances. Dance became one or the t hree basic artistic modes encapsulated by f'olk expression. Th e other two are Song and Drum. Aside f'rom being the f'ir•st means of communicating over distances, the drum also played a major role in the social lives of traditional African peoples. The career drummer, like the Black American musician today, went throug:-i years of grueling practice and preparation--learning not only drumming techniques but the legends, the r.:1.y tbs, the mean i ng s a nd s ymb ols of which the drum was derivative. Dance alway s accompanied song--Fouda refers to the "acoustical phonetic alphabet"--so that the complex web of oral nuances was illustrated vividly and graphically. Obviously, when teaching or entertaininc; , the artist/teacher had to present his material in int~esting and exciting ways so as not to bore the audience. Thus repeti t:i.on became a backbone of Black expression--a flexi ble, buoyant repetition that was designed to reinforce and increase group participation. The three essential modes--dr~, song and dance--h eightened 31 • • \ J ·;~:_()',, ·.·; ;'_i: \t: :/·:( �the immediate experience, wh ich was ecst a t i c, t h erapeutic, spiritual, visceral and revelatory . Added to t h ese intricate and varying modal patterns were t h e colorful costumes, make-up, props and important sub ject matter. The acb ie vement was not just the vicarious experience but one of t h e act and symbol being actualized together. W'hile sucl1 a prospect boggles the mind, a serious study of these forms and t b e general tradition will prove eye-opening for many a dis believer. Early Black American oral a nd gestural art forms inherited the qualities described t hu s far. In language, in dance, and, more i mportantly, in points of vi ew (attitudes) toward time, life and death , t b e cosmology of Africa "continued" (with some modifications) in the Blac k culture of the Western Hemisphere. Specifically , information was conveyed by way of aphorisms, riddles, parab les, tales, enigmatic dances and sounds (tonal scales). jokes and poetry . Ob lique and cry ptic utterances, puzzles, The pattern rema i ns in t act today • .Jahn's Muntu documents many examples of t h e Africa n "carry overs" and "survivalisms 11 operatine i n t h e Western Hemi sph ere. 1. One can For a brilliant and cogent statement on t h is aspect of Black expression see Samuel Allen's 11 the Jan., 1971, issue of Black World. Tbe African Heritage" in Allen--also known as Paul Vesey--is an acknowledged auth ority on 'b oth African and Afro-American culture. In the article, he finds African ncarryovers" in the Black American church (Baldwi n ), literature (Sterling Brown, Cleaver) and secular life. ' 32 ,' . •. ,; ·~· 1 ,.-: :,.~'.;,(' ; �find the tradition in Black poets, in t he serraons of Black ministers and in famil~r and otber social gatberings. Tbe scintillating Black poet Tolson operates in the old enigmatic (word-fencing) frame when in "An Ex-Judge at t 11e Bar" l1e says: Bartender, make it strai ght and ~ake it twoOne for the you in me and one for the me in you. Tolson (known to carry this Black nature into h is teaching at Langston University where he reportedly 6 ave a student an "Frt to the 20th power) ends the poem wi t C: an equall:r eni gmatic mock: Bartender, make it strai gh t and make it threeOne for the Nec;ro • ,. • one for :rou and me. In the Spirituals (to be discussed) one finds similar debts to the African tradition of Sons, Dance and Dru~. So too in the shouts and hollers where actual African words and phrases were often used. 2 Hence we can say tliat tbe traditional A.frican phonology and ritual, modified on tl1c anvil of slavery, were operatinc and continue to he represented in different forms of Black American expression. The African slave, forced to acquire functional use of English and to reject surface aspects of his religion, went :runder,sround" so to speak and became bi-line;ual and bi-physical. 2. ~ Hence, w}1ile much of the The flne poet Raymond Patterson (26 1-va:,rs of Looking at a Black Man) is currently assembling a book listing several hundred African words that are used daily ln t b e American 33 �thematic material of the Black fol k tradition is taken from the harsh difficulties the slave encountered in America, the form, spirit and pb onology were essentially African. The use of poly-rhythms 3 and th e introducti on of s y ncopation, the reliance on various r hy t hmic ins t run e nts ( drum-related and sometimes invented), the adherence to a no n- European tonal scale and the e mployment of the blue tone, t h e development of a distinct body of folklore and a rich language to convey the lore--all represent t h e Africa n 's resourc efulness. Cross-cultural inputs are also e v i dent, h owe ver, in--for example--the Spirituals which, in man::.r cas e s, were influenced by the English Hymn and t h e Psalm. Oth er considerations in- clude the slave's use of European instruments (Baraka points out, in Black Music, that the piano was t he last instrument to be mastered by t h e Black musician.h Th e reason ought to be obvious.), the Black adaptation of sone;s heard in the "big house," the continual re-sty ling of American fads and the vocabulary. See 11 i blior;raph y for more on t h e little known area of scholarsh ip. 3. Isaac Faggett, a young Black composer-b and director in Sacramento, Calif., b as said t11at t h e word "poly -rhythm11 (i.e., many rhy thms overlapping each otb er) sh ould perb aps be replaced by or alternated with t h e words ITpoly - meter" or "poly-metrics." · 4. Eileen Southern, in T:1e Music of' Blac k Americans, sets forth a thorough and accurate discussion of t b ese points. 34 She �employment of Biblical i ma gery and langua ge i n so ngs and sermons. Langston Hughes noted tba.t t h e Blues usually dealt with the theme of the rejected lover and personal depression. Hughes' .first volume . of poems, in fact, was entitled The Weary Blues. However, the Blues, like the Spirituals, do not simply preach resignation or submissiveness. Rather, as Janh and Howard Thurman (The Negro Spiritual Speaks of Life and Dea.tl1) hote, underneath the complaint is a "plaint": or change! t h ings must get better For as t he slave said: Freedom, oh Freedom, h ow I lo ve t h ee! Freedom, oh Freedom, how I love t h ee! And before I'll be a slave I'll b e buried in my grave And go home to my Maker and be Free! II Black Folk Roots in America: 11 Get it togeth er or leave it alonen --Jackson Fi ve Black poets have been writing in t h e Englis~ literary tradition since the middle of the ei 6h teenth century. But notes with some detail how t h e Africans (made slaves) had to l~arn to use the instruments of t h e New World. Professor Southern also relates bow Black music influenced whites in the early days of America. �. (' • t,· it is the folk literature--tbose productions of the everyday people--which must be examined before a literary or poetic tradition can be v1ewed in its entirety. Tbere are few persons in the United States who have not be en touched or influenced (in one way or anotber) hy the folk expression of Black America. White Americans began collectine Black folk lyrics and stories in the early ~ars of t h e ni neteenth century (see bibliography). In the same century, this aspect of Black culture reached wide audiences via at least three major vehicles. The first ·was the abolitionist movement which featured Black poets (Francis E.W. Harper, James Whitfield, Benjamin Clark, and others), orators and prose writers (David Walker, Frederick Douglass, etc.), and journalists (John Russwurm, etc). Tbe second vehi cl e was t he national and European tours (in the 1870 's) of student choirs from Hampton Institute and Fisk (Tbe J ubile e Singers) University. The abolitionist movement popularized anti-slavery and freedom songs and the colle g e choirs gave wide exposure to the Spirituals, considered by most scholars (of Black culture) to be the first authentic poetry of Black America. Tl-:: e t1 1ird major vehicle was the publication ( in the late ninetec n t 1• cent1.1.ry ) of Brer Rabbit tales by Joel Chandler Harris . In □ tuCios a nd writings, Harris recogn ized tl-Je r,1y thic Ho1,t:, in Blac k fol::tales a,1d exposed Fox, Brer ·.Iolf nnc~ ot 1--::e1•s . Har:::- of t:~esc t ales and characters have African coPnter,art s . 36 �III Spirituals: For many reasons , t 1Jc use of tbc wo r d tr sp irit u al" to describ e Bl ac k r e li c io s i t :,r i s a t,1:ts no~.i er . pretations, ontli ne d b:r n eH j_ ri..f' or :-no.ti on and c;-.,pi rical research into h istory a nd t b ouch t c onvinces world is "spiritual": Curr ent i nter- UG t ~at the entire Black i. e ., i nfor med by and re s ponsi b le to a "higher orde r"--tl, e or c18r of God or t 7"e rr c; od s. tr The ex- huberance, t h e spon tane ity , t he ec s t as~ , th e tr ances, t h e talking in to ncuo::; , tl1e r a cial f la vor and fl air in dress (at church and ni c;htclub ), all po:Ln t u p t '., G interd ependence and the inte gration of v ario u s mod es and poi n ts of v iew in t h e Black communi t::r . Profes s or Wor k d e sc r:l :)es i t a ::., "tl: is di.fference and t b is oneness." Tl1e cont e n1.poro.r~~ Black poet Hayden understands t h is inte c;rati on w'1en , in n poe m to Halcolm X, he exclaims tlrn "blazin c; onen ess II of Alla:: . Furtber proof' of this fusion is seen in t h e e motional a b a ndo nment of church folk during secular picnics, soci a ls a nd otb er e v ents of merriment. One h as only to listen to Areth a Fra nklin alter- nate between Gospel and b lues to see t1: is u n i t :r of expression r.: operating today . ::; And certainl:r i t is clear i n t h e works of 5. Let us ob serve that t h e most brilliant and influential Black poets have intimately und erstood t his as p ect of Black culture. Almost with out exception (and Kerlin, Brown and 37 �the Staples Singers, t l1 e Edwin H8.wkins Singers a nd in a more vulgarized manner in Flip Wilson (ll.ev . Leroy ). o:r one brother, 11 In the words the preacb er a nd t h e pimp sty le out b eavy." Still, it is i mportant t h at we offer t h e traditional portrait and break-down of Black folk expression--so as not to confuse or invade the "sacred" bastions of h istory . The Spirituals have been t h e source of continuing debate among scholars: Are they completely Afr i can i n ori g.in? Are they primarily English 0-Ietb odist, Wesleyan, etc.) in origin? Or do they represent t he co-joining of African/European themes and religiosity? Persons desiring to concentrate on t h is area of Black poetry should trace t I-1e history of t h ese arguments and debates and reach conclusions of t l:ieir own. Johnson (and his brother, J. Rosamond) put to geth er t h e best known collection of these songs in Th e Book of American Negro Spirituals (1925), and The Second Book of AmericaE,-_ He gro Spirituals (1926). The Spirituals usually deal witb physical or f igurative contact between t he singer (or con gr ega t i on ) a nd God. (Early Afro-Americans often used the word s God, Jesus, Savior, and Lord interchangeably. For a more t h orough dj_scussion of this see Benjamin nays' The Negro's God.) The songs also deal witb others warn young Black writers to follow example) Black poets since the Civil vfar have availed t h emselves of inte gral folk rudiments--even when t b ey did not use t h e m in poetry. It is still a fact that Black culture (desp i te t b e racist and tecbno- 38 • ~ * ~ ,, r,, •... ,: ~- ~ ' .~~~~-f �a. longing for rest and tbe overcomine; of for n ida.ble obstacles or adversaries. Professor Work's 1915 stucl:,r was seminal and remains a land mark in the study of African and Black American songs. His work provides many answers to questions and issues that had been (and continue to be) muddied by tlle waters of insensitivity and careless research. His efforts, "undertaken for the love of our fathers' songs, 11 ei ves clear connections between the African and Afro-American folk sons. His main concern is for the religious songs--although his comments on form and style are of general value: In America we hear it (the song) and see it acted in the barn dance, on the stnge, in t11e streets among the children; in fact, many an occasion is enlivened by this sp~cies of ~usic, t h e interest in whicb is intensified b y the r h:r t 1-:i mical patting of hands and f'eet. This rbythn: is mcst strikingly and accurately brougbt out in tbeir work songs. Citing the emotionalism and songified intensity of the Black American, Professor Work says "He worships not so much because he ought, as because he loves to worship. 11 Th is "worship," of course, is the kind we referred to earlier: the integration logical barrages of the West) still rer1ains more consciously 11 integrated 11 than other cultural unit in America. 39 �of sensuality and ecstasy into the sweeping ritual of live and immediate drame. Such musical acti v ity is "as natural to the American Negro as b is breatb 1t: Indeed, it is a portrayal of h is soul, and is as characteristic as are b is phys ical features. him sing in h is church , h ear hi □ Hear preach , n oan, and g ive 'gravery' in b is sermon, b ear t b e washerwoman singing over ber tub , h ear t h e lal)orer singing his accompaninent to h is toil, h ear the child babb ling an ex te:;:poraneons tune ...• Even t h ose 1Te 6 roes w·h o have l· een e du ca t ed and wh o have been inf'luenced by long study , f-i_nd it difficult to express their ::nusical s e l ves in any oth er way. Black song, as is readily ob serva½lc, possesses both pure song (the verse and chorus plan) and ch ant (use of i nterjections and expletives) qualities: Poor man Laz'rus, poor as I, Don't you see? Poor man Laz'rus, poor as I, Don't you see? v-men be died be found a h ome · on b i gh , He had a home in dat rock, Don't you see? Alluding to the deeper, more psychological, meaning of these songs, Professor Work say s "there are closer relations between • 40 ' < �the soul and musical expressions t h an h ave satisfactorily explained. These relations can be felt, but a ny accurate description seems beyond the grasp of man's mind. 11 Never- 'theless this i mportant study goes on to classify and number these songs of': Joy, Sorrow, Sorrow witb Note of Joy, Faith, Hope, Love, Determination, Adoration, Patience, Courage and Humility. Like most scholars of the Spirituals, this one points out that there is no h ate, resentment or vindictiveness in them. However, Dr. Th urman, t h eolo gian and philosopher, has excavated underpinnings of tur bulence. In The Negro Spiritual, Dr. Tburman tells us death was i c mediate and ever-present for the slave. In such an atmosp~ere of anxiety and fear, the slave developed a rath er stoic attitude in which he saw death as inescapable and as, possibly, the only remaining vehicle for mediation witl1 t h e plantation lords. The slave could take his own life, if h e wanted to--a.s he did many times in preference to slavery or separation fro~ family and/or loved ones. Dr. Thurman's brillia nt analysis must be read by any serious student of Black t h ought and culture. Johnson (who also classified the song s) 6 said a hierarchy of poets for the Spirituals included t h e song - maker (writer) and the song-,leader. 6. The leader h ad to reme mber leading lines, Jobnson, Brown, Kerlin and Dr. Th urman also give con- sideration to the "poetic" content of the Spirituals. Johnson and Professor Work discuss the preservation and promotion of 41 �pitch tunes true and possess a powe rful v oice. Joh nson, wh o (like Professor Work) b elie ves t h e earliest Black American songs were built on the common African for m, says the Spirituals were written by individual s and se t to t he moods of groups. Like the blues, t h eir secular and str uctural cousins, the Spirituals incorporated antiph ony or call-and-response wh ich allowed for audience (congre gation) participation (either by alternating, or intermingling , with t h e le ad er): Leader: Oh , de Ribb er of Jorda n i s deep and wide, Congre gation: One mo' r ibb er t o cr oss. Leader: I d on' t k nov-T 110w to ge t on de otber side, Congregatio n : One mo' ri bb er to cross. Heavily influenced by Christian imac;ery and my t h ology, the creators of the Spirituals often ch ose t h e most militant of biblical personalities as t heir h eroes. Th is aspect of these "poems" opens up an e ntire area of questio ns a nd research for the student seeking to compare/contras t b i b lical t h emes and charactors to t he Spirituals. Certainly t h ere is need to ex- amine the English Hymns and Psalms in t he framework of such a study. The S pirituals s h ould als o be compared/contrasted to the Black literary verse of t h e period dur i ng wh ich they these songs t hrough arch i val h oldinr.;s, ch oi r concert tours and the atte ntion paid to them by composers. �were forged--especially t he work of Jupiter Hammon, Phillis Wheatley and George :Moses Horton. IV Folk Seculars: Don wid massa's h ollerin'; Don wid massa•s h olleri n '; Don wid massa•s h ollerin' Roll Jordan roll. We observed that there is a thin line between the Black religious and secular worlds. This is true for many reasons-- some of them stemming fro m t h e African tradition of interrelating all aspects of life. As Joh n TT ' Biti (African Religions and Philosophies), Gabriel Bannerman-Richter and others point out, the African takes his reli gion (h is beliefs) with him where ever he goes. Hany investi gators (Jahn , I1'Biti and others) also remind us that most African languages have no word for religion or art. The two are inseparable. Again the ways of African peoples (see Hphahlele 's m1irlwind) are expressed in nintegrated 11 terms. True, in Black America there is some tension between secular and religious communities--but so often ( and most Blacks understand this well though they don't always admit it) they are the same: on different occasions. wearing different hats Study, again, the case of a Rev. Jesse Jackson or a Rev. Ike or a Rev. Adam Clayton PowellJ We have also observed that r,1any motifs and components of' Black expression are interchangeable. 43 That is, songs and , l �speeches designed for church or other r e li r;lou s activity are often re-cut (modified) for a sec ular-- sc cial affair. are numerous example s of th:i.s pract i ce. There Dur i ng the Civil :q j_ ghts e ra., we i::wu1d s ing I woke up t h is lilO I'Di n ' wi t b my r.d.nd s t a:.red on freedom though we were fully a:ware that ch u r ch f olk were used to singing it this way: I woke up this mormin' with my mind stayed on Jesus Many of Curtis Hayfield's (and t be Impressions') songs rely strongly on the material of song s s u ng i n Black churches. Even Ma:yi'ield 's more recent tunes ( s ee "If There's A Hell Below") carry the Black church flavor--wi t h t heir warnings, admonishments, threats of societal destruct i on, and pleas for love ( see also :r-rarvin Gay's pieces like 11 S ave The Children"). Some works by the Temptations ( "Run Away Child Running Wild 11 ) reflect the historical t h eme of "search ing " found in Black religious songs. 11 This same group's Poppa. Was A Rolling S tone" describes poppa "stealing in the name of the Lord." B. B. King's "Woke Up This Mornin" is a blues treatment of the idea expressed above in the Spiritual: "I Woke Up This Mornin." When heard the old Supremes singing "Stop in the Na me of Love" we were tempted to replace "love" with "God." Often the songs contain exchangeable and interchangeable words such as "Lord" and "Mother"; "Baby II and "God 11 ; ' "Sweet thing II and "Sweet .res us"; . "Captain" and "Maker"; and "God" and "Vian". The reasons for such usages, as we have stated, are deeply enmeshed in the 44 �I mytbos of Blacks. Richard Wrlght 's "Bri gbt and Mor ning Star" (in the Bible, a metaphor for Jesus) becomes the son of old Aunt Sue in the sbort story by that name. T':1e bero of John A. Williams' no vel, Tl-:ie I'Ian Who Cr ied I Am , sa~rs "thank y ou man" to God after a sex act. When we h ear a tune like War's "Slipping into Darkness" ( "when I beard my moth er say") we must understand tl-:e historical si gnifi cance and function of social (therapeutic) art--just as we must understand' the function of the mother-like voice that ad~oni s h es Isaac Hayes to "sbet yo rnouf II in "Sbaf t." 1n1en conservativ e Black Christians complained of Duke Ellington's use of reli c;ious themes in jazz, he .replied "I'm just a ecumenical cat 11 -- meani ne; be avoided fine distinctions in where or to wbom be pla:red. The church has been the training ground (academy, if you will; see Frazier's The :Negro Cburcb in America) for most of the b i g (vocal) names in Black popular music as well as for important orators, race leaders and community business men. Against t he fore going discussion we ca n view the Folk Seculars in their ri ght perspecti ve as a vital part of the rich storehouse of Black folklore. (my own grandmother: Throuc;h songs, aphorisms "You don 1 t 'J elieve fat meat's greasy!" and "If you ain't gon' do nothing c et off the pot!"), fables (see Aesop), jokes (see minstrelsy and the Black comedy tradition), blues and other enduring for ms Blacks capture severe hardships and tribulations, folk wisdom, j oy s and tragedies, and the longings and h opes of Blacks during slavery afterwards. 45 �I I The Seculars, more so than the Spirituals, give important clues to the inner-workings of the common Black mind. And a closer look at the total folk tradition will reveal the structure and principles of folk psychology. It is, after all, back and fo1~ward to these folk materials that researchers will have to go if they are serious ab out delineating the feelings, emotions and thought patterns of Blacks. The Seculars are surer indices to the workings of tbe folk mind because they are not as limited as the Spirituals. Though most Blacks in the United States are aware of and have beard t}1e Spirituals, an even lare;er number have had sustained exposure (directly or indirectly) to the secular vocalizations and gestures of Black culture. Contemporary Black popular music and culture con- tinue to be informed by tbe street and home utterances. An exciting reciprocity allows entertainers to borrow freely from what they hear wbile the folks recorded. 11 run and tell tbatu once it's Some examples of songs, titles and oth er epithets borrowed directly from the people are: New Bag," "Licking Stick" (see 11 James Brown's "Brand hone:,r stick" in McKay's story "Truantn), "Give It Up or Turn It Loose, 11 11 T11e Payback" and "It's Hell"; Harvin Gaye's nu11at's Going On" and "Let's Get it On 11 ; Curtis Hayfield's 17 Superfly !I; tbe ,Tacks on Five's "Get It Together or Leave It Alone"; Flip Hilson's '"I.mat You See is What You Get 11 (and the Dramatics' tune 'hy the same name); Aretha Franklin'3 Knight's 11 11 Respect 11 and "Run and Tell Tbat 11 ; and Jean Mr. Big Stuff"--to name just a few. 46 ~~ ~ ,,.. . . /'tr �As with the Spirituals, wh ites ( primaril:,r abolitionists) were among the first to collect Seculars of whatever type. William Wells Broi·m, the first publisbed Black novelist and playwright, collected "antl-slavery 11 songs. Thomas Wentworth Higginson, writer and a bo litionist wh o led a Black re g iment in the Civil Har, collected song s be 1:eard a rr,ong his men around campfires and during march es. Thou c:)1 primarily con•. cerned with religious songs , he also descrihed srnne of the Properties of g eneral Black song delivery. One of the most important collections of t h ese seculars was put to gether b:t Thomas H. Talley ( of Fisk Universit:,, as was Professor Work). Professor Talley did pioneering work in the identification and class ifica.tion of Negro Fol;-: Rbymes. Describing the philo- sophy, structure and, in so1;1e cases, origin of the songs, the Fisk scholar collected well over JO O examples. Ohter important examp les and discussions of tlle artistic products of folk secular folk life can be found in tr.e works of Huc;hes and Bontemps, Brewer, Spalding, Dodson, C1.rnp r.tan , Brown (Negro Poetry), Ahraha.r:·is (Deep Down in The Jungle) and Bell (The Folk Roots of Contemporary Afro-American Poetr~ ). Bell's 1,-10rk is recent (from the new Broadside Press) and is somewhat vague in perspective as a result of an i mposed ("foreign") construct. Also valuable to an examinatio n of t he Seculars are regional works ( such as Ab rah a :,1s' ) inc ludi nG Dru~1s and Shadows (Georgia and South Carolina), Goldstein's (ed.) Black Life 47 �and Culture in the United States , Lorenzo Dow Turner 1 s work in the Gullah culture, Dorson's Negro Folktales in Hi chigan, and others ( see b ibliography). By far the r,: ost faithful representation of secular or reli Gious folk materials in the written poetry is in the work of Sterlinc Brown (see b is Southern Road, especially Johnson's introduction, and his critical comments in Hegre Poetry). Brown takes exception to Johnson's comment that dialect poetr:r ~~as onl:r two stbps-"humor and pathos "--and ir,1plj_es that Black poets up until his time had be en remiss (or lazy) i□ not de veloping hroader uses and deeponinc; the n ean in.c; of Black life t 1 ·, rou gh tbe use of folk materials. The tradition of "tall" tale-tellinc is, of course, submerged in the American my tbos. So t }1c Blac k narrator found a flexible atmosphere into wbi ch r: e could introduce b is own manner of stor:rtelling and his own tradition of song . As he had done in the Spirituals, he c ained a resourcefulness in the use of langua ge , acquired instruments to accompany tbe song or story, and developed an a½ility to seize upon a good or amenable context in which to tell or sing J1is story; b e also made use of themes and ideas fro m the vast ethni c potpourri of America. the Spirituals. The Seculars greH up side-1.J:r-side with The Spirituals emerged from tbe atte mpt of the slave to web together h is disparate (yet r.mtual) wounds. Spirituals represent t he slave 's perserverence and (in many instances) bis l10pe and faith in mankind. T1-1e Seculars, also �developing in the shadows of the 11 :.·i i g h ouse, 11 reflect the social life of the Black American on the plantation and later. In songs and ditties, the Black American couched his longings and bitternesses, but voiced his bopos and cynicisms through the oblique, eliptical and encoded words and seemingly unintelligible phonetic symbols. These African forms (see Rappin' and Stylin' Out, Kochman) have continued up to the present. Few Black youngste-rs are able to side-step the rigorous (and sometimes painful) verbal desterity demanded by playmates during verb al sparring matches that inevitably take place. The forms of sucb behavior were in tact during slavery--wb en a slave r.1 i gb t b e discussing a. master's "moma" or "old lady" during a rather harmless "rap" (rhapsond? rapport?) with his fellow field workers. Frederick Douglass reports (Narrative) tbat slave over-seers thought slaves sang because the~r were happy. We know tbat such was not the case (se DuBois Souls of Black Folks) and that such refrains as "stealinG away" implied a lot more than wanting to reach the arcs of Jesus on t he cross. similar codes in his stories and poer::s. Henry Duraas chronicles And Viel ·w atkins (Amistad 2) discussed an updated version of at least part of this phonenon in b is article on folk sinGer-bero ,Ja~;.es Brown. Though be is discussing a secular character, Watkins' revelations are similar to Dr. Thurman's: that in the absurd context of b eing owned by someone else, it is not life or death t ~ at loom so importantly. One lives, Ellison suggests (Invisib le Man), tbe day-to-day 49 .' • ~ " I ¼ :, -;•.r. - ' �absurdity in a sort of comic-tragic vi ce. ~atkins says: James Brown's initial acceptance by a 'b lack audience is fixed in this crucial factor. From the moment he slides onto t h e stage, whether unconsciously or intentionally, his gestures, his facial expressions and even the sequenti~l arrancement of his materials are external affir2ations of a s~ared acceptance of t::1e absurd or, n oro iD cenously, of jiving. Tbe i mpecah ly tailored s uit s, 1-11·:d .c:J b e brandishes at the outset, 1)e co~.~e rneard. n:_;less accoutrements as his act pro c;re sses and, sweatj_n; and straining , he s ets c.mm, li teraJ.l: down on 0 t he floor, to wrinG the last drop of emotion from a sons. Watkins is incorrect ab out t h e dress ½e co~ i ~s "meanincless" to a Black audience, but his senernl thesis is o~ target. Elsewhere Watkins, fir :11ly understand:i.n:::; t} ic i;.1portance of verbal agility amonc Blacts, so..:r::3 ":i.t is co n ,;:on to h ear 1')lack women discussinc a ~an 's 'rap' or 1 as tbe:r discuss :l is ba nl:: acconr..t. 11 proc ra~' on t he same level Bla c ks ce~,erally witb1:)old their judeu1ent on (or acc ep tance) of a 3penkcr or entertainer stands t>:o ,-._'(,,.,_._~_-LS""', _•_ i1r;: tl·,::, ;..,1 r 1 .. ..._.. ., • •, c.;;.. !v ·:-: -~ '"' L .l .,_,,, C'11CCC~ l .. .l 1 :"' "•1-· l •. ..,,, 1'"nO't·''· !!,-,,7 ,o•;rl l:ll -- ..... "C:_....... t.A,.1. ... v . .. ... L'\. " l.1 bards.n Roturninc briefly , to our histor ic al assessment, we can now see boF tbe folk strain in Bl8.clc wri tt:en nrt e•rol ved. �. ' . Dey g i '·.) us de J..::.quor, ~ And say dat•s ;;ood enons> for: t h e nisger. to the fear of 11 d0 Cun jaI: Ho. n II ca p tured j_ n rrGullo.b II b y Campbell in the latter part of t he 190O•s, De Cunjab man, de Cu,15a1:1 ii1 a_n, O c h illen run, de Cun j a h man! the decepti vel:r 11 si np le II enrlo:rc ent of fol k ex pressions have prevailed as an i □ rortant antidote for the social maladies inherited by Blac ks in t he Wes ter n Hem is plie re. :nan" is, of course, equivalent to the in the nigb t II 11 t1-1in13s tbat g o b u mpinc in Ireland--and tl''ns }ms ti es to g eneral folk supe1~sti tions and nytholo 6 y. man 11 '1De Cunjah But t be re was also tl-1e "huggah- (Dunhar 's "Little Broun Baby"), t h e "ra:::r, ;:-,a n ", "pee;-leg, " "raw-head at:d bloody bones" and (in places like Trinidad) the "obeah ma.n. 11 Most of these supernatural ch aracters are throw backs to various African reli g ious and ritual practices. Of the new generation of poets, Is11mael l"tG e d (Catecbism of a neoamerican hoodoo church) is the inno·:ator in t h e use of' supernatural the mes and vocab ulary. The theme of tho 2nd Annual Jobn Henr:r i'fomorial Authentic Blues and Gospel Jub ilee (b eld in Cliff Top, 1:J. Va., in August and September of 1974) was "Tryin' to Get JT ome. 11 How stea.d- f'astly the folk tradition runs like a v ein t h rour;h Black history. In the Seculars (and the Spirituals) we repeatedly h ear something similar to the last stanza of 51 11 Raj_ nbow Roun Mah Sboulder": �I' r,1 gonna 1:Jreak ri ;:;l1t, b reak ri ::)1 t pas t :rn.t s h ooter, I' m g oin 1:~ ome, Lawd, I' m ::;oin ho1;1e. Again tbe use of the ·work "Lawd" in a "secular" song further bears out the communal inte 6 ration of t h e folk expression. My own sisters often interject or exclaim "Lord" or "Lawd" in everyday discussions about life. It is next to impossible to list all ( or eacl, type) of the Seculars. We have mentioned Professor Talley's ~ioneering efforts at classifying t h e m. But ma ny ob stacles lay in the way of recorders of secular folk lj_fe. of censnreship of language. One prob lem was that Such censuring :narked all types of Black creativity, fro m tbe slav e narrati ves to reli g ious songs. Hence the more "protesting " aspects of t}1e works were deleted as Here 11 offensive words." Anyone w1, o 11as h eard "authentic II Black folk songs knows t b at t 71e:r reflect the convergence of madness, absurdity and h ope i n tl,e Black body. Subsequently what are kno".·m as ttcurse" or "ob scene II words are sprinkled tbrougbout much of the "secular" lore. Brown dis- cusses the "realj_sm" in t lrn folk r h y mes alone with an attempt to slassify at least some of t h em ("fiddle-sin e;s," "corn-songs," "jig-tunes, 11 "upstart crows"): Ballads, Ballads: Ne c;ro Heroes, John Henry (folkified in sone; ), Uor k S oDcs, Tb e Blues, Irony and Protest. Irony and protest, of course, run t h rou ~1 Black folk and literary poetry fro m tbe earliest days (W1i tfield, Harper, . anti-slavery songs) to the r.·1 0s t rec e nt times ( Josh Wbi te, 52 ., , ,. �Leon Thomas, Don L. Lee, Joh n Ech ols, Joh~1n:r Scott). Some observers have pointed to t h e silli ness of ma ny researchers who, white as ever, appeared i n perso n to as k Black folk song writers arrl singers if t b ey endorsed "protest,,: t b en went away satisfied with a "no" answer. Gi ve n t h e nature and history of race r elations one can und e rstand t he reluctance on the parts of Blacks to tell wb ites t h e truth a.bout "anything 11 let alone ab out such a sensitive are a as "protest." Yet in the dog-eat-do g world of surv ival, the fol k person knows that "If h e dies, I'll eat h is co 1 n; An' if he lives, I'll ride ' im on. 11 In summary we can say t h at u nli ke oth er etb nic i mmigrant groups ( the Afro-American was not a willing i mmi grant!), the Black American did not simply transplant h is stories--keeping them in their exact same for m. He fou nd American or European language counterparts for his t h e mes a nd v ocabularies. But his phonology, style and spirit were informed by tbe African tradition. The student of Black fol k poetry will want to compare and contrast t h e Seculars to oth er eth nic stories and songs. Boasting or "lyi ng ," for example, is one ingredient of' the '1tall 11 tale. . 11 Shine, 11 . How does t h e Black s onG or story (i.e., nsi gnifying Eonkey," etc.) fit this motif? 11 Dole,:li te, 11 nFrankie and Johnnie," How does it co nceal deeper meanings on the issues of slavery, inbuman wor k condl tions, or contradictions in Christianity ? ".-f oat are the si milarities between the Seculars and the Spirituals? 53 Bet1.•reen t h e Seculars and '' �the literary poetry? These and oth er que stio ns (on Black heroes, cultural motifs, blues the mes, langu a ge and endurance) will lead one through exciting corridors of Black folk creativity and thought. V SPIRITUALS GO DOWN, HOSES Go donw, Moses, Way down in Egyptland Tell old Pharaoh To let my people g o. 1,-Jhen Israel was in Egyptland Let my people go Oppressed so hard they could not stand Let my people go. Go down, Moses, Way down in Egyptland Tell old Pharaoh "Let my people go. 11 "Thus sai tb the Lord, r, bold I1o ses said, "Let my people: If not I'll smite ~our first- b orn dead 'Let my people go." 54 �11 :No more shall t hey in 1) ondag e toj_l, Let my people g o; Let them come out with Egypt's s poil, Let my people go ," The Lord told Moses what to do Let my people g o; To lead the children of Israel thro ugh , Let m:r people g o. Go dm·m, Hos e s, Way dmm in Egyp tland, Tell old Ph araoh , "Let r.1:y peo ple g o! 11 S IJ-i. VImY CHAI IT Slavery chain done broke at las t, b r oke a t last, broke at last, Slavery ch ain done broke at l as t, Going to praise God till I di e . Way down in-a dat valley, Praying on my knees; Told God a b out my troubles, And to help me of-a He please. I did tell h im how I suffer, In de dungeon and d e ch ain, And de day s I went with h ead b owed down, And my broken flesh and pain. 55 �SPIRITUALS (cont'd) Slavery chain done broke at last, broke at last, broke at last, Slavery chain done broke at last, Going to praise God till I die. I did know my .Jesus heard me, 'Cause de spirit spoke to me, And said, "Rise my child, your chillun, And you too shall be free. "I done 'p'int one mi eh ty captain For to marshall all my hosts, And to bring my bleeding ones to me, And not one shall b e lost." Slavery chain done broke at last, broke at last, broke at last, Slavery chain done broke at last, Going to praise God till I die. NO HORE AUCTION BLOCK No more auction block for me, No more, no more, No more auction block for me, Many thousand gone. No more peck of corn for me, No more, no more, 56 �SPIRITUALS (cont'd) No more peck of corn for me, Many thousand gone. No more pint of salt for me, No more, no more, No more pint of salt for me, Many thousand gone. No more driver's lash for me, No more, no more, No more driver's lash for ~IB , Many thousand gone. SHOUT ALONG, CIIILLEN Shout along, chillen! Shout along, chillen! Hear the dying Lamb: Ob! take your nets and fol loii me For I died for you upon the tree! Shout along, chillen! Shout along, chillen! Hear the dying Lamb! SWING LOH, SHEET CHARIOT Swing low, sweet chariot, Coming for to carry me home, Swing low, sweet chariot, Coming for to carry me home. �SPIRITUALS (cont' d ) I looked over Jordan and what d i d I see Coming for to carry me home, A band of aneels, coming after me, Coming for to carry me home. If you get there before I do, Coming for to carry me h ome, Tell all my friends I'm coming too, Coming for to carry me h ome. Swing low, sweet ch ariot, Coming for to carry me h ome, Swing low, sweet ch ariot, Coming for to carry me borne. STEAL AWAY Steal away, steal away, steal away to Jesus, Steal away, steal away bome, I ain't got long to stay here. My Lord, He calls me, He calls me by the t hunder, The trumpet sounds within-a m;y soul, I ain't got long to stay here. Steal away, steal away, steal away to Jesus, Steal away, steal away home, I ain't got long to stay h ere. 58 ' ./,1 ~ .~/-1;':""''' �\ C::ii,\PTrn VI FESTIVALS & FUNE10\LS: JJLJ\CK POETRY OF THE 1960s & 1970s They winged his spirit & \1ounde<l his ton gue but death was slow coning Who killed Lurnumba What kill ed Halcolm festivals & funerals festivils & funerals festivals & funerals & festivals & funepal s .,...... Overview: ---- Jayne Cortez The space between festivals and fun e rals can be infinite or ·it . Gau ·be deathly short. her poem. an<l trl J So Jayne Cortez say s throu gh th e twistings anJ turriings .in But whatever the spnce, or the pace, we all s llp, s lide, .soa r; _ as we make our way between th e polarities (assl Gncd ca.ch at ·.birtii) of life we live and the kind of deatl1 we die. 1970s often faces life and death "stra i gh t up": Black poetry of th ~ 1960s and though, ns we have seen, Black poets in other times did not cringe from the breaches of racial ni8htmares, violence, sexuality, unbeautiful lan ~ua ge , wicked or reli g ious folkism.s\ and . th e demands of music which each of them seemed to hen r--albeit from "differ en t drununers. 11 To attempt a discussion of contemporary Black poetry is to turn ·ochers' ton gues into · flames: "blasphemy !, 11 "I was the first!," \ �_JIWe started it!," "That anthology was incomplete since it didn't include me!," "It all started in this place or that place!," "llis/her poetry is not Black enough!," and so on. Nevertheless, the "smoke" from the sixties is beginning · to . clear and, while more htngsight is n~eJed, there are important observations that should be made. Hence in this. chapter, the format will follow preceding ones-- with a noticeable de-emphasis in bio graphical-critical notes on individual poets. Most serious poets who began writing in the late fifties, sixties and seventies, still have much growin g and threshin g to do. volumes really contain earlier poetry. i\lso many recent So it is not easy to evaluate .(or .· even list) Black poetry pro~uced over this period. Yei, historically spe~kihg , certain undeniable trends have occurred, and they i~ok ro ughly like .this~ Black Poetry since the llarlem Renaissance (see Brown, Redding, Henderson, Jackson) has had cycling currents of "ra ge and . "fire" thou gh not the sustained gush witnessed in the mid and l ate sixties; Black poetry after 1945 e~pressed a belief (see Ray Durem) th0t white liberals were not really interested in mounting the · "final" chariots of fire on bcbalf .of l3lacks (despite .CommunistSocialist pronouncements); Black poetry of the 195Os and early 196Os provided a Civil Ri ghts groundswell for the volcanic burst of the later sixties; In Black poetry of the early sixties there was planted the anvil which shaped the stylistic, attitudinal and lin guisti_c character �of what is known as the N~w Black Poetry; Current Black poetry, despite "evolutions" and "chan ges," has not radically altered or laid to rest the best work of Hu gh e$, Johnson (both), Davis, Too.m er, Walker, Hayden, Brooks, Tolson and nodscin: E;-:cept for what Stephen Henderson calls "tentative" i1nswers, Black poetry defies all definitions (like Hari Evc1ns's "Black Woman")--splintering off into ennumberble directions, styles, forms, themes, considerations and ideas. This chapter, all above considered ( ! ) will. briefly sketch the of poetry from the fifties into the mid-sixties. continuity · Again, chronoJ ,03y will be , related since many of the poets listed were writing in the forties · and fifties; but most did not receive attention until the sixties. ~ The sketch will include general look at transitional poets (older and youn ger) as thelc vork ·appears primarily in about a half dozen anthologies (from I Saw llow Black .1 Was, 19.58, to l(alei<loscope, 1967) and what · few volumes were being brought out _at the time. From this juncture, the examination (see Locke's and Bontemp~'s division of the Renaissance) takes up the poets ·who came to reco~nition . under the banner of the Dlack Arts Movement and _who loosly fall into the cate gory of New Black Poetry. Older poets--l~ydcn, Biociks, Randall, Walker, and others--will be briefly re-visited to see if tln2 "new" mood wrought any significant change:::; in . their views and/or their poetry. Though also a critical history, this book is primarily a historical guide--designed to aid students, teachers, and lay readers in their explotation of Black poetry. Only a naive person .. •.' �( \~ould att empt, at this stage, a full critique of the poetry of the 196Os and 197Os. However, there are stylistic patterns, similarities, and thematic clusters which will be pinpointed and assessed from time to time. Some of the most provocative of recent studies of contemporary Black poetry are Henderson's Th e .Milit a nt !Hack l·l riter in J\frica and th e United States (19.69, · with Mercer Cook); Joy Flasch'~ Melvin Tolson (1972); and Understanding the New Black Poetry (1973); Shirley Williams' s Give Birth to Bri 0 htness (1972); Gibson's Modern Modern Black Poets (1973) and Jackson's and Rubin's Black Poetry in America (1974) (also see bibliography). Literary and Social Landscape~ Assassinations, hi gh political corruption, uph eava l, violence, chan ~e, persistent ideologjes, flaming rhetoric --- are terms used to des i ribe th~ contemporary period. Revolutions (of all kinds) mock and mol~ th6 world. From Cuba to Vietnam, Harle., to Chile, Pakistan to Watts, Nigeria to Indonesia, Kenya to Berkeley, Jackson State to Kent State--tl1e faits rind symbols of change have been dramatic and violent. Meanwhile in the Black sph e re, Be Hop was declining (by the mid~fifties) and Jazz's greatest living interpreter, Charlie Parker, was dead .. Nusiciaris and v~calists began probing new forms ·u~d~r the leadership of Miles Davis, : John Coltrane, the Modern Jazz Quartet, Wes Montgomery, Duke Ellington, Ray Charles, Count Basie, Ornett~ Coleman, Billy Eckstine, Sarah Vaughn, Ella Fitzgerald and Billie Holiday, who died in 1959. Miss lloliday's name and fame · a8ain reached a worldwide audience when, in 1972, Diana Ross, form e rly of the Supremes, starred in the controversial movie, Lady Sings the Blues. Saxophonist Coltrane, a major influence on the current generation o f musici.a ns and poets, died in 1967. An innovator, he sparked new interest in music with �( his "sh e ets of sound" approach 'to playing, influencing poets as well as musicians. The Fifties also witnessed the maturation of Rhythm and Blues, popularized primarily by Black radio disc jockeys who developed lar ge foilowi.ngs. Inter- weaving with .l.ively Illack · social news and cor.imentaries with the news, t)iey • anticipated the new ora'i poetry of the Sixties. Spin-offs from these broacl- castjn g styles were programs like Bandstand (starteJ in tl1e late Fifties). Young white America w.1tch, d Blncks dance, listened to Little Richnrcl ,:mJ Chubby Checker, and trieJ to i111itate it all on TV and in their homes. This period eave birth to the first white superstar Soul artls t~~ Elv~s Presl :Y, . . . . . Black c ritics and soc:i.al h:i.storians note that the new Black s ot L1l rnus ic, an<l the dances accomp;:inying it, freed \lhite Arneric..11~ youn i:, sters frt,l!l the . prudish and self-righteous inhibitions of their foreparents. Generally, American science and industry developed more ·r011i<lly thnn in previous periods. Russia launcl1ed Sputnick, a feat which was followed by funerican-Russian science and space-exploration race wl1ich still continu e s. Tel~star paved the way for televised coverage of global activiti e s . while biochemical warfare and atomic research became the nightmares people lived daily. The funerican literary scene was swamped with ,political nov~ls, satire, writings on the war and experimental j c:) Urnalistic prose. The "underground" newspaper emerged as a majo'r vehic.l .e for this new writing. The symbolism an<l . (, psychology, employed in e arlier writings, is still present. llowever, the influence of the writers • rom the Depression and wnr years is . r,ivin .-:; way to gadnetry and a new wave of existential concern. Black, J ewish, Cl1icnno, Indian and Asian writers are grabbin g more of the literary sta ge. �Contemporary white and third world writer s of influenc e include: John Cheever, N. Scott Hornaday, Ralph Ellison, Bernar<l Malamud, Frank Chin, John llersey, Saul Bellow, Norman Hailer, Chiua Achebe, Ernest Gaines, James Baldwin, Paul Chan, Flannery O'Connor, Albert Murray, Ishmael Reed, _William Styron, James . Ng ug i, William Demby, Shawn Usu Wong, John Barth, William ~elv in Kelley, a nd Irvin Walla ce . Black writers are inclu<le<l in the ge ne r a l listing - bec a use during tl1e cont emporary period, many of them achieve<l recognition on par with the best \ITiters everywhere. (Reed, for example, wa s nominated in two categories for The National Book Award in 1974.) temporary poets are: Some import a nt con- Sumley Kunltz, Cyn Zarco, RobC'rt llayde_n 1 JUc hard . . . Eberhart,. Robert Penn Warren, Jose Montoya, Gwendolyn Brooks, Lmvson Ina<la,. Theodore Raethke, Karl Shapiro, Robert Vargas, Helvin ;l'ols on, Johi1 Berrymin, · Henry Dumas, Victor llernandez Cruz, Robert Lowell, Daniel Halpern, Richard Wilbur, Paul Vesey, James Dickey, Imamu Bar aka, Sylvia Plath, · 1{.illiam Be :1.1 . . and James Wright. Hayden receive<l a National Book Award nomi nat: lon. . fn .1972. Many of the Black prose writers and poets (some from the pre- and post-,iar schools) died during the contem~orary period (Tolson, Bontemps, Hu ghe s, Wright, Durem, Dumas, DuBois, Horne, Rivers, Toomer, Malcolm X, etc.). Ind eed de_ath, in one way or another, not only pr e occu~ied writers (white and n1ack), but was often romantically pursued. Beat po e t Kenneth Rexroth asked 30 American poets committed suici<le .·since 1900?" 11 \~hy have· Those poets not concernec.1 with death were investiga ting deca de nce or the cleuthn ess of society. The development of contemporary poetry cannot be vi ewed properly without . unclerstanding the 11 Beat 11 period. As a partial product of th e .Be Bop era in Black music, Beat poets emulated tl1e hip mann e risms a nd aped the "man alone" (drop-out ) image) associated with musicians. Be ilop 1,as one ..,,ay th e Blackman used to fi ght the commercialization of his are. He also .used it in playing �( 11 Sometl1ing, 11 in the words of Thclonious Honk, "they can't play." meaning whites). (Thev, Important among Beat poets were Lawrence Ferhlinghetti, Rexroth, Allan Ginsberg, and Gregory Corso, among the whitc,s; and Bob Kaufman, Leroi Jones and Ted Joans among the Blacks. Ano tl1 ei a~ack po~t writing at the -time and loosely aligned with the Beat image was Russell Atkins who founded Fr e elance -in 1950. The Beat Movement, which nurtured occultism, rejection of the Establishment and an existential view of life, was centered in Ne\1 York ' s Greenwich Vill.'.lge and the San Frnncisco nay area . The movement died in the early Sixties . Knufman is viewed by many as the unsung patriarch of tlie·. .!3eatern. . . . . . . . . Black critics say major white poets of the movement enti1usia~tically t ook their cues from Knufinan 's innovations, but were not so passionat~ in re- . cognizing 11is influence. his two volumes: Sardine (1967). Ka ufman's poetry is found in anthologies and in Solitudes Crowded with Loneliness (1965) an<l ,. Go'J.den As a kind of spiritual heir to Toomer, Kaur'man is .a·complex , sometimes fragmented, but brilliantly orir,inal poet. llis work, like thrit of mpny of his cont emporaries , is influence by Eastern religious thought and the occult. Stylistically, Kaufman has the "swe~p" of \vhitman coup·le<l w~tl1 the best techniques of modern poetry. ne pclssionately experime11ts wlth jazz' rhythms in poetry and often invokes jazz themes, moods and musicians; Many Beat poets and enthusiast~ l~ter joined or were spawned by the Civil Rights struggle wl1ich' was intensified by several things : Martin Luther King's Montgomery bus boycott in 1955-56; sit-lns and otl1er dramatizations of segregation and discr~nination; the challenges of Jim Crow in travel in 1961 (CO RE); the widening activities in SNCC (1961-64) and the March on Washington (19 63) . Other significant activities enflamcJ and �. inspir e d the hearts and imagination of Black Ame ric a n youth especially. The Nuslims' (Nation of Islam) growth to 50,000 members by 1963 and the Congressional action on Civil Ri ghts Legislatio n were two seemingly unrelated but strategically important eve nts. The growing in f l~ e nc e ~f the Huslims su gge sted t ha t ·many Blacks no lon ger believed America was sincere in its pled ges t o i mplement even when th ey became law. Abetting their distrust were the continued killings, night-ridings in the south and harrassment of Blacks in public places and their humes. 1./ith the bitter taste of Emmitt Till's murder still on their tongues, Blacks reeled under the killings of Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner, Malc ol m X, Me dgar Evers, Kini , the Kennedy brothers, and the three Black Pa nthe r s ( c ~~ned down by police in their sleep in a Chicago apartment). • lly 1966, - llciwev1=r, ]Hack Power signs and slogans began to replace the "He shall ove rcome-l.llack and \Jhite Together" exclamations. Young l.lL:ick America,· adornin g Afro hairdos and African jewelry, attended cultural festivals, ba cf~to~ Africa rallies, poetry readings, and began readin g con~unity news published in r~volutionary broadsides and tabloids. Rhetorical forays by JI. Rap Brown and Stokely Carmichael, youn g SNCC officers, set off a flurry .of state and national laws against incitinri to riot and the transp6rtation of w&apons across state boundaries. ·Lar g~ and small citi e s ignited in flam e s that set the stage for gun ba t t _l:es between police nnd the often "imagined" snipers. These i.:onfla ['._ 1~a tions were rep e ated in scor e s of cities after Dr. King was assassinated in 1968. \./atts po e t Quincy Troup e captured the sho c k and horror, and chronicled the official r eaction, in his po e m "White We e kenu": �The deployed military troops surrounded th e Hhite !louse and on the steps of the Senate bi.iildinr?; a soldier behind a 1:inchine gun 32,000 in Wnshington & Chicago 1,900 in Baltimore ~~ryland 76 cities in.flames on the landscape and the bearer of peace still lying in Atlanta ... In . th e last stanza, Troupe notes with curdlinr, irony :_. Lamentations ! Lnmentations! Lament0tions ! Worldwide ! But in New York , on \lall Street the stock market went up 18 points At this writing , fallout from the Black Revolution reverberate s ·. ar.o und · th e. globe . Black journalist Thomas Johnston reports Irish revolutionaries . sinr, "hie Shall Overcome." Posters and emblems commercialize every!=hing· from African l1airstyles to the raised clenched fist--the initial si~bol ~f Black unity and defiance . A wave of lllack movies--calleJ Blaxploitation-~ beginninr: with "white " experimental flick s like Putney Swope (1969) is capturing a multi~nillion dollar theat er patronage. Dlack movies retrieved the cripple d movie industry from th e brink of disaster . Heanwhile, the murder, incarceration and political ha rrassr,ient of Black men and \vomen made them heroes and heroines in Blacl~ conununlties--yet ironicnl] y symbolized the ton ent aml Hhat some nJac:k journalists called the " ~enocidal schemes" of Amer lea (sec Samuel Yette ' s The Choice) . �( Crlss-crossed by paradoxes, poli ti ca l contradictions, social revolts and relig ious and amb ivalenc es , the Black comlilunity is nevertheless regenerated by its singers and performers. Black popular mus ic . l1as not only r ea ch ed unpr e cedented audiences, but unprecedented money-making capabilities. Rhythm and Dlues , ·said to have uied abo ut 1965, gave way to "S ou l "I Im a -S ou l Man," Sam and Dave announced in the l a t e Sixties. 11 -- The Impressions t old lovers that you " go tt a have soul" and Bobby Womack reminded listeners that th e "Woman's Cotta Have it"--pr es ur.iably "Soul." DL:ick recording cornpanies are in a boon, the two largest ones being No Town ( De troit) and \fotts-Sta~ . (Memphi s ). The current peri?d has also seen th e . npp c aranc c . . . . of t!t ~_ Black super s t ar--often called "sup e r Nigger"--in everyt hing tram sports t o .i110vles. · · Curtis }~yfield's soundtrack album Superfly (1972) sold more than 22,000~000 copies and Marvin Gay' s lfoat 's Going On (1971) set records for i.l_lbum sales. · Recently, however, Stevie Wonder has surpassed th em all. Lit eral l y dozens of singing groups--modeled on the quartets and ensembles of th e Flfti_e s -'-are rel eas lng a lbums regularly. These folk or "soul" poets hav e become .· more · "conscious" in r e cent years· and many now imbibe th e ir songs with pol_i tic a l messages and exaltations of Blackness. Much of this new wave came on the heels of severe criticism by Barake who n-q monished the singers for doting on unrequited love. Too ma ny a re preocc(1pied with "my baby's gone, gone " themes, he said. Bl ack consciousn e ss activity-~and creativity in gene ral--now flourishes .. Related involvement includes: development of Bl ack acting ensembles; opening of free scho ols and Black universiti es ; establishment of Black Na tionalist/ cultural communes; increase in the number of Black bookstores and African boutiques; establis~nent of Black Studi~s pro grams on white and Black �( _c ampuses and, in some cases, quota systems for enrolling Black students; the escalation of Black demand for "cream of the crop" jobs such as tv announcing and the hosting of variety shows; expa nslon and creat ion of new roles for Black newspapers, magazines and radio stations; for.ma.t;ion of national and state Hlack C6n~ressional caucuses and similar units in most professional associatio~s 1n<l, finally and importantl y , n ew engagement with Africa and her problem s and possibilities . Ind eed, future trips to Africa-- to the "Mother country1 ' or "Homeland"--are discuss ed at all age and social levels . Much of this r enewed inter es t is und erstand able in light of the emergenc e durin i the contemporary period of several African ·na tion s tat es ·. . . .· .. ' .. and the increased fraternization among Africans and Afro-Americans . Mn1co lm ·x , cannonized today by grent n umbers of young Black~ ~~d Biack int ell ~c tDnl ~ , did much to foster this current intere st in Africa . Shot to de a th at a rally in Harlem in 1965, Malco l m (El Hajj Halik El Shabazz) ho.cl ·already .been . . .. . ' expelled from the Nation of Islam, and had formed a splinter ~ro uµ kriown as the Or ga nization of Afro- American Unity . His Autobiography of Nalcolm X (wit,h Alex Haley, 1965), which (as he predicted) he did not ge t to·. see in print, chronicles his odyssey as Malcolm Little, . hustler "Detroit Red,'' Nalcolm X, and El -Hajj Malik El Shabazz: Nalcolm w;1s lionlz ed .by Carmichuel,- H. R·a p Brown, Ossie Davis, Darnka and various other shcolars, act .l vists and artists . Black poets , especially, have found Malco lm (and Coltrnn e) a limitl ess source of inspi'"n'tion . can b e seen in For Malc olm : A partinl indic at ion of his i mp;__i ct on poets . Poems on the Life and Dea th of Malcolm X (1967), edited by Dudley Randnll and Margnret G. Burrou ghs . Shabazz " Robert Hayden not ed tlwt: In "El-H njj Mal ik El �lie X' d his name , became his people:' s anger, exhorted them to vengence for the{r past; rebuked, admonished them , The ir scour t er who would shame· them; drive them from the lush ice gardens of their servitude. At the First World Festival of Negro Arts, held in Dakar, Senegal, in 1966, Hayden was awar-ded the Grand Prize for Poetry. A major event, the festival was attended by experts , scholars , artists and enthusiasts of the Dlack Arts who gathered for 24 days to hear papers and discussions , view art exhibits . . ~ . . .. . and cultural performances, and give prel~nanary direttion to the lilack Arts Movement . ' ' ' . . Presiding over the festival was Leopold Sedar Senghor, Senegalese Pr esident , and one of the architects (with Aim~ Cesaire anJ l~cm Damas) of . lfor,ritude . . . '• Negritude is a philosophy of Illack Humanism which cnsco-n ces; according to its originators , tl1e Black mystique or religiosity . The term gr ew put of the associations of nlacl<. African intellectuals , French· .writers and a r tists , and Illack funcrican expatriates . African-ori ented publi~ations such as Presence Africaine and Black Orplicus have renewed their interests i n Bl~ck American writers . Likewise, · Black American journals nncl popular magazines (Black lforld , Journal of Black Poetry, The Black Scholar, Essence , Encore , Ebony, Jet , etc.) have beguu· to p ublish more materials by and about Africans . The revolution in the Black Arts was signaled by many events including t he First Conference of Neg r o Writers in March of 1959 . Langston Hughes was an important figure there--as he was at the Dakar gatl1ering seven years later. The First American Festival of Negro Art was held in 1905 .a d the Second AFNA �· took pl.:..tce in November of 1969 in Buffalo, N. Y.· Int e rlacing these and other conferences, syrnposi.1 and conventions, we re e xc iting dev e lopments and experiments in New York, Chicago , \Jatts, Philadelphia , Atl a ntn, Bnton Rou ge , St . Louis, Cleveland, Detroit and ~Ja shing ton, D. C. Durin ~ these peri ods if social turmoil and artistic upsur ge writers . . . and poer.s often align e d themselves with ideological positions and r eg ional movements . Consequently, Black Arts communes and re gional brands of Black consciousness grew concurrently . and Black Nationalists wer Splits between older Civil Ri ghts workers paralleled by splits between older writers and younger practioners of "Black Arts . " The splits we r e not alw::iys c lear-c_u.t, . . . however , for many older activists and poets joined the new mood i i ;pirit, thematic concern and pe rsonal life style, while some o·f · th e youn r;e t~ wi:lte.rs retained the influence of the earlier moods . Complic.1tin~ thin gs even more were the variants on the domanant themes of each camp. Gwendo:j.yn Brooks., . . . Dudley Randall, Har ~aret Danner, Nar:;aret \Jalker an<l John Oliv er Kill ens are among the older group of writer s who vigorously took up the ba \1ner of the n ev.; mood. Younger writers whose works imbibe some "tradition 11 ·. include Henry Dumas (Poetry For Hy People, 1970 and Play Ebony Play lVl)ry , ·1974) ~ Conrad Kent Rivers (Th e Still Voice of llarlem, 1963, etc.), Julia Fields (Poe~1s, 1968), Al Young (Dancing , 1 96 9, etc.), and Jay \fri ght ( 'l'hc Home coming Singer, 1972) to nnme just a few. Th6 :creativc promise of this period was dealt a severe blow by the 'u ntimel y deaths of Dumas and Rivers in 1963. These poets are deeply influenced by the moods and preoccupations of the period (self-love, racial injustic e , violence, war, Bla c k Cons ciousness and History) but they wor' alo!1 g t e st e d lines and ex pe rime nt within careful and thou ght-out frames of references . ~ - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - -- - - - Most of the writ e r s of the pe riod �(th ei r styles and ideolo gi es notwitl1 s tandin g ) hnve found the mselves eng ulf ed at one tir.1e or another in ·ieated debates over questions rel_a ted to the "Black Aesthetic," the relationship of writer to reader, Bla ck vs white audiences, and the part po litic s should play in their life and work: · At this writing ,_ these disc ussions continu e in most s e ctions of the :Clack World. The flurry of ideological anJ aesthetical debate amo ng the poets (and otl1er writers) has often been precipit a ted or attend ed by critical writings, historical sutdies, social essays and public political statements . Some of th e individuals associated with initiating the plethora of rhetoric on the question of a "Black" a e_s thetic (and related · i ssues )_ a r i:; Ron. Karenga·, · Gwendolyn Brooks, Bar aka, Addison Gayle, Jr., Ho y t W. Fuller (Bl ack lvorld), Edward Spriggs, J. Saunders Redding , Ralph Ellison, Larry Neal, Ernest Kaiser, Mel Watkins, Ron Welburn, Dudley Randall, Le rone Bennett, J_r ., Nathan Scott, James Emanuel, Toni Cade-Bambara, John Henrik Clarke, Don L . . Lee, Ed Bullins, and Stanley Crouch. A number of important studies, . literary and cultural, by Black and white writers, aided in whetting or prolongin3 the critical thirsts. are: Some of the important and/or controversial \-i~iting s The Militant Black 11r iter: in Africa and th e Unit ed States (1969); Cook and Henderson; Black Expression (1969) and The Black Aesthetic (1971) · Gayle Jr., ed,; Nun tu: Literntur c : The New African ·c ulture (1961) and Neo-African A History of Black \fritin g (1968), Jahn; Lnnr;ston Hughes : Black Genius (1971), O' Daniel, ed.; Rlack Poets of the United States: Paul Lawrenc e Dunbar to Langston llu ghes (1963, French edition; 1973 Enclish trans., Douglas), Wa gner; Before the }~yflowe r (1962), Bennett , Jr.; Shadow and Act (1966, Ellison; Understandin g ~he New Black Poetry (1973), llenderson; Colloquim on Negro Art: First \forl<l Festival of Nep,ro Arts, 1966 (1968), ~ - ~ - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - �f.<liUon s Presence Africaine; The Ne ~ro Novel in America (1965), Bone; ?-!other is Cold: A Study in West African Literature (1971), Rosco e ; The Crisis of the Ne~ro Intellectual (1967), Cruse; Native Song: A Critical Study of Twentieth-Century Negro ~Jerican Authors (1 968), Ma r golies ; Dynamite Voic e s : Bl ac k Poets of th C! 1960 ' s, vol. I (1971), Lee; Blues People (1963) , !Hack h us ic (1967), llome: Social Essnys (1966), and l~ni s e ]face Rays ltnze (1971), 13araka; c.rnJ Give Dirth to Bri <; htn c s s (1972), Williams. A nwnber of 13lack critics, artists, and activists heatedly de- nounce ,,hites who research or criticize )Hack literature, saying that only those who have lived the Black Experience can writ_e about it:".. An o th e r · group holds that whites can report on Black writing if t l1ey ar~ sincere and syrnpathetic. The Black Arts Move1:1ent , as the contemporary period is sometimes called, took place in the shadows of what many Black social critics h~~e ~allec.l thi "second lteconstruction." Hence, much of the writing is a revolt a Gainst political hypocrisy and social alienation. In the angriest poetry~ authors .show~red disdain and obscenities on the "system" and whites in gen e ral. Refusing "integration" even if offered, younger poets derided Americ_an va_lues and attitudes. "Unlike the Harlem group," llayJen noted, "they rejected entry into the mainstream of Americ.a n literature as a desirable i:;oal ." Of course, more than a few of the olJ6r poets were writing in the Sixties and are writing today. Man~ of the~ , however, were sometimes laid aside by youn g readers who were unable to separate "p oetry" from the fiery declama- . tions of Carmicl1ael, Brown and innumerable local spokesmen and versifiers. Often tl1e poets exchanged supe~ficial indictments, indulgeJ in name-calling and , as groups or individuals, bep,an ratin g each other on their "levels of Blackness" even though no criteria existed then anJ non.e _cxists toclay for �$i.1ch jud g ing . Huch of the dispt.ite centered around the question of who "started" the Dlack Arts or New Black Poetry movements . :rn an article in the Spring, 1971, issue of Confrontation: A Journal of Third Horld Literature, Eugene Redmond stated : While it . ts true that there are leadinG lights of the Ill.:1ck Arts Hovement , it is an emphatic lie to say one geographical region of the country is solely responsible for either the main (and Major) writing output or kicking off any tradition of Blacks writing about themselves. To take such a contcmp- tuously arrogant stand would be to write off the Blacl~ musical past. Aggression has b een the tone in much of the cont~inpol."ary poetry. This is partially due to tl1e presence of some who selected poetry as a meJium of expression because of its deceptive simplicity and briefness.· · Hanh of ' '' the new "poets" obviously have no genuine interest in becoming goo<l . or . excellent craftsmen. On the other hand, the current period continues to witn~ss a growing and wide-ranging concern for poetic craft and knQwledge. During the sixties and into the seventies , literally hundreds ·of Black poets started writing and publishing--i~ tabloids, magazines, broadsides, anthologies and individual collections. . Also showcasing the new poetry were the ne\-.1 publications : of Black Poetry . regions. Umbra, 1Hiick Dialogue, Soulbook , and The Journal Significaht clust~rs of poets developed in geographical And the atmosphere was enhanced by a number of African thinkers , a rti sts, poets and novelists who arriveJ to America to teach,. lecture, perform and travel. The importance of this inter;.1ction amon:; Blacks from various parts of the r,lobe cannot be overemphasized. nlnck writers and student s now read African, West Indian and Afro-Lntin writers. Langston �Ilughes acci uaint ed Ame ric.::m audiences with African lit e r a tur e in his anthologies: An African Trensury: Essays, Stories, Poems by Bl ack Africans (1960) and Poems from Black Africa (1963). Whispers from a Continent: In 1 969 , Trinidadian \Jilfr eJ . Cartey edited The Literature of Contemporary Dlack J\l'rlca . · Marie Collins co1,1pileu .Jaack Poets in Fr ench (1972) and Keorepe ts e Kgosfrs:ile edited The \ford is llere (1973). Other scholars <lnd wr it ers also wrote critical studies or edit e d ·a ntholo gi es of Af ric an and C<lril>bean lit e rature . Black writing rec e iv ed a signific a nt boost when in 1971 Senglior anJ Af ro-Cuban poet Nicliolas Guillen were nominated for the Nobe l Prize fo r lit era tur e--thus . . . . . . . . fulfillin g James Weldon John:,on ' s 1 922 prophecy th a t th~ first lllack Hr .i.ter to achieve substantial internationa l fame \JOuld not .c::ome from America~ Height e nin g the feelin g of the period was Charles GorcJone ' s wlnning of t lic Pulitzer Prize for drama (No Place to Be Somebody, 1970) . Hany' non:--Amer:i can Black writers now publishing or living in th e U. S . are Nigerian nov elist:--poet Achebe , exiled South African poet Kgositsile, Nigerian poet-playwright Wale Soyinka, Ghanaian poet Kwesi llrew , South African crltic Ezekiel Hpliahlele, . . I Nigerian poet-playwright Ifeanyi Henkiti , Martinique po e t-playwri ght Aime I I Cesaire and Guianese poet- scholar Leon Damas . chang e ideas and compare styles . The writers fraternize , ex~ l~hnhlele , for example, has writt e n critical st udies of Black American writing (Volccs in the Hhirlwind, 1972) while Niss Brooks has praised African ~riting (Intioduction , Kgositsile ' s tfy Name is Afrika , 1971) . South African poet; Mazisi Kunene, wrote the Introduction I for Ce sa ire ' s Return to}~ Native Land (1969 translation). Several Afro-American exp;:itriate artists and writers returned to America during th e current periocJ for either temporary or permanent residency . AddecJ to this flurry of accivities and · changes were the es tablishment of • �Black publishinz houses (Broadside Press, Third \Jorld Press, The Third Press, etc.) and hundreds of new news organs and litetary journals. Durinr; the contemporary period a number of important ;;m thologies have also been published. Some _of the more notable ones include He~ond TI1e Blues, Pool, 1962; Six es and Sevens, Breman, 1962; American Negro Poetry·, Bontemp s , 1963; Soon One Hornin~: New lhiting by American Negroes, 1940 - 1962, Hill, 1963; New Negro Poets, Hughes, 1964; Kaleidoscope, HayJen, 1967; BlaclVoices, Abrahams, 1968; Rluck Fire, Jones and Neal, 1968; The New Black Poetry, Major, 1969; Soulscript, Jordan, 1970; 3000 Years of Black Poetry, Raoul and Lomax, 1970; t:ew lHack Voices, Abrahams, 1972; The hl n~k r ~e t s .; . Randall, 1971; Black Spirits, Kin g , 1972; and The Poetry of Black Ame rica, Adoff, 1973. In ad<.lition to thesf; and other nationally distributed antholo c ies, many collect1on.s of Black Literature were compiled and publishe<.l in various re ~ions: . Watts, Watts Poets and Writers (Troupe, 1966) and From the Ashes (Sch~lber g , 19~9); South, Fress Southern Theater by tl1e Fr e e Southern Theater (Drint: et .ali 1969); Chicago, Jump Bad: A New Chica 30 Antholocv (llrooks, 1971); East St. Louis- : St. Louis, Sides of the I'!.iv e r (l{edmond, 1970); New York, Three IlunJreJ anJ Sixty De,~ rees of Blackness Co r.i in& at You (Sanchez ·, 1971) anJ ll~rlcm: ·. Voices from the Soul of Black America (Clarke, 1970); PhiL:i.delµhia, Blac k Poets Write On (Black History Huseum Committee); Newark, Soul Session (1972); Detroit, Ten: Antholo~v of Detroit Poets (South and \~est, 1968). ln many regions several components have merged to form cultural and performing arts conglomerates. It is often at these centers that white movie anJ theater moguls find ne\1 talent fo1. the current wave of Black movies. At this writing , the contemporary poetry scene is embro iled in vi t; orous debates anJ conferences dealin g 1,ith "directions" for Black writers, consolidating publishing houses, �.and r, ett Ln~ published materials ·into schools (especially into Black schools) , Caught (sometimes unknowingly) in the midst of :these issue s and qu e stions are the older Black po e ts--s ome whom have rema i ned s il ent in face o f rhetori~al provocation . Others, however, have been quite vocal as in the ca s e of Gwendolyn Ilroqks and Dudl ey Randall . }[iss Brooks ~ives a ctive support to th e youn ger writers b y wa y of - financiaJ and moral encourn r:ement. She sup e rvises writers workshops, establishes poetry prizes with her own money and travels to read before conferences and classes . Recently sl1e withdrew her affiliation with Harper and Row and began publishing throu ~h Broadside Press. Randall est.:1blished Ilroa<lside Press in Detroit in 1966 _and a lso has set up poetry awards with his own f~nds. llay<len, who often shuns ·public di~pljys of his allegiances , admonishes the youn g poets to k eep ' h i gh writing· s.t a n<l ci nl s . Ile is recognized as a brilliant te.:1cher as well as poet, and is known to · work quietly with youn g writers and scholars . llayJen pluyeJ s m~j o r role in gainin ~ recognition for Lucille Clifton (Good Tbne s , 1969; Good .Ue0a About the Ea rth, 1972; and- An Ordinary Homan, 1974), one of the most sple.n<lid of the ~ew poets . Some new and older names closely linked to the current pe riod are Pinkie Gonion Lane (I-IL.cl Thoughts) , Hichael Hµrper (Dear John, D.e.:1r Coltro.nc, llistory is Your Own lleartb e ::it, · etc.), Haring Cuney (Pu zz l e s), Troupe (Embryo), Sterling Plump (Half Black llal( Inacker), Jayne Cortez (Pisstained Stairs .:1ncl the Monkey Man ' s Hare s , Fest ivals and Fun c r., l s , etc.), Dumas (Poetry For Hy People and Play Ebon v Pl.av Ivory), Rivers (The Still Voice of Harlem, etc .), Nikki Giovanni (nla ck Ju<l r, ement, Black Feelin g , Black Thought, n. e : Creation) , Recd (C a techisr-1 of A ne oamcrican hoodoo church , etc .), David Henderson (De Hayor of Harlem, etc.), Arthur Pfist e r (Bullets, Deer Cans & Things) , Baraka (Black Ma Bic, etc.), John Echols (Ho~e i s ITT1ere the Soul Is), Arna Bontemps (Personals), llay<len(Selccte<l Po ems, Hards in the . '· . �( Hournin r; Time), Lee (Think Black, ]Hack Prid e , · etc.), Sonia Sanchez (Homecoming, etc . ), R.::indall (Citi es Durnin f! and .lor e to Rememher), Stanley Crouch (Ain ' t No Ambulances for No Nig 8ahs Tonight), Hu ghes (The Panther and the Lash, etc . ), Atkins (Heretofore), Hay Hiller (Into th e Cl~irin g), Aus tin Black ·(The Torna do · in Hy Hou th), Tolson (Harlem Gallery), Young . (The Son ~ Turning Back U~to Itself), James A. Emanuel (Panthe r ~Ian), Vesey (lvory Tusks), Mari Evans (I Am A Black \fomnn), Julia Fields (Poems), Stephany (Moving Deep), Etl1eridge Kni ght (Poems from Prison), Gwendolyn Brooks (In the llecca, Riot, Family Pictur e s, etc . ), Roy Hill (49 Po ems, etc.), Ray Durem (Take No Prisoners) . Far from bein8 exhaustive, · thiti .. list is merely · . . . . ' . . . representative of the gre ~t poetic output durin g the current p~riod. Many of these poets--Reed, Troupe, Young , Crouch, Dumas,--are also · prose writers or anthologist . Certainly the list grows and changes con~ stantly, especially in view of tl1e continual unfolJing of surprises . Suffice it to say that the contemporary mood of Black poetry is multi~levcled ~nd complex . There are generalities; one is that most of the poets unreservedly satu~ate their work with obviouij Black references and cultural motifs. There is also an anti-intellectual flavor as many poets turn their backs qn academic or Western forms. This has brou r, ht a ~eneral disrer,ard for the esoteric, · literary and sometimes secret allusions, · employed in much of the current white poetry. There are exceptions; ~f course--notably in special s~nbolism ' . I of Muslim poets (Marvin X, Askia Toure, Bar.:.1ka, Sonia Sanchez, and others). These exceptions can also be seen in works of poets who explore ,\f rican Ancestor Cults, Voodoo, mysticism and African languages. [videncc of this ca n be seen I in the poetry of Ishmael Reed, .Askia Toure, llenry Du111a s , Norman J o rdan, Sun Ra, K. Curti s Lyle, Bob Kaufmnn anJ others. Generally, tl1ou gh, Black poets are �framiqg their allusions, im.:iges and symbols in tlie more concrete cultural motifs, .:is indicated in a line from Eur;ene n.edmond's "Tune for a Teenage Neice" where he views the neice as beinp, "spiccid as pot-liquor . " TIIE POETS i\llD TllEIR TOTEMS : A. 1 Soon, One! Mo rnin g : · Tlireshhold of the New Black Poetry Hy Blackness is the beauty of this lund. ---- Lance Jeff e rs Richard \vright called the Blacks " America I s metaphor" and Lance Jeffers referred to "tlie beauty of this land." i\nJ both of the.s e definit.e su1nc~s· · were taken well in advance of " Black Pride" poetry of the s·ixties and ~e·ve1~ticu. Margaret \folker ' s discussion of her plnymates in th e···Aiabuma "dust" . (19J7) is . not self-deprecating ; and Gwendolyn Drooks ' s portrait Sa tin Le gs Smith (1945) is far from being unhappy. These are only four randomly s e l e ct @d poetic affidavits of lllacks viewing themselv es "ppsitively" before th·e ;:idvt:,nt of the New Black Poetry . We could , of course , bring up l1undreds of examples from the p_o etry of Phyllis Wheatley throu gh that of Lan gs ton llughes. But the point , already made, is simply that one is seriously remiss in }ookiri~ at recent Black poetry without considering its history. t he poe t s who wrote and publish ed bet~een 1945 and 1965 , foi example , did not work in sealed chamoers of tuntcled vision. Each group , eacl1 cluster of concern , evolveJ from what had been written or said before . Some of these poets were heavily in fluenced by white wr i ters , teachers , and critics . llowever , the best of them applied their knowled ge and tools to the service of the Black l iterary tradition . Othe r s were under tl1e direct tutelage of Blacks (Pa ul Vesey studied with J . W. Johnson , Joyc e Yeldell with llayden) and became part �af a continuing line of Black-developed thou glit a nd writing (Vesey in turn t a ught Arthur Pfister). Whatever their make-up, or their mission, the poets as a group show grea t facility with lang~age, depth of insi gl1t and passionate concerns for their collective and individual hurts~ D$ Blacks and as humans. The work of these poets, and that of their older pen-fellows, can be found i.n several anthologies: Po e try of the Ne gro (19 49 , 1970); the bilingual Ik zag hoe Zwart Ik Was (I ·saw How Black I Was, 1958); Beyond the Blues (1962); American Negro Poetry (1963); Burning Spear (1963); Sixes and Sevens (1963); Negro Verse (1964); New Negro Poets: USA (1964, 1966)~ Poets of Today (1964}; the bilingual Ik Be n De ~lieu<ve NeP,er (1 Arn the New Hegre , 1965); m1d l(.'.l leicio- · scope (1967). Bontemps and Hughes edited Poetry of th e Neg ro in 1949.. The first major collection since Cullen's Carolin g Dusk, it was revised by Bontemps in 1970 after llughes I s death. Interesting ly, s01:1e of ·t~ c 1949 entries are deleted while the table of cont e nts has been doctored to make n~w·entrics (like Dudley Randall, }~ri Evans and nay Durem) coincide with thei~ age-line. Bontemps, a Renaissance also edited American poet who did not publish a volume until 1963 (Personals), Negro Poetry, a task which g.'.lvc him the opportunity : to pick the best from the past as well a s the present. The two bi--lingual ari'thol- · og ies. were published in Bolland and E.ng l and and edited by nosey ·Pool, with· the assistance of Paul Bremen. Dr. Pool· (1905-1973), a lloll ander , came across . Cullen when she was preparinc a pa per on American poetry in 1925. covery led to a life-long inter es t in Black culture a nd po e try. This dis- . During 1959/~0 she tour ed the United States on a Fulbright trav e l gra nt, spendin g several months visiting and lecturin g at 27 Dlack coll eges and univ ersi ti es . Dr. Pool's work in Black poetry has drawn mixed re ac tions fr01,1 cautious Black writers and critics. But her importance in helping to bring at Len tlon t o Black poets, �. despite cr i es of "exploita tion," is undeniable, Even more controversial i s nrcmen, Hho ap.i)ears to fancy himself as a n English J ean-Paul Sar t e ; he originated the ller'ita~e Series-_- "d cvo t ed en tir ely to the works of Afro-American authors"--with Ha yden ' s A Bal l,:frl ·o f · Remembra nce in 1963. Sin.c c that time · Br emen , who edited Sixes and Sevens and You !letter Beli eve It: Black Vers e in - Eng li s h (1973), has released more than 20 volumes of ,\fro -American poetry . Randall ' s Broadside Press services as the American distributor of the slim books which have included the aesthetical and historic al range of Black poetry: Frank Horne (Ha v erstraw , 1963), Do nt emps , Rivers (Th e Still Voice of Harlem, 1968; The Urir.>,ht Po ems , 1972), 1'1:'lr i Cvan.s (\.;here is . all the Music? , 1968 but withdrawn " at the author's request "), · Russell Atki,11s .. (Heretofore, 1968), Lloyd Addison (The Aura &. th e tJi11br'a, 1970), ,\'udre Lor:dCl (Cables to Ra ge , 1970), DuJlcy Rand a ll, (Love You, 1970), Ishmael need, whom Bremen calls "the bes t Black poet writin~ today" (C a t ec hi sm of .d ~~oamerican hoodoo church, 1970), James H. Thompso n (First Fire: Poems 1957~ l.9 .6 0, . 1970), ... Dodson, llarold Carrinf3 ton (Drive Suite, 1972), Clar ence Majo r (Pr-i.:v ate Linc, 1971), the " first non-American contributor" Mukhtarr Mustapha (Tho r ns a nd Thistl es , 1971), Durcm (Take No Pris oners, 1971), a nd ll ayde n (The Night-Bloomin g Cereus, 1972). Bremen notes that both llari Evans and Ra~nond ~~tte~son oiderecl their books withdrawn b ecause they " we r e·. :s uspiciou s of the cont·ract t e rms.:" In addition to such "suspicion," felt · aiso by o ther Black poets, there is great resentment of Bremen ' s fast-draw critica l evaluations of th e poetry--which I are often caustic, ridiculous, and na rrow, and r ef l ect a lack of gen era l know_led r,e of Black poetry. poets. He calls Durcm, for examp l e , one of tl.1e first "Black" His statement about Reed, cominr, as it did in 1970, dies violence to both th e author and the critical a tMosph e re in whicl1 Black poets grapple e veryday. Ile says Dumas was born in the "incredibly named town" of Sweet • �. llomc, ~\rkansas . Neverthe~ ~ss (alas!), one wonJers where these Bl ncl~ poets may have gotten published if such "healthy Jiscases" as Bre1.1e11 J.i<l not exist. Nezro Verse , edited liy Ansel1n Hollo , hns no inLroducti.o n or fonmrd, but does include a dozen blues and Gospel song-poems. edited by llugf1es with a Forward by Gwendolyn. New !e~r6 l'oets was Use of the \,ord "new" exemplifies the kind of spirit Lhat w;:is in ascension at th e time. Hiss Brooks, terse as always , is also her usual <lefinitive self: At the present time, poets who happen also to l>e Negroes arc twci.cc:-tried. They have to write poetry, and they have to remer.iber that they are Ne~roes . Often they wish th at . they . could solve the Ne8ro ci'uestion once and for all, anJ go on from such success to the composition of textuied ~onnets or buyant villanelles about the trnnscience of a rainJrop, or the gold-stuff of the sun. They are likely to find signi--:. ficances in those subjects not instantly obvious to their fairer fellows. The raindrop may seem to them to represent racial tears--and th , e might seem , indeed, other than tr::m sil'.nt . The go lden sun might reminJ them tlit they ar.e burning. There is an attitude in this statement that the Gwendolyn Brooks of 1968 will· reject : "poets sho happen also to Le Negtoes. 11 But she reflects Cullen in the "dark tower" and his ruminating _{lit -the "curious thing " of the Black poet . She also presages the twistings and turnings in Jayne Cortez's ''Festivals & Funerals ." Yet, in introducing the "New Negro Poets," she informs the reader that "here are some of the prevailing stars of an early tomorrow." \!alter Lowenfcls ' s Jecision to include "20 Negroes " in Poets of Today was spurred in part by liis recop,nition (along with Sh.::ipiro) that "most general �antholo ~ies of Amecican poetry exclude Negroes." An authority on Hhitman, Lowe nfels shared an award with E.E. Cumming s in the thirties, anJ has helped a number of Black poets make it into print: Dumas, Troupe, Pa tterson, ItedmonJ, Carrington, Major, Reed, Harrer, Hayden, and many others. Lowenfels' was the first new white-edited 4ntholo gy to inclu<le such a substaritia l _number of Blacks. The r e \•1e r e 8 5 poets in all. One of the most important of th ese anthol a~ ies is Burning Spear which contains the work of the Howard Poets: Halter DeLe gall (1936Govan ( ), Jeffers ( ), Al Fraser ) , Percy Johnston (1930- LeRoy Stone (1936- ), Oswald ( ) , Nathan Richards ( ) , and Joseph White. ) ' DurninB Spear, subtitle An . . . . Anthology of Afro-Saxon Po,~ try, was an out growth . of . t.h e llosci n Litera.ry Society, ·located at lloward University, which also published Dasein: Quarterly Journal of the Arts (1961-1969). as publisher while DeLegall was editor. A Johnston, its founJer, serveJ The:Lr connection with the _o l<ler group of poets and scholars is evident in the a dvisory board list: A. Brown, Arthur P . Davis, Owen Dodson and Eu~ene C. Holmes . Jeffers, Stone and 1n1ite served as contributing editors. Steriing Ftu s er, ·Govan, Po e ts in the inaugural issue of Dasein, which <loubleJ as a memorial to RicharJ Wri gl1t~ were Delores Kendrick , Clyde n. Taylor , Jeffers, William Jacks6n, Veinon A. Butler, n.obert Slaught e r , Laurn A. \falkins, Govan, Fraser, Pelo.re s F . Henry, R. Orlando Jackson , DeLegall, Johnston and Stone. There is no sing le unifyin g threacl runnin g throu gh either Da s e in or Burnin ~ Spear but Blnck influences and subjects are clearly imbeded. Burnin g \ Spear, for example, is published by Jupiter Hammon Press, another connection-in name --to th e tradition of Black po e tr y . In a back-cov e r note, the eight contributors are called "a new ·hreed of youn g poets who are to American poetry wh a t Charlie Parke,· , Dizzy Gillespie, Thelonious Monk and Niles D.:ivis �. ·are to American jazz ." After this import<.1nt analogy, the stater,1ent continues : These eight Afro-S<.1xon poets are not rnernbcirs of a literary movement in the tr adi tional sense of the \:•onl, because . they do not have in common any monist view about cre.:itivity or aes t hetics . CollecLi'vely, lim-Jever , they ,.ire indifferent to most critics and r<.!Vic::\1crs--sinc~ criticis1,1 in AE1erica is contrulled and written in the riwin by [uro-Americans. There is no pr efa ce or introduction or statement about poetics; these poems themselves fill the pa ges . Poems by DeLegal l, Jeffers, Johnston and Stone also _appear.in B~youd the Blu~s and in mrn1erous '' little" magazines. nut all of the poets 1~articiputcd in reading-lecture programs leading up to tl1e wider in~ ~r~sts in poetiy in ~he l ater sixties and seventies . DeLegall (Philadelphia) a mathematici.:in a~d e l eit r onic data processing specialist, published in many anthol6gles and. quarterlies , and haJ read his poetry and lectured at various eastei~ and southern colleges. Fraser (Charleston) is a political scientist with a . specialization in African Affairs. Alone witl1 DeLegall, Stone , Govan, Johnston and Richards, he has been recor<leJ reac.linr; his poetry _at tbe Library of Congress . Fraser cultivated a coffe~-shop audience for his .readings a~d appehre<l before colle ge gLoups . Hi is a -~hilosopher-matl1ematiclan . One of the older members of the Cro up , Jeffers (San Francisco) is credited with having "influ ence " on 't he llmv,frd Poets . He has taught English and writin)j , a t half a dozen American colleges and universities . His first volume of poetry was Hy Dlackness is the Beauty of This Lmd (1970) and . second , When I Know the Power of Ny ]Hack Hand , Hill be out in 1975 . Broadside Press . Doth are published by Jeffers has also written novels , short stories and criticism. �Johnston (New York) currently t~aches at a college in New Jersey and with Stone "co-authored the revolutionary verse pamr>hlet Continental Streamlets ( Also a playwright , Johnston published a pamphlet of his poetry, Concerto for Girl and Convertible in 1960 and was considered the lea<ler of . the ·11oward Poets. White is a nn~ive Phjla<lelphian whose work appeared in Liberator, Poets of Today, a _nd other places. He is a technician for FAA and has urit ten short stories as well as successful prose-poems. As a group , the Howard Poets represent one of the toughest intellectual strains in contemporary Black poetry. Maybe the fact of their having such diverse interests, backgrounds, and training aided in their vitality~ virtuo~ity and power. To be sure, these are "c onscious" poets; but-- avoiJing · slognns · ond sentimental hero-worship--they present precise analyses . and interpretations of their world. Nost of them gr ew up in the Be Bop era and so their sub~ects quite naturally include Hiles Davis, Lester Young, Charles "Yaqlbird" Parker, Clifford Brown, Sonny Rollins, Thelonious Monk, and other makers nncl contributors to that period. And a preoccupation with Civil Rights and the lll~ck. strur;gle is merged with their awareness of the "bomb ," middle class pretensions, history, mythology, religion, and the various trends in poetry : Beat poetry, jazz poetry and folk lyrics. rnoderniiy, DeLegall celebrates the !Hack presence ("My Brownskin Business") an.J satirizes a _pretentious Howard coed· ("Re qui em for A lloward Lady") who is "·cultured" and performs every social amenity perfectly. She wears "lligh..a:.heeled tennis shoes'; but he hopes, near the poem's end, that the president of The Universal Institute of Eu~enics will send a New species of female who will be robed in clothes of "sincerity" and who can be called "A Homan." ). �. ·.. . : . -In 11 Psalm fo r Sonny Rollins" he ·announc ed thnt ·_ he is Absor beJ into the womb of the sout'ld. I am in the sound The sound is in me . I: am th e sound. Rollins, the ·Harle!',1· pied pipe,r , will l ead his listeners to "truth," " Zen," · "Pol!t:ry," ,ind "Cod. 11 1/- Afte · "The 131:ist" (nuclear bombing) there wi ll be ... no I, no world , no you . Govan .-:i] so writes convincine; ly as in "The Lynching" : Ile was soaked in oil and th e mntch thrO\m. _ lle scr eamed , he ·e r led, he moaned , he crackled in his fiery inhuman dance. Govan' s interes ts span the turhul enc~ in "llun~ary ," space exp]ur.-:ition (',:The An~ry Sk i es Are Callin2 11 ) , and "Pr ayer " wherein he asks "Chris~." for a new dawn's light! Jeffers is a livin g ex.1mple of the 1,10re helples s plight of many a J.,lnck. writ ~ r. Although he had been writing for severol decad es , his ,-, orl: 1,a s white-listed by nnthologists and his poetry did not appear in book for1n until th e se venti es . " My lllackness is the Denu t y of thi s Lnnd" s L,inds as a rebuff t o those who suy 11 Blnck 11 poetry .1.Jas "invented II recently, · Jc£ fers:, s po em , wri t ten in th e fifties , is a t onc-e defiant and proud: My bl ackness is the beau t y of this l a nd, my blackness, tender and s tro ng , wou n ded and wise, The narrotor , af t er the fashion of tlargaret Wa l ker, chronicles the hu rts , th e h appinesses , and the hun ge rs of !Hacks. These h e stanJs against his �'\,Jiiteness " and th e perversions of larger America. mines the same vein: past . "Black Soul of the Land" rich relianc e on the wel.l;.-deep strength of the Black The "old black man" in Geoq~ia is "leathered, lean, and _strong." And these are secrets that " crackers coulc.l not kill": a secret spine unbent within a spine, a secret source of steel, a secret stur~y ru gged love, a secret crouchin3 hate, a secret knife vithin his hanc.1, a secret bullet in his eye . The poet ·asks the old man to pass on his source of streni_;th so that h~, and his fellO\,JS , will be able to "turn black" the soul of the nation . and America shall cease to be its name. Jeffer s gathers up a fury of love, anguish and conuuitment in ot'her of his poems: "Her Black and African Face I Love ," "The Han Hith A l-'urrince _in.llis . llanc.1," " Hegro l~reedom Rider," "H er Dark Body I Cluster ," " Dlack Han in A 1-Jew Day," and "Prophecy." Johnston echoes Jeffers, thou r.;h in a difft:!rent voice and style;_ in many of his poems. But Johnston's concern is .wi th Dlack music and ni.u sicians. "To Paul Robeson , Op us No . 3" celebr.:ites the multi- faceted talents of the man whose song " stood Brooklyn on its fee t." magnificent tribute to the President of j az z: tinu es to "ignite the heart." "In Memoriam: Prez" is a Lester Young whose music con- \. In " Fitchett ' s Basement Blues , Opus B" Johnston wonders why everytime I want Coltrane or Sonny all I get is Brubeck , ... �." De1-1ey 'Square ," with its "Beat" repertoire and interests in contemporary everyman, is a poetic summary of the collective.' history of Johnston ' s generation . I-Jarels for "unkinking hair, " recollections o[ radio shows, reminders of Relief and ITPA , an<l Duke I:llington, all leave Jolins~on with the knowledge _that nothing ·· flas · chang~<l but my postal zone. ln other pieces he surveys the current and past Black musical scene : " ' Round ' Dout Midnight, Opus 17, ' ' "V:iriation on a Theme by Johnston, " and "To Bobby Timmons." "Black is My Re1.arcl 11 Richards says, noting that Sorrow came, and I left the world ... An d experimentalist, his "Do Not forget to Rememher" ·. iric-1 uJes a " p·relude-" .' and an " interlude ." Like the other poets , he writes prinwrily in free verse ( almost no rhyme) and in the foregoing poem he repeats "A petal. [alls ." The llowarcl Poets all touch f;rief and anguish, as does Riclwrds in ''God .Biess This Child :ind Other Children ... Requiem. " In syntax and vocabular·y, it .· bears. resemblence especially t _o the beats and to Bob Kaufman anll Ruf,sell Atkins . Words and phrases like " matronymic diva," "sepiacenic marty'r, " " albumenic hawk, " "womb-prize, " and "black aegis" convey the mystical and eerie ' sense implied in the repetiti on . of '.'sleep" and the innovat'ive typography of the poem . Also experimental · a nd original is Stone . Miles Davis 's " Flamenco Sketches" i ;; separ:ited into five parts: cannons, en:irt and bill . !!is study of ouvert, selim, New York is "r e<..! in weeping " aud Chicago is "Black- ·. draped" as Miles utters in "mut es ." The music captures the Dissonant nostalgi:i of one kiss of :i Spanish lady as it weaves in and out of transcontinental experiences and locations. Dnvls ' s use am! kn01,,led ge of ,1orlcl muslc is revered. Finally, �the 1,1u s:i c is aste<l to Conunent on a cloud of oriental ni n ths conu11ent ! In " Notes fro m. the Cubicle o'f A disgcuntled Jazzman" Stone becomes a verbal · maestro r _ipplng in "chan:>·s;" rattlint:, up "thirteenths," stormin~ the "minor mode," a1{<l whippin2; up "passing tones "--all " with impunity." White ' s " Black is A Soul" repe.::its "down" as the persona drops into " depths , " " the abyss," and the "infinite " Where black-eyed peas & gr eens arc storeJ . ... This poi gnant revelation is made in the end: I raise my dmrn bent l:inl:y head to chir-1.ic .. & shout I ' m black. I ' m black _14-f' & I ' 111 from Loo .. back . He think immedintely of titles like Tltink Black (Lee) c1n<l "S.::iy It LouJ-- .· I ' m Tilack and I ' m Proud" (James Brown) even thou gh this poem precedud them by several years--to say nothinr.; of Joseph Cotter , . Jr. ' s " Is it J,lcc:wsc I ' m Black ." But llhite can also do light and touching things as in " Picnic" an<l . . "Day is Done" which places "music in • t,l,ie c'lir" as he prepares ·for ·11 ~d and his "woman " sets her hair . llis ironic,- · satirical " Inquisitive" displays the ranee of these poets . The narr a tor wanders where "Gods " and " buddhas" hide if the earth and sky are both visible to man. �Little critical attention h·a s b e~ n g iven th e 110\vard Po C' t s or any of the other poet s who are appearin g Jurin ~ this time. including old as well as unfamiliar names: Jo~nson AckcrsoD, Cl1arl c s ), Julian Bori<l (1940- ), Eu g ene Redmond (1937- Anderson (1938- But they are le g ion, ' ), Katherine · ), Leslie M. Collins (1914- John Henrik Clarke (1915- ) ) , 'larp ar e t Danner, Gloria Davis, DuBois, Dur cm, Nari ), Gordon llenth, llorne, Ted Evnn s , Micki Grant, Juli.a Fields (193 8- ), Naomi Mud g ett, Jame s C. Horris, O'lli. r.,g ins, Pntt e rson, Joans (1928- ), Peter T. Ro g ers, John Sherman Scott, Carmell James Randall (1938- ) , l{obert Earl F itz g eral<l (19 35- Joyce Yeldell (1944!lcrntun (1') 3 2- ) , Lula Lowe \Jec<len (1 91 0- Carl !lolm,rn (1919Lero11e l~ennctt, Jr. Fuller (1927- ), Lati171er (1927- (1919- S.1111 ), ), Frank Yerby (1916- ) , 1:iv c rs, Mc}L \·,'r i r., ht, ), Ernest J. W 1 son, Jr. James l'. Vau g hn (1929- (193 0- ania Alba (1915-1968), Frank Lon <l on (1942- ·0'J2 0- ), Catherine C.:1rter ) , l[;uy Carter Smith (1 9.!.4), Roscoe Lee Browne ), Robe~t J. Abrams (19 24- ) , \,Jilliam Browne (1930- Ishma e l Recd (193 8- ) , Yvonn e Cre ~o ry Cornish (193 8- Brow,1 (1927-1962), Isabella Maria Hrown (1917- (1917- ) , Oliver r il c h e r ) , /\Ja m lb v id l \ill c r (19 22- ) , Don Jolrn s un (19112- M.ince \/illiams , Tom Dent, Ld~ol J o ,1 0 s (1 922) , B~ t cc D:1.rcie Herbert CL:irl~ Johnson (1911- ) , Roy llill, ) , lloy t ), Oss le Davis ), OlLver La Crone (1915- Pauli Mt1rrny 1910- ) , · Ci] v in · ) , James Em.:inuel (1921- ) , Sar a h Webster Fabi o (19 28 - ) , Carl r.ardener (PJ 31- Zack Gilbert (1925- ·· ) , Cl o ri a C. OJ 0n·, .H.Js c . ) , Alfred Duckett (191:3(19 28- ),, ), Vesey, Sarah Wright · (1929- Simmons, Jnmes W. Thompson (1935- (1923- ), ) , D.:1~id ll e n<lerson ) , Thurmond Snyder, A .11. Spellman (1935 - (1 934- ), Vivian .i\yers, Hel e n ), �) , Vil1iJa Ho\la rd, George Lcive, Allen Hor f_l .:in nrooks, Solomon Edwards (1932Polite (1932- ), Lloyd Addison (1931- ), ), :nurwood Collins (1937- Bobb Hamilton , ~foy Hiller, Stanley 1:urris, Jr. (1944 ),. This non-exhaustive list was often intermingled witl1 earl~ ~ne t s (as far back as Phyllis Wh ea tlL!y) and olJer ones (Johnson, Hcl:ay , Dunbar, etc.) , . and spiced wi~h a goo d offe rin g of post-Renaissance poets (Walker, Brooks, Tolson, llayden) . Names like Fuller, Denne tt, Jr., llolman, Yeruy, Davis, and Clarke , f.:111 in the category of 11 occ,1sionc1l" poet s --mos t of whom undertook f ull-time duties as novel is ts, editors , LH,yers or tea c her s . Other important movements paralles to this phase were th e emergence of lit erary 1.11i-1;~,1:~ines. · (Free Lance , Phylon , Ect . ), 'es pecially on BL1ck college c ..ui1pusc!s; Black newspapers' renewed interest in verse es tablisl11ne1;t · of ·poe ts-in resid~snces. for the poets at southern Black colle ges ; the flowering of regional " movements" or writing collectives--suc h as those in New York ' s Creemvich Village (Yug en, Umb r a , etc . ), Clevelands ' s Karamu House and area(Free Lance with ..Ca~~~r Leroy J ordan , and Atkins) , lloward I s Dase in C.roup , the Detroit poets , and Ceo r gia Do ugl~ss Johnson ' s home-based workshops at her home in Washington, D.C . Not all of these developments occurred only among Black µoets, however, t;.here . . . . also were racially mixed writing communes and editorial staffs . · Julia Fields, . for ex;:irnple , was in residence at the· loreaJ · Loaf \frit ers Conferent:<' in England and studied for a wh :lle in Scotland. Re~lmond , who won writing awards and pu blis h ed in l i ttle mo.gazine s betwec:n 1960 aml 1965, worked with the staffs of t he Thr ee Penny Broadside (Soutl1ern Illinois University) and Free Lanc e (Washin ~ton University ). Other poets and their oullets wer e Duma s (Trace, Anthologist ), Patterson , Jones (Fl oat in •'. Dear , Yungen), Gloria C. Oden (Urbanite, Tile Poetry Di ges t, Th e Half Hoon) , Rivers (Ken yo n Revi eH , Aritioch Review , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - �Ohi.o Puvtry l~evicw), Spel]man (Kulchur, He tronome, Umlir.:i.), Ilance \-Jilli a ms (Blue am! Gold) , and Audre Lore.le (Ventur e ). }ljq_~aret Dnnner published a series of poems in Poetr y mag .:1zine in 1952 and in 1956 bec~m e an assistant editor . Of thes e, p .:i rallel move ments and developments, one other deserved speci a l notice . Thou gh not on r.:1r · with th e Howard Poets, the Umbr.J Workshop parti- cjpants aided in the production and distribution of Black poetry in tl1 e early sixties. Centered in New ~ork ' s Greenwich Villa g e, the Umbrn poets were founded by Tom Den t (New Orleans), Calvin Hernton (Chattanooga) and David Henderson ( Ne w York ). The workshop , which also :i.nvolV E;! Ll artists ilnd · fiction writerB, published the first · issue of its Umbra quarterly in 196J. · Oth e r issues c;ime out in 1%4, 1967-68 (an antholo 0 y), 1970- 71 (tabloi d• :intliolog y) and 197l1-75 (Latin Soul is s ue) . Dent first served as editor a111.l Ilenderson, wh o uow edits the public;Jtion f rom Berkeley, took over in 1967 .. Otlters attractell to the Umlira uorkshop 11e rc I s h1,iael He ed, Roll;Jnd S11 e lJ i n : :, :_; ·(now I Askia Toure) , Nonna.11 Pritchard, sini:er Len Chandler, dancer J\samc1n . Byron, the Patterson brothers (Charles and l/illimn), p.:1inters Gerald J;JcL :,_on ,:111d Joe Overstreet, Lennox Raphael, Dum.:1s, James Thorn_pson, Julian Ilon<l, · Sun-l{_a, Durem, Steve Cannon, and Joe Johnson. damaged by two events. The prontise of the Umbra 8 roup was · One was a f h ilur c to prin g un int e rview (c o nJu c ted · by Raphael and others) with Ralph Elliso n. : The s e cond, resul tin ti in .:1 split among members, was a controversial .Jnti-l~ennedy poem by Durcm. s e rious President Kennedy had just been nssassina ted when the Durc.~m piec e was npproved by the editors . taste . Hernton , Dent an 1 Henderson decided the poem (letter:) ,..,as in bad Others, ncconlin 2, to Hender so n, want e d the poem print e d and s uusequcntly · "kidnaprc<l Pritchard, who \,J.'.lS tr ea surer , thr e atening ltim 1-, ith bodil y lwrm , " �The incl.Jent is vie\/ed as one of the near-fatal blows to th e Umhra group . Later Snellings, the Pattersons, and others wc11t Uptown to \1 ork with the Jones' s ne1Jly formed Black Arts l{eper tory and School . The work of Umbra contributors range from the occasional · a1iJ :hu111orous verse of .Jul"i.,\n nonJ to the· serious commentaries of Durem. Poems by Durem; Henderson, Hernton, Dent , nndThompson , £ilso appears in the early anthologies alon13 \vlth work of other "Village " poets such as G. C. Oden, Spellr.1an, Jones (Newark ), and Joans (Cairo, Illinois). later anthologies : Some are .:ilso represented in two Bl.:ick Fire (1968) and The Poetry of r.L:ick America (1973). Though racial consciousness is not blutantly evident i11 these poets, · the _ protest is there, especially the works by Durem, lle11Jer so n,' anJ · ller11i:on.· Umbra r,iaJe clear its twofolJ aim in an inaur,ural issu e : Umbra exists to provide a vehicle for those outspoken and youthful writers who present aspects of soci.:il and racial reality which may he called 'uncornrnercial ' but cannot with any honesty be considered non-essential to a whole and healthy .society ... He will not print trash, no matter how relevantly _ it Jeals with race, social issues, or anything else. Dent views "Love" as a "blue tom" lurking "icily" in the darkncs·s.. Henderson • sees 'a "Downtown-Boy Uptown" and asks.: Am I in the wrong slum?_ llis "Sketches of llarlem" include the "CR.EAT WlllTE \JAY" and a small Black boy confusing the moon and the sun . 1'1, was horn in Seattle. Durem, who ran away from l1omc at age While still tn his mid-teens he joined the Navy clnd became a member of the International Brir.,ades durin~ tile Spanish Civil War. Hughes tried to find a publisher for his \~arks as early as 1954 . himself Durem said: "When I was ten years old I useJ m_y fists. Of When I Has ( .\ i �. thirty-fi.ve , I used the pen. I ·hope to live to use the machine gun . . . . The white North-American has been drunk for foLir hundred years. 11 His work does not have the finish of a Hayden or Diooks, but he provides an exciting shot in the arm for this period of Black poetry (though_ Jlrcrnen ' s r eference to hi.m as t:hc "first black poet " is umrnrranted) . Take No Prisoners (1971) contains many of · Durcm ' s memorable poems anJ a "l'osthurnous preface, 11 signed in 1962 althou gh he died in 1963 . " White People go t Trouble, Too" surveys the plight of whites followin g tl1e Depression, recession anJ war, and notes t hat suc h an intrusion in the affairs of whites does not equal slavery . After all, life (or history) calls for One tooth for one tooth . Most of Durem ' s poems are short, satirical, ironic~i a~<l musical js in '' Br oadminded '' : Some of my best friends are wh ite boys. When I meet ' em I treat ' em just the same as if tl1ey was people . lie writes of Black history , sL1very , social inequities, prison life; and '.'pale poe t s " to whom he confesses his is not "sufficientJy obscure" ~~ meet white critical standards . Stran~ely, Take! t1 o P.risoners does not incluJ c 11 Av1ard 11 - - "A Cold Hatch to the Ffll Han (who ha_s followed me) for 25 years--wiiich traces the agent ' s surveillance of 'the nar.ra tor throush the "blind alleys" of Mexico,. the high Sierras , the Philharmonic , L.A . , Mississippi, anJ other places of violence and mayhem. Piut it l s not all over, th e ar;ent is tol.J, for in the end I 111ay be fo llo\/in;; you! �'l'ii c work of Village poets Has hi z hlighted .by the vers a tile anJ prolific Jones (later Irnamu i\rniri Baraka), Spellman , anJ Ted Joans . Defore his new " Black" stance of the mid and late sixti e s, Jon e s pulilishe<l in lLttle av.:int garde ma~azlnes (editlnp; s~veral hiliisclf) and was identified .:is .the _ most talented I.Hae!~ among th e 1.:-eats . llis two volumes, Prefa c e Lo D T11enty Volumc Sui cide Note (1961) ,:md Tli e ·De Dd l e cturer (1964), show hlm as a hip, arrogant, musicn Uy-involved cat with a tou r., h intelligence . llis influences at the time, as he noted, were Lor ca , 1.Jilliam C;_irlos 1-/illi;_ims, Pound, .:ind Charles Olson. lie is an adventurer in style with an e lliptical and sometimes sacriligious posture. Such an aesthetical philoso phy was s hared _by . the .Black !lo uncairi · . poets: . . r.corge Opp en , Robert Creely, Roliert Duncan, Denise Levc·r tov, P:1ul Blackburn, Edwanl Dorn, Ginzberg, Corso, Cory Snydc~ ,incl f!icltncl ~le-C lure . · A music critic for such magazines a s Dmmbeat , Jazz ,:mJ Metronome, with an intense interest in Black music , Jones nurtureJ a careful ear f o r music in his verse. fensible. Hence , the belief that Jones "sudJenly bec.:ime Dlad:" is -inJe..:. In "Lines Lo Carcia Lorca"--the great Spanish poet--he uses a section of a "Negro Spiritual" as an inscription . Tile poem is typical of Jones 1 s .:ibility to merge numerous idens, symbols and images in one poem. Lorca's death is lamented as Jones uses excerpts from the C.:itl1olic mass, reflects on his childhood, explores ,ay tho1o g y, gatl)crs bits of poQtic con- · fetti from nature and hears Lorca "lau·i~ hin r: , Lrnghin g "--maybe mockin g his killers-Like a Spanish guitar. In "Epistrorhc" he finds peering out the \,inc.low "such a st;.itic. reference ." So he w1-shcs "some weird looking animal" woudl come by. In the title poem from his firsL volume--Preface--hc adjusts to the way " g round op e n s up" �he goes out to "walk the dog ." . anJ t;:ikes him in whenever Life is ;:is monotono us as the "static reference" of wine.low : \vatching : Nobody sings anymore . Joans, another Village poet closely identified with the neats, · published Beat, All of Teel Jonn s (1961), a nJ The llipsu~rs (1961). His most wiJely known poem fror:i this period Ls . "The .38" with its debts to Ilu r; hes (whom he acknowled ged ), Whitman and the Beats . Be g inning every line \vith the phrase "I hear," Joans narrates the murder of an unfnith[ul wife and lover by her husband: I hear it comin2 faster than sound th e . 38 I hear it comin :3 closer to my swenty forehead the .• 38 I hear its we.i1•d whistle the .38 I hear it give off a stcamlike nois ~ w~~n it cuts throu gh my sweat the . 38 I hear it si: 6 e my skin as it enters my head the . . J8 · 0 I hear death saying , Hello, I'm here! As a group, Joans, Jones and Spellman can be carefully compareJ to · t'he llow:ircl Poets. simil:ir . They are in th e same a ge range and their themes anJ inter C:s ts are Spellman, like Jones studi e J at Howard Univ e rsity µnd ha~ ncted as disc jockey \•dth FM rndio stations. His book reviC"ws articles ·on j clzz which hav e appear ed in Kulchur, The Republ.ic n~J The Nation . volume of poems, The Beautiful Days, \vas published. In 1964 his first : lie has also pu_blished a book-len~th study of JHack music . (Four Lives in the Be Bop Busin es s, 1966) .' 11 ·• In "Zapa ta & the Landlorc.l" the "thi ef ," the speo.ker, i s runnint; in "circles.· The poem is a humo rous treatment of revolutiono.ry struggle in u Latin American country. In "What is It" Spellman app lie s a s imil ar t echnique . This time a cat "hid es ln your face ," ln th e corne r s of th e mou th and .in "tltat :;trilcnge canyon" 1.Jehind the eyes. " A T,1eft of 1/ishes" is cxp~rimcntal ln its us e - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- -- - - �.of _jn 2,~~ eLl lines and shifts !Jecwcen th e tan:;ibl1 •. ,:mJ surreal \Wrlds. In the end we are tolJ that home is where 1H,! make our noise. Another po e t \·J ho j o i11::r this "irrevcnt" generation is the lleat innovator Bob Kaufman of th e S ,111 F r .:;incisco r~ay ar~a . :,ide:; f rom fcrlin1_;hcttl ' s City Li :~ ht s J:ooks : Ills first ,~orl~:, cari1 e out as broa~l" The aho111inist Vi.:111lfesto ," "Second J\pr i.l" aml " Docs the Secret Hin<l \._lhispcr ." !Zaufman' s poetry, con- veying protest throu[;h understat ement and irony, is m::irked by unusual and surreal images . His bo oks arc Sol i. tull e s Crowded with Lon ~l i rw ss (1965) · and Golden SarJine (1967). Solitmlcs 1•1 as published in Frcncl1 , · 11 i111111e<li.:.1 t c l y " achieving " a notoriety rare among books of poetry. by . for e i gn poet s . 11 Sardine) . (j ~1cket, Leading French m::i 0 azines reviewed tl1e book, publishers noteJ,. adding thut "Tod ay in Frnnce Kaufman is considered amoni; the tr.(2ates t Negro -American poets alive in spite of his continuing exclusion frorn i\meL·ican anthologies, ho th hip & .:ic;ademic . 11 ("A f:r:ican Dream 11 ) , Kaufo1.:1n' s themes arc racial me1:1ory jazz ( 11 \/alking P::irker llome, 11 "\Jest Coast Sounds-':-1956, ") other poets and writers ("Ila rt ••. Crane, 11 "Ginsberg ," "Camu s : I wan.t to i(now"), incarcer.:1tion (a series of 34 in Jail Poems), history, mytholor;y anJ religion; In " The Eyes too" he says Hy eyes too h:1ve souls .that rage .... A "Cincophrenicpoet " meets \•iith "aJ .l five" of himself where a vote is taken to " expel " tile "weakest " one who resents it .:ind so.1rs over all limits to cross, spir.11, and whirl. Somewhat typical of Kaufman ' s elliptical constructions and \Jacky ima r,ery is "13 eavy \later lilues": �The radio is teachin g my go ldfish ·Jujitsu I am in love with a skindiver ,Jl10 : sleeps un<l e n:ater, Ny nei ghbors are <lrunken linguists , & I speak butterfly, Con~o]itlnt e c.l Edison is thr ea tenin fl to cut off my brain, Tl1e postmau keeps putting sex in my mailbox, I put my eyes on a diet, my tears a re g aining too much weight . In tlLis form and style, Kaufman is not only related to · th l'! 1\~::i t s but t _o ..fones ~ Joans, S~ellman, Atkins, and the fictec.1 young Los Angeles poet K. Curtis Lyl~. Among the older poets who did not come into prominence unti l th e 1960s : were Ve s ey (Columbus, Ohio), Holman (Minter City, Mississippi), . Hctl. \vri i~ ht (Princ eton , tlew Jersey), O'Higgins (Chica go ), Duckett (Brookl y n.), Atkins (Cl eveJ.:ind), Emanuel (Nebrask::i ), r:.anda ll (lvashing ton, D .C.). .T h.1.2sc ·poets , and oth e rs of their generation, arc not similar enou gh to be lab e l ~.d a "school" or "mov ement '' but they c a me of a ge durin g th e intc z ration push when · words Black "id entity " and "humanity" engcnc.lere<l more philosophical (li.scussion ·t han they do today. These nre the men who went to \·J orld \Jar II, opposed lynching , · attended northern white g raduate scho<;)ls: academic or professional careers. Host were occasional poets pursuing Vesey as a poet and professionnl, brid ge s middle pas sage between African and .'\fro - America . At Fisk Univ e rsity he studied creative writin g under James lfolJon Johnson, then went on to law school at llarvnrd. l-n1ile studyin g at th e Sarbonne in Pa ri s some of Iris poem s were p ubli shed, through the interces~ion of Richard Wri ~ht, in the French ma ga zine Presenc e /\fricnin c . Vesey has h elpe d r:1;ea tly in the int e rpretation and - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - �and di.sscrnination of ~~ceritude . Paul Vesey (birth name Smnuel J\llen) is the name under which h e published his bilin,:•,ua.l volume of poems: Zahne (Ivory Tusks, 1956, Germany). Elfenbein Vesey works with skill nnd precision . "The Staircase" is a poe1.1 on which, Vesey says , "I 11oulJ rest my case , I think, anJ tha _t of the fJc ~ro in tl1is lanJ." (Blues) th1.:: poem studies th e .· Black predicament thr ou:~h the pli ~ht of a man for whom the "stairs mount to lii. s eterni ty." Perhaps, like Sisyphus , th e stair is purposefully "unending " since the rotten floor , the "dripping faucet" and the "cracked ceiling" also remain. The man is joined by a "twLn" who later ~oes "exalted to his worms." Vesey u l so 1vritcs an clciw for Dyl.'.1n Thomas ("Dylan, Hho i:.; ·nca<l"), .:1 praise for Black basehall 1 e~cnd s~ tch el Paige ("American Cotl1ic"), and piece intcn,,eaving two different iJeas anJ themes: ll 1;m.,c·rru"1 · one- vicwin;_; t"ho universe and th e mortality of man; the other kno1.,ring the reality of being lllack ,.1nd · called "nigger" by t1vo adolsecent r;irls . tribute to Louis Armstronf_> "To Satcli" is rcmin"l f>ce·nt of Tolson 's Speaking in the poem, Sa t chel Pai~;e_ s<1 ys one mornin~ he is goin g to brab a "hancHulla stars, 11 thrm-1 three strikes to - burn Jown the "heavens," And look over at God and say llow about that! ' llolman's work is among the few entries for poetry in Soon, One Morning. But h e is also found in other anthoJo s:i;e s. Ile has led an active life as a Civil lUghts fighter (Inforiuation Officer of the United States Commission on · Civil P-iGhts) editor (Atlanta Inquirer), writer, and teacher. at Chica 130 University he won sever:.11 aw~1rds for 1vriting. \-Jhile a studer1.t llolmnn, ,vhose poetic subjects range from complex psycl1ic meditations to racial pride, is very good indeed but much overlooked. The l e isure class finds c locks "intrude too �early" ln 11 ,\nd on This Sho re . " ·The [jCnera l indlf ference ls also captured: Across the c ups we yawn at privatci murd ers . " Picnic: The Lib e rat ed " examines th e shifting ·unccr tainiti cs vlith leisured southerners must live . The tension of everyday southern life . lie underneath th e merriment _of th e pic111c· g roun<l s where me,1 rot a te th e liquor in "dixie c u ps" an<l "ab sen tl y " c.l i sc u,, s !'civil ri~~hts , money and r, oous . " Yet as the "country dark" comes in and they return to sprinlere<l yar<ls and "morq~a ge <l houses " they do not know they a re Privile~ed prisoners in a haunt e d lantl . Yet this same poet can hear " Three Brmm Girls Singin ?, !I throu t:,h the ' 'rib s. of an u g ly sc hool building. " · Celebratin:..; th e Black musical pa~t, l!ol1nuri sees them Fuse on pure so und in a shaft of April li ght: ... ·Nell. \fright , no,1 a Federal District Jud ge in New York, \•his_. ii i~lncol~ University poet and Hith Hu r;hes and Cuney edited Lincoln Unive:i-si cv· _Po ets ( 195Lf) . Ile served overseas in World \·Jar II , later r ece ivin ~ law trainin r, a t Fordhc1m . lnlile he was in the Army in Hales, h e published a volL1111e of his poetry, From t:hc Shaken Tower (191,Li) . " The A~ric::in Affair" finds Md( Hri[\ ht on a safari to find out wh£it " Black is ." li e discovers it: in "prisons ,'·' in the " devils <lance ," where " desert s. bun1 , " the Middl e Pass age ; · :i nd areas · t o wh ich " conscience cannot )jO ." lli s ·sea rch carries him deep into Africa where " tr aders shaped my f .. thcr ' s pain ." In "Four Odd DoJkins for My An alyst " one finds that " out:ra p, ed flesh of secret guilt " has come from the pressures of "circum s tance " and " n ccJ ." Fi11c1l ly, " When You h a:,.,e go n e from Frooms " there are "never bloo1:1ing petals" nnd "neve r hurnin~1 suns. " Bontemps calls O ' Ili p,g ins a mem!Jer of th e "trib e of Hn n~lerin g poets ." �i\fter studying with Sterlin ::,, Brmm nt llownrJ, O' llig~; ins won Lucy l!oten anc.l lle l.:1ter served in 1forld I.Jar II, · )uli us ltosenwald F0llm-JShips in writ in ;; . after which he co-authored, with llayden, The Lion nnd The i\rcher (1943) . O'lliggins's style is less formnl than eit h er llolm.::m ' s or HcH . \fright ' s . He · is closer to Vesey, especially_ in poems 1 ike "Young Poet" and "Two tean Cats" in which · th e r .:.dn fell lik e "ra gGed jets" and made a " r,rav e along" the street . The lean cats , runnin~ in " checkered terror" intu a poolroom, find that a "purpl e billiard b.:111" 111.:1kes the colur scheme explode . The much antholo~izecl "Vaticide ("For !loliandas C:handhi") sees G.:imlhi "murd ered upright in the clay" and left \vith his flesh " opened and displayed . 11 Dut , who cre.: tL.cd tl1e " act of Jove" knmrn Lhe ~uUty ~:;ir_r y_ his ''llcatl1 to r.:heir. ·coo1n5."". r.andhi ' s 11 111:irvelous 11ounJ:;" contain tl1L! s un and the seas . Diffcccnt, y :t similar , these pocts sour;ilt throu~h their individual voices to ·duc.t l. with man ' s current and past hurts. i\tl~ins, for example, sa,, the '\;1.1 0llcn <lee:r" rise bii:,h e r as he ' '\;ent walkini " in section t1-10 of "Fant asie .•·•. ·A 1 '.r.e.st.J.ess experimentalist with a very hi g h re ;;.:ird for craftmanship," Atkins j1.:1s a _· founder of Frce T.nncs.,:. (1950) which JU. vers called the " oldest black-Loss c d magazine around ." Between 194 7 and 196:2 , Atkins 's poetry upp e.arccl in nu1frerous journals and other outlets . A fe,J a.re View, Deloit: Poetry .Journ :1 1, l! innesota Quarterly, Jlakcd Ear, Gall e y Sail Tlev.i e \/. Bis volu1ues of poetry are Phenomena (1961), Psychovisuul Perspective for I!usical Composition (1958), T110 by Atkins (The Abortionist nnd Th e Co rps e : Objects (196J), and ll e retofore (196 8) . as complex as the poetry itself . Two Poetic Dramas set to Music, 196 3) , AtLins ' s a es t:hctical ideas ;ire uften An early t:rainin c in music and literature, he said in Sixes and Sevens, that.he 1-1as t:ryin~ for " egocentrical phenomenalism: an objective construct of propcrtiet~ tci substantiate effect as object ." .... lie �searclHiS ;1fter the "J es i gncd im a~ina tiun." In " Ni gh t and a Distanl Church " lie moves " ForwarJ abrupt " tl1en "u p" throu !;h a series of interming lin g "mnun" and " ells " with words like "win d " and "rc1in." ti1ere is more . than Llle hint of Tolson' s ability to mca11Jer amonp, Crc1eco-n.omans and Af ru-Arner.Lcirn trnditions in Atkins's po\.:: try. J\ut ·J 1e · is unique. " At \for" informs the rccJ.Jer that beyond the "turning ::;ea's [ar fuam " the " epliernera " of a "mome nt's da\111 11 suJden ' d its appear .... Later, in the sane poem , after .::illusions to llcnunin gway , the s ilence splits: Listen a moment-- ! Sh ! Listen--! that hurry as of a shore of fuE;itlves. Onc e Atkins ' s technique is understood, how e ver, his . poe'try can be -c~t-ijoyeJ fur · lts witty, 1-1ac ky, off-beat, philosophical musings . In "Irrita ble Song " lie inver U,, reverses and convolutes re g ular syntax: Or say up on return Coronary farewell Leaves me lie. Dare, sir? Ugh! lie nay'u Tomorro.J, L01,1orrow in today? Atkins writes of th e fine arts, John Br own ' s i.:aid on Harper ' s Ferry, Black heroes ("Chr Ls tophe"), the "Tr ainyanl at Nil:ht ," the Cleveland lake front , and other subjects which fit his style and interests. At another e11d of the stylisti c and thematic pule i s Rallllall , a librariat1 by trainin g and trade who, as we shall see in our discussion of poets o[ the late sixties, fii urcs prominently in tl1e development of an audience for the . I d., ') l �· llew UL1ck Poetry . Randall also served in 1/orld War TI and Hritcs poems about the war, love, violence, art and the Dlack presence . llis \,ell knO\m " Uook.er T . anJ W.E . ll .,'' digesting the Washing-DuDois controversy, Has seen by DuBois and this pleased Randall. Tl1e poem first appeared in Midwest Jouinil, 1952 . Randall ha s aJso 1, ritten about and trnnsJatecl Russ-Lnn poetry . \Hth i'larg:uet · Donner he co-authored Poem Counterpoem (1966) and his Cities Burning appeared in 1968 . Nore to Rememlicr . (1971) pulls together Randall ' s poems from " four decades." Ills work has Leen published in Umbra, Ue.loit ro,try Journal, and other places . Ile initiated the Hroadside Series (pusters) in 1965 with dation for l1is Broadside Press , the most signifiGnnt Illack press in hLlerica . . ltandall's 1Jork of this period has the stamp of formality. Ile wri.tes in ballads and free verse forms but he has a tightness that will lie .n ilaxed in the lat e sixties and seventies. " I.eg.:1cy " chronicles the hurt, physical ~md . . . mental, of a land "Li t by a bloody moon ." . . Rut the one who is · 11 1i1oul_Je;<l from thi s clay " vows that My tenrs r edeern my ·rears . "P erspectives " recasts the time-immemorial them e of '\,e only paHs tlfis \la'y once ." There is no need to co111plai.n _;1 bout discomfort, the poem s:1ys , because even the mountai n s--in their hu ghenes·s_--n re Jissolved 11 .:11Jay" hy the seas . Randall ' s Pacific Epita.£!1s are recoile et ions of the war. are epi~•.rammatic and haiku-like . The short pieces .Here is a poignant one ("Iwo Jima"): Like oil of Texas My blood [_;ushed here . Prominent Ln a group of Detroit poets (tlargaret Danner, Oliver La Crone , Naomi Long Madgclt, .James Thompson and others) , l~andall often c1uneshes himself �in n sense of personal injury over his p20ple ' s hisc.ory. This t~ndency, and a c.lebt to the DL:ick po et ic tr adiUon (espcd.'.llly ~;terli.n:~ llro1m), cnn be seen in " The Southern Roac.l " where Lhe "bla ck . river" servqs .:is u "bounJary to hell." Tlie country is "ll.:i u ght y as .:i star " 1\nJ I set furLli upon the so uth e rn road . The variety of St.Jlcs ·,.md th emes [ounc.1 in tl1 ese poets i s found .:ilso in younger poets of their i:eneration : l'.:i t ter so n, Addison, Hrmm e , RL~Jmond, Jay Wright, Anderson , He rnton , a nd Polite co1ae r c.:idi l y to mind. poets , l'uttersou is particularly .int erest.in~; - Of these Ills "Bl ack ull Day " yie lded from it s seconJ line the title for I Snw Ilm, Black 1 \..';is. Patt .rso11 ; ;:mother·· Lincoln University poet , ,,1o n an mvard for his poetry while still o.n uudl.i.r.graduute . A native New Yorker , he studied politicul .sc L:;'. nce and l'.ngL.ish , and has Horked as a counselor for delinquent boys anJ an English Instructor'. Pa t terson said in Sixe s nnd Sevens that his fir s t po em was wriq:e n · cluring Wor l d \far II as the c onseq uences ." 11 out- g ro\-1th of a Cain-and-Abel conflict ,~itlio u~ _th e. tlire " Three Views of Dawn " incl u des the " silken shawl of. ni ght ," • t he ~i sappearance of " corner spe c t e rs " :md the " split.tin~" of " stillness·.·,, The musical " Tla Tla " presents fr ee ve r se sriced ,,itl1 a lliterntive l .:i ngual;e of landscape , se:ison :ind nat u re . Sitting " Alone, " the protagonist of the poern '" keeps poems warm" as he watch es. over the sle e ping lovers as well as th e " numb " who wak e and we'ep . Pa t terson did no t publish a h ook un t il 1969 ; and its titl e , 26 \foys of Looki ng at A Black Man , shows the influ e nce of irna g ists and modernists ( see Wa l lace Stevens ' s 13 \.fays of Looking at A Black Bini ) . It also revea l s mu c h about t he Black poet ' s ability to for g e .:ind merge his academic training �with hi s own in<ligcnis m. The spe a k e r in " Blacjz a ll Day " i s "lo oked " into "ra ge and s h ame " by a whL t e passerby ; out he vo11s th at "tomo rr m-, " I'll <lo as much for him. Patterson constructs a sol i d poetic foundation, "stone on stone," i.1.5 li e paints pre c ise · portrai _ts of "th e brav e who do n o t break" when provoked ("You Arl! the Brave"), or the "lost, the "tireless and ra g in g soul, " (" Envoi"). In the 1,o rk of Patterson, .:ind the yo un ge c grou p of th e period, one finds anger or prot est , thou gh th e gener a l t endc nc e is toward experimental verse which pinpoints th e surest and ri chest human feelinGS . jects more often than not r e fl ec t this fact. As Black poe ts, their sub- _ But v~n:.Lcty is - c~rtaj·nl y not shunned by th em . Neither ls variety avoided by their sisters of th e pen and image : Black women who have been an identifi ab le aspect of the long tradi~ion of Afro-Ame rican Poetry . Phyllis l-n1eatl ey was th e most well known fcinale p_o et until th e mid-ninet een th century when Frances Ha rper took u p t he , bc.tnner· of · fame thou gh not of skill. A later ne1,;r mood was evidenced in the work of An ge lina Gri mke , Ceorr;ia Douglass Johnson (the most famous poet after Franc e s llarper), Gwendolyn Bennett, Ann Spencer , Alice Nelso n Dunbar, itelen~ Johrison (a young spark in th e Rcnnissancc), M:rr?, ,ne t Halker, and Gwendolyn Broots. _Between th P forti es and sixties, th e n ube r o f pub]i shin g wom e n poets increased~ Po e try in America has remain e d und er the domain of whiles (men); and since wome n in gen e ral have not had th e .range of opportunities op0 n t o 1t1en, certainly th e Bla ck woman went tl1 e worse way of that flesh ! poets of the pe riod still remains impressive: But th e li s t of Black women Gloria C. Oden (Yonk e rs, New York), Naninn Alba (Mont gomery) , Marflaret Danner (Pr yo rsbur g , Kent11cky) , Mari Evans (Tol e do), Julia Fields (Uni6ntown, Alabama), Vivian Ayers �(Chestcr, South Carolina), Audr~ Lordc (New York), Naomi Lon~ }!a<l g ett (Norfolk), Pauli Murray (Baltimore), Sarah Writhe (Witipquin, }~ryland), May Hiller (Washin 8 t on, D. C . ), anct Yvonne Gre: •:,:iry (Uashv lll e ) , ainonr; the dozens of occasional and re eional names. In 1952--two years aft;.:,1· C\1endolyn :Ur-oks won the Pulitze:r P ri z c--G.C . Oden , who uses her i1titiuJs "us a \-1ay of ueing anunyrnou s ," r'(•cc.i.vcd ;:i John liay \·/hitney Opportunity Fellmvship for · ·. The I·l;i L ed Frame : A Love Poem and Sonnets . She has \•JOrkcd as a senior editor of a rn;J.jor puullslting house and currently teaches l.::nglish in 13alti111ore . the fifties, she joined the Villa g e poets in ln l..!w York where she re,1ll her poetry ln coffee shops, rcvic,1cJ boots and uorJ:.ed on a novel. has also arpeared in The Saturdn v l~cvicw nml ThL' Po,: try ]) lgest; Her · poetry r:ot: i.n:i that · she appeals "primarily to the intellect ," Hayden ( l:ul..iidos copc) co1i1 pared .lier to Cullen, adding that she " is concerned with poetry as an nrt expressi ng · what is meaninr,ful to everyone , not just a vehicle for protest ;:ind special pleading ." Although G . C. Oden uses a variety of forms, her poems .are 1.1 sually crisp and intellectually tart. "The Carousel" in an empty park rides me round and rounJ , and the dark drops for her as she gleans her surr:oundings with . explicit worcl-clwices: "si ght focusses shndow . 11 • In "Review from St.'.lten Island" an item ' in the viev, ls " spewed up fro ni h'.uter·. Later we are told that "One gets used to dyinr, livin g " and "even th e . rn g c disposes of summer." We hear the dislocated woman in " ... As t1hen emo·tion too far exceeds its cause" (phrase from Elizebeth Ilishop) . Retreatin g from h eartbreak , she admits that she t oo knew "lov e 's celestial venturin g .": I, too, once trusted air that plunged Yes, 1 ! 1,1e down. �Nanina Alba is similarly terse and poignant. The Parchments (1963) and The Parchments II were published before her.· <lea th in 1968 . She taught English, Husic an<l French in public schools an<l was for a long time a member of the English Departmen t at Tuskegee Iustitute. "Be Dael!alus " · makes use of r.reek Hy _tholo,w to chaw a subtle and analogy between Black and Icarus's "unwise" actions . Death cor,H~s as a "tax" fo r "par chin~" the sun: Suns can be brutal thini:s. "For Malcolm X" recnlls "History' s stonin~." Margaret Danner is slinilarly sensitive . Born in Detroit, she has spent the r;rea t er part of her life in Chicago where she was o.ne t _i111e cu.it.or of ·. Poetry. Iler poems in that publication in 1952 promp t ~d the John . tlay . HhHtH~y Fellowships Committee to offer her a trip to Africa . · AnJ in 19G2 · the. liternry gro up with which she id ent ifi ed in Detroit wns the subject of a special issue of the flulletin of Ne?.,ro History . She hns published four volumes:· Impressions of African Ar t Forms in Poetry (19 62) , To Flower (1962), Poe~ Counter0oem (with Dudley Randall, 196G) and Iron Lace (1968). A. former poet-in-residence at Hayne State University , she founded Boone ll ouse , a lively center . for the arts in Detroit, and a similar cultural program in Chicago: No]ogonya ' s. She employs A.fricnn t erminology anJ theme; but she can nlso write delightfully in other veins as in " The Elevator }\a n Adheres to Form." win gs " the elevntor reminds h er of " l:.ol'pco art ." The "t nn man who · Struck by his ele1_;ance--and "God speedings "--the she wonders why · so intelligent and artf ul a "tan" man has to run elevators . It is a meticulous poem, subtlety exposin g the lie that c<lucntion <JLHllifies you . She finnl ly uishes tile elevator man '.s services cound be employed toward l ift. in n th em 3hove their cripplin ~ storm . �Far Fro1n Africa : Four r oeus is ·a sh ee t of sights, sounJs a nd su gges tions carryin~ th e reader across "moulting days " in "thejr twili g ht," ("G.:irnishinr, the Aviary"), "lines " of "c lassic tutu," (" Dan.:e o f the Ab.:1kweta"), " eyes lowered" from " despair, " ("The Visit Li bet.I of ~:r(,en· moss , o[ the Professor of Acs tl1.etics ") and spa r kl in i:; as a beetle, tlari ]-.vans is anotht't" ·Lind of transit ionalist--shiftin g from Civil lUghts poetry of the early phase to, [ini1lly , i1 more obvious "!Ha ck " s t .:ince Her I Ami\ ];Jack \.Jo111::in \vas not publ i shed until 1970. of the l nte r perLoJ . She ha s 1vorke<l as a civil service em ploy ee , tv shO\v h os t ess ancl producer , a nt.I in struc tor of viriting . Sometimes refer r e d t u as technical, heir to Gwendolyn' Drooks , a .sp~r.it ual, if · not_· !..Jri Evans cmplnys irony, susileosion , . an<l rich folk iJioms in a -:- r ee ve rse sty le. " The l{~bel;" poncle ririg· his dea th and funeral , won<lers if Curiosity seekers want to LnO\•/ uh e ther sl1e hus really cl LeJ or ju s t wants t o cause "Tr o ubl e.·. .. ;" Ther e i s humor and sa tir e in manner of Vcscy 1 s 11 /\ 11 \-/hen in rromc " as th e poet int e r laces (in the Homen t, Please ") t\W diff e r e nt conversutions . 13lack mc1itl " Harrie dear , 11 is allo\Jc<l t o ea t " whatever " she likes· . . 'The Alternatini_; the maid 1 s silent r espo n ses with tl1 e reci L.:1 tion of a me nu of th e 111iJ Jle class environment ("Rome "), the poem incid_en·tal ly r ecords th e tra<li.tiona l so ul food i t ems whi ch th e maiJ craves. ." The Emancipat Lon of George-llector " ("the colored turtl e ") shO\,s a g rowing i mpatience with one - step-at-a -t ime social c hani_: e policy . The turtle us e d to stay in his " shell " but now. he peeks out, extend s his arms and le gs , and talLs. anti se ntL1,1entc.1 l. Bu t thi s s.::ime poet can wax philosophical "If th e re he Sorr0\·! 11 it s hould Le f or the tliin ::s not yl.!t· dreamed, realized or done. l\d<l to th ese the wLthholding of love, l ove �"restrnincd ." In " Shrine to what shoulcl De" an·. audience is asked to "sin g" songs to "nobility," an<l "Ri ghtousness. 11 The ch ildren should brin i, "Trust, 11 the women "Dr eams, " the old men "c onstancy ." fronically th ii a udi e nce is tolJ to ignore tears that fall like a "crescendo," and constantly as " a sof t black rain." Iler tribut e to Gospel sinr;,ers is telling in" ... And the Old Women Ca the reel." One cinno t (despit e "Rome") esc.:ipc one's self, the poet says, ns s he notices th a t the "fierce " and"not melodic " music lingered on even as "we ran." Julia Fields, truly sensitive spirits , studied at Knox Colle ge in Tennessee, in En13lanJ and Scotland, an<l has tau ght in high school an u· _c o llege . . . Her work appeare,l in Umbr a , Massachusetts H.eview .:ind oth e r journn1s. . . Along . · with H:up;aret Halker, Tom Dent, Alice \/alker, Pinkie ·cor<lun Lane, ·un·<l ·Spe llm_a q she is among the few good Black poets who now voluntarily live in the South. Her first book, Poems, was brou~;ht out by Poets Press in 1963, ·t .h~ · same year · she received a National Council on the Arts grant . She is sub s t u11tialiy represented in R. Baird Shuman's Nine Bl ack Poets (1968) and her East of Moonlight was published in 1973. She also writes short stories and plays . Iler main poetic subjects are racism, death, love, violence and historr, "The Generations" come and go and in between there arc "Th e wars."- AnJ in between them are the seasons, flo\-i e rs, '.'lavender skies, 11 dawns·, " Sombre seas," and the "embry onic calm." "Arr dv:irk" has achieved "fame" since "Hulcolm · died and the poet muses: Looks like Mnlcolm helpecl Bring attention to a lot of things We never thou ght about before. She again salutes this martyr in "For Malcolm X" whose " eyes were mirrors of our a go ny." In "No Time for Poetry" the render is advised that miclni ght is �not time to beseech one's muse : too much " calm." the " spirit" i$ "too la gr, in g " and there is But the mornin~ is ideal sinc:e it carries "vibrntions of lau r;hter " and has no "oran:;e -Hhite mists . " As ·a "woman," listenin;~ near the · " broken-hin ged door " at a man talk of war ("I Heard A Youn ~ Man Snyin~"), the narrator "_somehow planned on livin p, . " world " sends 11 And the "bri~ht ~lare of the neon ['.,as-ivords· burstjn;-; free" in "Hadness One Monday Even in :; . " Pauli Murray and Sarah Wright are sometimes poets who also write other things . Pauli Murray pursued trainin g for law \-Jhil e s l1 e 1vun academ i.c aw;:irds and fellol/ ships for her writing . A Civil ni:>,hts pioneer, she published one volume of verse (Dark Testfr1ent, 1969) a nd a family history_ (Proud · Shoes ~·. 195fi). . In 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \lithout lfarne , II she is revealed as a formal but excellent craftsm,tn. Tliere are no names for true feeling ; but let the "flesh sing ·.1nthems to - its . ;_n-rivaL 11 Sarah Wright , known as a novelist (This C.hilJ's Gonna Live), co-authored Give Me A child in 1955 with Lucy Smitl1 . About Black writers she sntd, · in 19Gl, " My motto is tell it like it damn sure is." " black outlines in livini:; flesh . 11 and traffic lights . I In 11 \·iindow Pictures" . s.l1e ·sees "Ur gency" vie\vS relationship bet1._1een drivers "God" is "thanked " that the car stops so the p~1ssenger • can " glory " a whi l e in the " time-bitten punctuatiqn." Of the "pause ·. " Vivian Ayers, the daughter of a blacksmith, GttencJed Barber.~Scotia College (Concord) and Dennett Colle ge . (Greensboro) \Jhere her major · interests were drama , music and dance. She publ.i5:l.1ed a volume of poems (Spice of Dawns) and an allegorical drama of freedom and the spnce ai:;e (llawk), performed at the University of Houston ' s Educational Television Station . lives in llouston where she ed i.ts a quarterly journal , ,\dep t. Currently, she ''.Instantaneous " features a man hein r, " :-; tunned" by th e bolt of " cross-firing energies" and grnbbecJ up jn a blaze resonant as n million hallelujas-- . �A 1,1.:1n j11habits another man who, dyin t:, g asps fi.lintly: "tly ~o<l--this is God .. , " Similar an<l different is N.::iomi Lon;~ Haclgett, who moveJ to Detroit from Virginia in 19116 to teach at a high school. from Wnyne S tat~ Univer s ity. She holds a Mnster's· J.e g ree AssociateJ with the Detroit group of poei$, she has published four volu1,1es: Son r1s to a Phanto1 '. 1 Ni r, htinr,ale (19L1l), One in the Many (1956), Star by Star (19GS, 1970), and Pink Ladies in the Afternoon (1972). Currently she teuches I:nglish at tastern Michi~.:m University and runs the newly cstablisliccl Lotus Press. projects was Deep Rivers: (197L1), which lncludcs .:1 A Port fol Lo: One of its first 20 Conte mpon1r v I\Llcl, A1ne i·i~:nn . Poets teachers' guid e prepared by Lhe poet. tJiL o r s fur Deep l~ivers include Leonard P . Andrews, Eunice L. llownrd, and GL:idys Rogers . i·!. The 20 poster poets are Pnulette Childress White, Jill \-iithersroon, \Hlliam Shelley, G. C . Oden , Haoml Ha<l g ett, Patterson, La Gron.e; Pamela CoblJ, Pinkie Con.Ion Lane, Etheridge !(night, Run<lall, l!i.lyuen, Thomps·on._; : Hargarct Walker, June Jordan, Gerald W. Barrax, Audre Lorde, RcdmonJ, Michael S . · Harper and l~aufman. Naomi HaJgett ' s "Simple" ("For L:rngston llu i~hcs) is realj~; tLcally humorous. Simple sits in a b.:ir, wanting to talk.· to so1ncon¢, when he is approached by a hand-out seeker who needs to cl,an r, e his clothes "but' rny lan ' lndy' bolled the door." Jo yce will tap "imputiently" .:ind leave the bar and Simple vion<ler n g what "he· \:1anted to say." In "Mort:ility" we learn th a t of "all the deat'i1s" thi s one is the "surest. 11 Some Jeaths ..ire merely " re:ice" but vultures "reco r, nize" the "sin g Je mort:11. thinL;" th:.it holds on to 1 ifc and they \,alt hu11 ~~ ari] y for the t i.mc ~ten hupe starts ~ta ggc rin ~ . Man must come to grips Hith the thinp,s of tlds worl<l, we arc tol<l in �"The Rec 1:oninf;" : And why nnd hm-1 nnd what, and so1:1l ·times even if. 0 Poems from Trinity : women and humans . 11 ( A Dream Sequence convey uncert a inties and fcnrs of One character has been besei ged by "dream and·Jream again " 411 ) ancl a n.'.lked day "corrodes t he silv er dream " b ut the music will not. " cea se to shiver . " ("Hl ") . · "After" ls a lan1e11tc1tio11 for "mortaJs" \vltliout "wln:1s " to fly awny fro1,, th e "purple sad ness" of ni;~ht. ,\ml "Poor J~enalJ0 11 is " deaJ and gone Hl1erever people go " \. hen they "never loved a sonr~ . " 1 even "hell" 1,1ust have "music of a sort." llu t Finally sculptcJ , like the ot 1ers, unre s tin13 , 11 Audre Lonle ' s 1,,1ork ref]ects sl~iJl a nd controJ. ·1n 'the early' :;i:-.t:ies she wrot e : I wn a :-~cg ro woman my realm of choice. i:111<1 a poet--all thre e things stand ouLslde Hy eyes have a pc1rt in my seeing, my_ breath in by Lreathing , all that I am in who I am . love .:ire of my people . All who I was not born on a farm or in a forest, but in the centre of Llie l;:ir g~st city .i.n th !.'. world-:-a member of the hui11:.in race her.u,1erl in by stone, ,1\•1ay fro111 earth ~md sunl.i.[;ht. COJJll!S J; ut \Jhat is in 111y · liJ ood ~ind sl~in of r Lclmess, Lhe roundabout j ourncy frou ·,\fr lc:i throu (jh sun i s lands to a stony co-1st , ancl t 'icse are· the gifts throu ,:h \Jhiclt I s in g , tlirou)jh \·1hich I sec . This is the knowled ge of the sun , and of lim, to love even where Lhcrc .i.i, no sunlL;-,l1t. Tl1ls · i s the kn0\•7lcdi_;e and the rich0ess I shall L, ivc my child rcn proudly, as a streneth against th e less ohv Lous forms o [ narrmmess and nil_;ht . �J\udre Lot; <le thus ~ivcs a balanced account of her self c1s a imman, Blc1ck and poe t. And al l these things she hc1n<lles qui_te well in her poetry-- on page ,.rnd in the air. She has published thrC(' volumes: The First Cities (1 968 ), Cables to Ra ~e (19 70) <:1nd From a Land where other People Live (1973) , which w<:1s nomi.natcd for r eflects Oi1 .:i :-rational Boo!~ Award . In her early poetry she "Oaxaca" ( Ln Hexico) where the " land moves sl01•1 ly " under the " carving drag of vJOod . 11 The drudging field work goes on while the hills arc "l irC\·ling thunder" and one can observe All a man ' s strength in his sons ' young nrms .... " To a Girl who knew what si<le Iler 13reacl was Buttered on " describes the girl as a " catch of brir_: ht t hun<lcr " apparently gu.1rded by (and e·uardia.n ·of) _ bones .. · Or dered to leave the bo n es , she watches as they ris~ - llkl' " an ace.an· and trample the one who orde r s her " into t h e earth ." . " for th in Lhc moonpit of a virgin ." The 11 or-stnl\v 11 . N;.1 mph 11 is brought In " How can I Love Yoll " the ui1\v<:1nte<l lover " comes like a thin binl"-- unlike the magnificent Phoenix bird _of myt holoey--later to become " great ash ." No wonder , the speaker con_firms_, that your sun wen t down . The " Hoon-minded t he Sun .. . " decrees that The light that makes us fertile s hal l make us sa n e . And we hear t hat the " year has fallen"- in " Father, the Year ... " Audre Lorde ' s work c u ts s h a r p pa t hs of insig h t nnd ligh t ac r oss the stealthing ignorance and diffusion around her . " AnJ Fall shall sit in Judgment" ex.1minC:!s lov e, co n cluding that " in all seasons " it is fa l se , but the s.1me . A much-neglec t ed poet is M□ y Miller , of Washin~ton, D. C. , and whom GwencloJyn Brooks acknowleJr,es as " excellent and lonp,-celebro.tetl " (Introduction ) �· Tile Po 12 try of Dlac: ~ Ame ric a ). 11i ss Drooks also laments Hay Hill er 1 s absence amon f\ tho se nn th o lo p, i ze J. lier work c<.111 be found in three volumes: Into the Clearinri_ (1 959 ), Poems (1962), and she is one of tl1ree poets r ep r esen t e d in Lyrics of Three Homen (1964). . Currently a member of ·the · . Commi ssion on th e Arts of th e District of Columbia, she has been c1 t eachur, · lectu r ·r, dramatist a nJ has published her poetry in a number of mn r.; az ines : Co111c1on Gr o und, The Ant ioch . Review, Th e Cr i sis , Phy l on, a nd The llntion . "Calvary Way" s how s n Christi.:m influ e nce with a twist of irony c1nll g ore·. Hary i s asked h ow she felt , "womb -h eavy with Chr ist Ch ild, " ns sh e tasted th e "du st " o f a n "un certai n _iourney." finally asks Mary: " Were yo u nfrnid?" Recallin :( th e .c.ruci.fi): 1 0 11., tile poem · The "r oi'lc;hes are winninr," in '' The last Wnrchouse" where humans seek to " abner,a t e s urvival laHs" and k.111 roaches until they are "saturated with their d e crease ." " 'fl 1e wr on13 s1., . l e o f· ,.'I orn1.ng . II were s 11a 1( en f rom a 11 The ch.:1racters in : s II.. a n d n.t• [: l1t111arc o f 1nng " mu s hr oor,1s of hu ge death" as th e poet power fully collects ima ~l! S ·. and . ,Ltyer •.J meani n~s . " Procession " employs the dramatic technique (m.:1dc famou t, by llrown and oth e r::;) of i.nterlacinr, t he formal Ln i.; lish of the poem 11ith itaJ ~cizecl Black reiter;:itive expletives .:111d r._;frains such as "ltin r, , ha11u1H2r 1 ri1ig ! 11 It is tl1e procession o( Chris t but t.lll : rc!ader easily unJert,tand.s, . noting the £lack idiorns , tl1n t it ls a Black v rocession throu g h the lab yr lnthes of slavery anc.l racism. Ther~ ls a s rl ~:; · O[ juxtaposed contradiction s like " Time i s t.oday , yesterday , and ti1 •10 to come ," "moving ;:md r.1otlonlc s s, " and . "i nfinite takes familia r form ," as all while " we s eek convictio n." Christian mythology pervaJes Hay Hiller ' s work (though she Black-bases it). In "Tally " the subjects "lay there drained of time" anc.l empty like the "bul ge of l1our elass" viltile " Lucifer st.r e aked to reality." �The Jeaths of Dumas and ]livers l.::ft voiJs .aml created still more anxieties , coming as they did (19G J) in the midst of r acial turbulence. Ilowever, by the miJ-sixties both poets had written a grea t Jeal of poetry and a great deal about themselves. Rivers died an unnecessur y clc~.tlh in what has been . called an •11 ill1pulsive" act. white policeman in other. c1 ,;ew Ybrk suhway. Dumas \HIS shot to death by 3 Both deaths occured 1,1on ths of each Rivers was born in Atlantic City, · iew Jersey, and attended public schools in Pennsylvania , Georgia and Ohio . His colle~c Juys \1ere spent at \Hlberforce University, Chica~o State Teachers Colle~e anJ Imli:rna University. In hi gh schoo l (1951) he WOll the Savannnh St::i~e· poetry prize .. Rivers was g reatly influence·d by llu r,hes , \frieht anJ his uncle l,ay itclvC'r. llis five books , two of them published posthumously; are-: Perchance co Dream , Othello (1959), These Black Dodies nncl This Sunburnt Face (1962), Dusk a t Selrna (1%5) , The Still Voice of J:arlem (1%(3), anJ The \Jright Poems (1972 , · with an Introduction hy friend-novelist Ronald Fair). Ohio Poetry . Review, Kenyon Review , and Antioch Review were only a few magazines in whicl1 his work. appeared. Respondin g to a request (1962) to comment on himself as Black man and poet, Riv ers said, among other things: I write about the Negro because I am a Negro, and I am not at peace wi.th mysel f or the world. I cannot divorce my thou r,hts from the absolute injustice of hate. I cannot reel-on w.itl1 my color . I am obsessed by the ludicrous and psycholoeical behavior of hated men . And I shall conti.nue to write about racc--in spite of many 1,arnings-- �until I <l.i.scover myself, 1,1y future I my real race. I do not wish to capital i:~e on race, nor do I 1vi sh to begin a Crimean \Jar: I am only interested in recordin['. the truth squeezec.l from .my observ:1 t.i.ons and experil!nces . 1 am Lirc<l of hei.ng misrepresented . .i\clding tu the sta tement, Rivers said "b eauty anc..1 joy, whi.ch 1 ✓ ns in the world before and ltas been buried so lonp,, hns got to come back." But Rivers s.::iw little "beauty ancl joy" in his own mind's eye. His poetic landscape is often bleak .:inc.I filled 111th Jeep psychLc ye:;n' nin,~s and wnn<lerinr.;s through the ambivalences or l\lack-11hite rl!l,1L'.lons. is also tonicnt and brood Ln l: . 'l'h.c t:l' · In this way he bears Sll1:1~ .· k.Lnship to ·Dµ,m:is . .· For both delve deeply into psychology, but are nt the same tim~ accessihlc. Rivers spent much tLr.ie researchin['. his past an<l rendin g from the _ grea t volumes of world literature . During the mid-sixties in Ch Lca r.,o ht:! parti_.,.. cipated in discussion ~roup s--involvin ~ Fair, Dnvi<l Llorens and Gerald NcWorter--out which this grew the now well-known Orr,anj 211.tion of TIL1ck American Culture (OBAC) which figures prominently importnntly in _ tlte -'Black arts programs of that city . poems ... !livers talks · about his own <leach in ·several "Postscript" ls a poem wliicli · " .s hould not hnve been publisl11.2,l. 11 The · narrator says lie 1,as "livin::; and clyin; : il1.1d dri=amlng" all ~t the saue time in Ilarlem. /\nd , toyin~ 1--1ith ,h l s 01v11 fate i.n wake of \/1-i;~ht ' s "sudd en Jl.:!ath, 11 he rccnlls the elcler writer· s "rropll ecy " 1-ms that he too " soon 1vould he deau: 11 The tl1eme of denth--oftcn 111orc1l, spirit ual or plty!;lcal .:is ln llayc.len-- can be found iu pi~ces 1.LLc "Th e Death of a l~e2,ro Poet, " "Pr elude for Dixie," " Four Sheets to tlie \Hnd , " " Tlirce Sons ," 11 ,\sylu1,1," and all of The \Jr i gl!t Poems. �In 11 \!atl ~J , 11 he cap s ules r,ene rations of fear, h orro r , histor y unJ anguish i nto e pi ~r ar,mia tic fury--with n c.lec:cptlvely a ppircnt ease : Nust I shoot th e white ma n Jeat.! to free thL~ ni gge r in his head ? In ,.m incredibly 1-1e, k Ut;!;eswuent of nLv..:rs ' s poetry, llakl 1-la<l huhuti (L ee ) said thi s poem " :1sks a r c voJut .Lonar y qucstio11 '.1 (l•yn:11,1 lt c VnLccs, Vo l . I) . Such a ( " question, " ) of course , continudlly tui:ns or r e volve s . Dut , semantics ::islde , the cor.1111cnt is blinu to Rivers ' s \.TL'.sll i 11,·~ w.i Lil • the dc~•p · fears a11Cl sores cni.:cndere<l by /\Jueric;i ' s ni g htm:, r c. . IIc• knew no s i111pli. st·Lc answers or verbal jousting wo u ld make th ese~ hurts <l"isapp ec1 r . 1',,11y11ay , such crltlcis111 violates the poe1,1, robbin )j the poet of his rnany-laycr<.:d· c;q nccrns unt.! a nalytical p01,crs . 11.lver l s not all soml,cr ang bleak , hm,cv e r i. in " Th e Still Voice of llarJ cm" h e .:mnouncf!s : I am t h e hope and tomorr011 of your unborn . Ev en m:tlllst the contraJictions ant.! un cc rt;:iinties of racl.::il/politlc:11 ping-pong ("In Defense of ]Hack Po e ts " ) /1,, black poet mu s t remcmbc.or ' the horrors . Especially since Some black kid is bound to read yo u. The " Note on Black Homen " asks t hey te a ch t h e poet "honor, " "h umor ," and " how to <li e , " presumnb]y th e rcbornin :_<, de.'.lth . s h eet . The \!ri. c~ ht Po ems l s an elcgaic " To lUchard \Jd g hL '' excla.i1;1s alr.iosl witl1 dcf'2 a t , tll.'.lt �To be born unnotic ~d i s to b e b o rn bla ck, anJ left out of the g r a 11J adv e ntu r Q. Another " To Rich.:ircl lhi;~ ht " piece refer s to the nov e list .'.lS youn g J os u s of the bl.ack noun .:ind verb . Other po e ms find t.h e poe t \-hmJerin t o r s e.:irchin z throu ~h th e "spirits" or "bon e$ " • of \Jri g ltt . In " A Nourninr:; Letter from Paris" Rivers r ec .:ills knowin ~ and feelin g "Harlem's honeyed voice." Some times similar in feelin g :.inJ theme, but almost never in voice and form , is the work of Dum.:1s who " Nc•,•, ritu c.le ran g es acro ss tim e a 11d s pace . II_· . . . . . Dumas was born in Swe e t llomc, Arkansas, moved to Ne\J . York \Jh~n · he wns 10 . ye.,1r s old and completed public schools in that city. He ~t~erided City C6lle~c of New York and Rutgers between stints in the Air Force and other activities. Active on the lj_ttlc m;i,;azine circuit, he won a number of :11-mrt! s and helped establ 1.sh several publications. /\t the time of his d e ;:ith, h e v1; 1s _L_e jching at Southern Illinois University's Experiment in llighcr Education i11 East St. ,Louis. In 1970, SIU Press published two posthumously collectc,_l volumes: Poetry for Hy People and 'Ark of Bone' nnd Other Stories, edit e d by llale _ Chatfield c1nd Redmond . Random House re.:..issued the poetry (Play "Ebony Play Ivory) and i-;tortcs (same title) in 1974 uith Redmond as editor. Thou l\ h there have been no full-len g th critical studies o f Dumas's poetry, Jny \Jri ght and Bnraka assessed him in the SIU editions ,1r1cl Wri r, ht 's Tntrocluction is retained in the ne11 releases. Wright, himself a major po e t of the era, e l c ;ined th e linguistic skill and th e 11111sical ran g e of Duma,,: None of this is pe rverse, int e ll e ctual pla y . of Dumar;' sense of hi story . It is indicativ e In "Fmoyeni, Plnc e of the I.Jinds," �he Hrites "I see with my skin and hear with my tonr;ue ." ... The line , I su~nest, asse rt s some elementa r y truth about Dumas ', and not alone Dumas', poetic techniques . is gro unded in that line. Thi~ hook ... What Dumas means i .n that th e re arc ract al ancl soci.a"l Jetenninants of perception, ideas tha t he was jus t berinnjng -to develop . The mind articulates what the senses hnve selcc t e J fro1,1 the ficlJ, crnd tltis articuL1tion is , in part , dt.!tcn1incJ by 11hat the perceiver has learned to select und articulate . There is CL~rtainly no consensus among thinkers ttwt this is 1vhat happens , but there j _s · s0m12 evidence for believing·, as Dumai:; did, that it docs lt:1ppe1r. · ln 'lJ] h ear with 111y Lonr;ue, 11 Dumas asscrLs th ..it· Lh<:; l anguage · you speak is a 1,J[Jy of de[inine, yourself 1vitliin u ~ro up. The language of the Illack community, as 11itl1 that o( any ~roup , takes its form , its imu3ery, its vocabulary , becu~se l.Huck people want Lhelil that 1,uy . Lan 0 u<.1ge can protect , exclude, express value , as 1-Jell as assert lu en tity. ii, 1Jhy Dumas ' language is the 11ay it is . Tlwt In the rhytlu11 o.f it, ls tl1e act, tl1e unique n1anner of perception o( a lH..ick man. \1ritin ;>; with the rc111ovcd pass:ion of t"lie friend that he was, \.Jri.ght makes vital statements not only about Dumas hu_L i1bou t the whole area o.f Black creativity ,_. pcrcepti.on and stance in the 1,1orJJ. Indeed Dumas juLteJ all th ese ante:nnue from his poetry whicl1 he Hrote to maintain " out precious trad_ltilln . 11 Lin- ~u i s tically , Dumas ' s base is fon11al Ene,lisli , a lJlencl of Black II.fr lean lun c uag es; · Arabic , and r.ullah from the islands off the Carolinas .:ind Ceor1~L1 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - I! ls c·os111os �is !:,,ltap1.2J by the rich t ex tures ot .!Hack reli g i o us and spiritual lite, expecinlly old time church services a nJ Voodoo:. \Jri ght notes: anJ gospel mu sic , particularly , 1-1er c his life breath. " The blues Only Langston llughes knew more , ar a t lea s t as much , . about Gospe l an<l ;~ospel s in ge rs .. '. .·· Mu sic seemed to UL11nJ i~ to Le ;1ble to carry th e burden of direct participation in the ncl of living, as no poem , thal 11as not musically str u c ture<l, coulJ .... " "Du rn.'.ls 1-1 as searching for an nn.'.llagous structure for poetry ." ,\s a poet, Du111as comb ines the past , present and tuture, of t e n in s..:para bly, as in "Play E!Jony Pldy Ivory": for the son~less , th e <l ea d who rot the earth all the se dcaJ whose sour mut ed ton g ues speak broken chords, all the~e ag in~ peopl e poison th e h e art of ~arth. Curs'e s and curdles, rnysLlcism , \)less i.n gs a11cl v1arnin1•,s abound : Vo<lu g reen clinching his waist, obi purple ringing his ,neck, Shan~o , God of the r;pir lLs, 1-,1hispcr in g in his car , thun<lerligl1t stabbin g the island ot blood risin~ from hi s stull. Later, in thi s same poem ("Rite"), th e 1,1onl tak es prece<lent over a ll; wliat mu st come , must come : �No pO\•l er can stay the mo j o when the obi is purpl e and th e vodu is green .:ind Shango is whisperin g , 1:ith e 1111>. in bloo<l . I am not clean. Hi s intercontinental, inteq~alaxinn so a rs e1,1ploy nny unJ all Jevices nt his comm.::ind. Dumas explores the dense rhythms ("of pcrcention") as in "Ngoma" where he compares the lielly of a pregn.:mt woman to the drum ltead. The Joctor listens to the ba'by's heart; the dru1!llner listens · tO .. th~ ~oice s, ~f the·· anccstors.: .iiwa aiwa it is th e cl1es t-sound same that booms my chest aLwa aiwa a strong sound runnin3 like feet of gazelle aiwa aiwa The crescendo, with its built-in call-.:ind-rcsponse pat tern, rneq~cs 139a t skin and woman I s belly in the <leathenin c f C llr:. the ~oat-skin sing s th e bo om-sound louder louder sin gs the g oa t-sl~in louder the goat-skin sin)js th e hoom-souncl louder sings the goat-skin louder louder louder boom the 3oat-skin noom-sound loud e r louder louder The rich, experimental lan gunge, couched in scv e rnl "traditions," is seen �ever y\Jh c> re i n th is major voice ("fr om J .:1 cklw.mr.1 ~ r "): Th e j a c kj:i c k b.::ick in g back a n d s t n ¢. k i n i~ s t one c it y - s t one int o cn:ick~d hyclrn u lic · echoes of d us t Or ( " n oot So n g "): Once 11h en I \g1s tr ee flesh c ame and wo r s hi ppe d a t my r oo t s . Or (" J\ · f,o n r, o f fl e sh") l o v e a n d maddened so:1r a ncl need : Hh e n I a wok e I took th e ~l eep in B ~ou n ta in s of yo u r b r e asts t e n de rl y t e nde r ly b e t ween my ri uiv'Pr i n g li ps a nd I r:uilJot inc <l th e s t a llio ns, drown e d th e eag l e s, an d drov e t he ti g er fish back into th e s ea of your heart. Ther e a r e a]s o "many" po e t s in Dum as . ll c r e i s a c ombination of DuJ'.l.bar, .Hughes, \falk ~ r, coupl e d with th e b es t o f th e r i mi n g po e t s o f the s i x t ie s t u produce th e san p, uin e a nd humoro u s Bl a c k t ruth ( " l La ugh Talk Joke "): i l a u c h t a l k j oke smoke d ope s k i p rope, 1,1:1y tcJke j ump u p and d own, unlk a r ol111cl dri nk mas h an d ' t alk Lr :"1s li bea t a bl i nd boy over tl1e hea d with c1 br i ck knock a no - Legge <l m:in t o h i s bende<l k n ees .:1 coke �( cause I'm a muvin~ Iuul never been to school ~oJ raiseJ me and the devil praised lllc: praised m1..; catch a pr1..;::ic.lrcr. in a l>o:.it and slil his throat pass a church , 1 mi~ht pray hut Jon ' t fuck witl1 me cause I c..luu't pl:iy There i°ll"C epic poems likl! "lio saic llarlem " and " C:ene·s is · cin an f.nc..ll · ss Mosaic," 0 a blues series, experiments in ,\frican forms (u sin~ spontaneity anJ ritu,il); and mystical/exploratory poems like Thou/',hts/I1t1i..1 1\e s, Kef , 11:ef-s an<l.:iab.:i :. In one " Saba " Dumas uses bizarre i1i1._,~i <.!ry to render the harJ Lo· J0sc.r.ibe -: sx w::iterin~s streams striking c1orta vibraphones sx veinings myriads of flagella flutksing rite Dumas possessed a soundless love for tl1e acoust ical leap and the dramatic " implosion" ( as he put it) of ideas in poetry . have on Black poetry remains to be seen . What influence his iJeas will It would hilve heen indeed interesting if his oork , much of it 1-.rr it ten i.n t'.1e early and mi.J-sixties , haJ been �availab] ,., in collected form 1-1heri tlw first ri;;nrous battle of th e Neu Black Poetry 1-:a s being fou~ht . The American t ernpera1rien t (disfavorin f; Black writers telling their truths) kept Dumas a nd Rive rs running. in the deep v1el l of his 01-m Dumas sou~ht ltis peace folk culture and in occasional excursions into mystlci sm , /,[1:i r.:a , ;ind \'tJodoo . l~ iv,,rs LurieJ hiusclf in the 11 iJc:2ntity 11 issues and urooJeJ ov..;r his -plight as a brilliant Blacl~ in a country where th e t110 adjectives to~ethcr are neither believc1ble or le~itimate . Yet they Loth left le8acies . B. Gr i efs of Joy : The Poetry of \Hngs & The Clack Arts ~lovernen t No nothing remains the sa,ne .And my spirit reaches out t,) _ you my love 1-1ithout apolozies witho ut emuarrussment 1-1ith only the thoup,h t that th is is right for us that moving · towards you is like touching leaves in autumn .... . .• .. .. . . . . . our minds and spirits interlocked like J12ath . ---- Pinkie Gordon Lrne , " griefs of jo y " One 1najor difference between t he cultural/political upsur ges of the tw e nti es and the sixties/seventies was location: the Renaissa nc e was centered li t erarily , if not ah1ays ?,eor; raphically, in llarle111; but its �·recent r;_uccessors can be found in every Norlt American community \vi th a substantial Black porulation . political interaction. /mother differc' ttce was in de p, ree of artistic - To be sure, the culture and political arms of the Renaissance were, on occasions, interlocked. But such weddings n·e ver reacheJ th eir ·curr e nt state of ''l-1 l10leness " and "continuity." In the early_.· clays of th i s period th ere were (are) "stars" of the NeH Black Poetry; but the f itt er often attenJeJ the activities of poets " outsiJe" their poetry. Or, put differently, the stars so111et-Lmes put "outsi de " topical anJ emotional stimuli "in side " what vms indefensible as "po etry ." This 1neant the star .. . . poets h.'1J no connection whatever with a ]Unck lit c r:ny .t>r [oJ k p.:10Lic . . d 1t1.on as sue lL . . . u<.1-_· I nstealI t I1e1.rs . . ". o f·. 1.m111el · 1·1acy, po 1 I· t.1ca. . 1 was a " tra ct·1t1on ur gency , and newspaper ltea<lli11es, comliinecl with hi;_;lt-sclwol type , pu nclt-lin ing . This is not to say good "po e tr y " (of whatl.!ver definition) was (is) not being written or that clrnrlat.cins 1.;ere a]ways on "t ake. " There i~; much evidenc_c to support the belief that Jozens of these soothsayers were sincore. an<l· honest--and had chosen what appeared to be the "simple s t" and "fa stes t" . vehicle for expressin[; thoughts ·.:ibout " Revolution, " and " Black Together" : or raising the " Col] ective Consciousness" of their people. Sucl1 LJ s:;i.tuat.ion was not helped by the learned poets-activists who sometimes advised young Black writers to give up "western " in.flucnces in a 1,hite lanp,ua~e. advice (ln America!) usually impl i.cd L,1<J things: This that an African language was easier to m.cis ter and that sinc0n~ expression , no mntter ho\v poorly arrange, could carry the day for Blnck poetry . However, th e insincere versifiers more often than not fell by the wayside in a short time , pavin~ th 0. way·, like the Phoenix liird, for still more soap box mounter s . At the sa111e time, a number of poets --who se wits and crafts were �-not obout them in th e ear ly phase--took to the wooJshed t o become much better h a ndlers of th e wor d . .:1 " panormn.:1 of violence . 11 All thi s occurre<J, Lirry Neal note s , a p,ainst Indeed by the late sixt i es Black conu~1unities .:i ll over America lrn<l b een turned up side Jown hy po li ce and spokes1i1 ~n/suppor t crs of th e Ulack. Re vo lutt on . Youn~ shoe!: troopers like Carmichae l, Brmm, Charles Koe n, Ron l~nr:-en 13a , · 1luey Nc\vton, and Eldrid ;~e Cleave r h ad already for ced the " olJ time" Black leadership t o ta ke a se~1t . llOh', with f:ithcr having destroyed son (l-lilli.nrns , lfr1 ldwin ), tl1 e poe t s were free to d ec l a im, procla i r.i and e xhort. Th is trend a l o ne \-1::is a shock to the poetic tradition-- since it created a flood of polemicists and pamphl:iteers 1-, Jw · couldbv0uld not dis c uss poetry in histor 'i c a l co nt ex ts . Tt caused fu rth er s hock by labelin f; itself " Black" nnd rene[;o ti a tin r, its 01-m "r oob, ." (th e .wo'rd ''Black" h as appenre<l tl1rou fl hout the history of Black poetry , hut before th e sixties it was not used as a categorical term for the po e t r y written b;'.. Ar°r:-o-J\meric.ins.) Bence much of tbe New Black Po e try has been viewed as non-poetry or .a·nti-poet r:-y ( in a traditional lit erary context) Lecausc .:11wnz other thinr,s, it · did not depe;td primarily on subtlety an J recondite references . Yet it r em,1i.n s to be seen what impact this s t ance in Black poetry 1-ti ll_ have on the l _it en1cy t rends i.n Afro-America . Blyden J.:1ckson (Bl~1cJ.... Poe try in /\merica) , for . ~x:.11ap J c , be gins his own discussion of th e 1k1-1 .)H.1ck Poetry by buildinr; a · convi ncing· analo r;y between th e rise in JHack li t<.'r:1cy and th e popularity of poetry. Stephen Henderson (Under stanJinr; tl1 l' ;~ew Dlucl- Po0tr y ) ass ure s his readers th a t Bl.:1 ck reade r:-s or listener s clearly "un,lers t and 11 whc1t their po~ts are sayint.; an,1 nre participati.n~ more an~l mor " as jull~es of Black aesthet i.cal qualiti e~ in the poetry and th e po e ts ' \vill conclucfo Hith a fC\! lcliveries . But \Jli ile t h i s c hapter bro:.id critical observations , t he inunedi.:1te c1im i:::. to �conLlnui:o the ske t ch of the poetry ' s dcveloprnenL, int erpo L1tin r., from time to Lime pertinent critical and illuminating d.'.ltn. : There a r e dozens of 1vays to approach t he :-hc\.J 111.'.lck Poe.try . One could, for example, e~:.:1min 2 its th er;ie , struc ture a nJ sntura t-Lon (lle11lk.rsnn) , or its several t ypes (C.:uoly1\ · Rod[;e r s , sec bibli ogr.:iphy) . irnport nn t names i s ..1notl 1c is ano th er \1.:1y. Neal , Dumas) . Sta rtin g with \Jay ; the :C l ac k Aesthetic (Gayle, Fuller) appro.:1ch Th en there is the rnar;ic of Black poetry (Dar11ke, To ur e' , The mus ic is also a favor it e path (Stanley Crouch, Michael Ilarper , J ay ne Cort ez ). One could go on :rnd on: but the poetry has been written and one pl a ce to start is with its emer gence: New York cert a inly played a k~y role in the new mov~nen t; but it JiJ n o t, we said earlier, play the key or only role . Arc~s of the Enst . (Phili- delphia, :Goston B.::iltimore , Washin g ton , D. C. ) enhanced in the boon . Midwest centers were Cleveland , Chica go , Detroit, East St . Louis-St . Loui~~ and Kansas City, to nnme some . TI.elate-I events also took place in :th e .South where there was another '' risin~" in Atlanta, :lashville , Jackson, m1 t on Ro ug_e , Tusker,ee, Houston, .'.1.nd Too i~a loo. The Hest added richly fro111 Los Angeles , San Francisco Day area, Sacramento , and .Sea ttle . Int e rweavin g dev elopments related to poetry were numrirous Black.Arts activities (connecte~ t o cultural or nationalist programs·) -.loc.1ted a t settlement houses , conununity centers , museums , centers for the di. s::;em ination of id e olo g i es , anti-poverty projects , and ed ucational ihstitutto ns . The !1igh Enthusiasm and vi gorous spiri t were also evident in the plethora of t a bloid·s-(B lack-orient ed , journnls, ....; flyers , posters, books, pnmphlets , anJ record ~ . And of gr ea t .impo rtance were the neH Black bookstores , African curio shops, 11a ll s of "respect" (Cleveland, Akron , Chica go , St . Louis, New York, Newark, e tc . ) , art exl1ibits, weekly •·. festiv a l s and jubilees, writers ' conferences , writin g wo rk s hop s , the flood . . . �of . ] iber a tion fl[l::;s ( bl.::ick-;-~reen-red), J3lnc1:-orienteJ tv u1lk nnd vnriety sh01vs , and other physi.cal (power si ;>, ns a!1ll han ~lshakes) or cultur.:11 (African c l othes , hairdos and je1velry) . new conscious n ess . New York was ah important sh01,-p1<1ce for the It lrnc\ the r esi.clue of the post-Rlenaiss<1nce y ei'lrS ( t he Sh omhur::; Lihrnry and !'-liC'h e: m1x 1 ·s · Bookstore) in Hnrlem as wel1 as numerous surro unJin ;:; conununlti es ,ihich plu gg ed into its sockets . New orp,anizntions such .:is the Barbara Ann Teer ' s Nationnl Black Theater, New Lafnyette Th eate r, and t he llarlem Cu ltural Council flowered in the amazed ligh t of olde r i n s t itut ions like Freedonn,ays magazine (Clarke and Earnest Kaiser) which has p ublished many of th e new poets: Tourk , ( Snellings) M.::idhubuti (T ,c ~)~ Hender~on, Cla r ence Reed, Welto n Smit h ,' Ll9yd T . Delaney, W. D. Wri riht; Joanne ~onzjle~. · Ma ri Evans and o th ers . Frcedomways also offers livel y' reviews and commentaries · on poe tr y, litera tur e a n d th e Bla c k Ar ts scene. From t he vurler,ate<l atmosphere o[ New York p,ushed forth Black poets, some who lwd made tllelr marl: earlier: ( 1937- _tld.., of 1:enderson; · Lan.:y N<?.a l ) , Reed, Patterson, Sun-l ~a, Dumas, June .lorc.lan (19]6- Soni.:i Sanchez ( 1935( 1936- :.1 ) , S. [. Anderson (19l,3- ) , llernton , (1uintin Hill (1950- Baraka , Audre Larde , John Major (1948Lennox Eaphael (19l10- ) > ) , Albert l!ayn ~s ) , . llm, :ird Jones (1941) , N . B: Pritcharc.l (19J9- ) , John,\; \Hll_iai,1s, Levert Dethune (LJJ7- . ) > ) ; ) , Le thonia Gee , Bobb llamilton , Q . R . lland·, '/usef Iman , Ray Johnson, O<laro (Barbara . Jones, 19l16- ) , Clarence.: r,eed, Yus e f Itahman (Ronalc.l Stone, JLirliara Simmons_, Lefty Sims, Welton Smith (1940Clarence ~lajor (19J6(1939- ) , Spellnan , [dw.:1rd Spr izs (193L1- ) , Lorenzo Thomas (1944- ) , Jay 1-lriglit (1935- 1938- ' ) , RiclwrJ Thom.::is ) , Ted Wllson, Lloyc.l Addison (19Jl- !~attic l·!. Cun1ho , James Arlington Jones (193G- ) ) > ) , Jayne Cortez (via \Jatts , ) , J:manuc.:l , Ci1lvin for!Jes , ,\le. · is Devt2oux (1950- ), Nikki Giovanni �) , Tom 1/eathe rl y (1942- ) , Hae .fac kson (J 94G- Djangatolum (Lloyd }I . Corb ln, 1949(1940- ), Jullus Lester (1939- Simmons , Felipe Luciano (1911 7(19 47- ) , Ron l·kluurn (l :J4L1- ) , l•: louis c· Lofton (195 0) , Charles Lynch (J 9!13- ) ), Joe Johnson ) , Judy ), L.v . Mack ) , lU10nda rlills, Quandra l'r c ttym,:m, Larry Thompson (1950- and K.11. Prestwid g e . · ' ) ' Tlic:: 1;e\-1 ·York I.:lack Arts scene (po e try specifically) was a Ll- a -1,hir Hith the excitement of pul i lishin r_; and re:1dln;~ poetry <1 loud at the infinite nun1ber of gatherin r,s . older , often revived ones . his death in 1967 . Joining these yount_;er \!ritcr s were llu [~hes oversaw much of th e proc ee ding s until And there Here olt.l , .:is well as n e w, . o.utlL!ts (or· Lh i; poetry which was being read at the Apollo , Carnei3ie llall, Ne\✓ L:ifay'et:Le Theater, Slugs East, l!ount Haris Park, anJ in countl.ess .co mmunity. ·centers.· and churches . Most of these poets w~re not native Ifow Yo rLers; and a g n ~<) t 1~~rnb er · were not perpetually there during th e heig ht of the Black ,\rts Hov~in_e1\t~but often in outlying areas like Bridgeport , (Youth Ilricl~e) Yale, Fcedo n .i a, Brockport, !Zutgers , Brooklyn , Boston (Elma Lewis ' s Center for Afro-America n Culture), and Bedford Stuy ves ant . But , Hhile they had scpdrate Black Arts programs, most look ed t0 the movement in llew Yori:. Workshop there were : In ndJition. to the Umb·ra Harlem \fr iters Cuj 1 J (Cl:i rke, Klllens) , Fn, Jerick Douglass Creative Arts Center, Poetry \hirkshop, the Afro-l!lspanlc \forkshop , Workshop for Young Writers , 'the CoJ _u111 bi.a Writing program (Killens), BJack Arts Repertory and Theatre/School (J:.:1rak;:i, Snellinr,s), Among the new journal s were Umbra (1963) , Soulboo .. (196 l1) , l~Ltck Dialo r', ue (l9(i5), Journal of Black Po etry (l 9(>G) (lroni.c al]y , the la :, t Lhn.!c \.Jer e l>e ,:, un on Lh~ \vest coast) , Pride , · Ill;1ck Th ea tre (1969), Cricket (1969), BLick Creation (1969)', Afroi\r.1eri.ca11 :· �. '/\ Third \.'orld Literar y Jou "" nal (197 3, Syracuse) , BOP (lllncks on PapL!r, Drown University, 1964), Continuities: \Ion.ls (ror:1 the Crnn111unities of Pan-Afri ca, City Colle ~ e New York, 1974), Im11ressions (1 974), Cosmic Colors, (Fredonia, ]975). Durint~ a speech at llmmrcl University's First t,,1tj'onc1l Conferen ce of -Afro-.i\m ~ rican 1·/riters (Novc>r~ber, 1974), Tourt recounting the tumultuou s years a nd dc>v c·lupi11cnts, s.1id those responsih] e for tlH' "Ul.1 ck arts anJ aesthetic movement" were "activists as wel] as artists. " It seemed so , for thi.s particular pn tt ern wc1s most obvious c1s Bnralw returnec.l to Newark (renamin g i.t "N ew Ark") and chan~~ed his nnme (Imrnnu Amir i Rnraka), reflec tin g the f;reat influence of the Na tion of Islam and his interests in African culture . . !laving BART/S "to re-educate the nenrly half a million llarlc111 N0groes to find a new pric.le in the color ," he 1:1ovecl to establish SpLrit ]louse · (Newar k) , and such spin-ou t s as Spirit llouse Players and Movers, tile .'\fri.can free Schoo] (with its l~awaic.la doctrine), Jihad Pu!Jlications , Co1:{miLtee fui:" a Unified tk1-mrk , and to help l..1uncl1 S'2VC~ral national Black 1)L)lLl-i_c~i _CL)Uventions. lie 1-, as a founder (1970) of Lh c curn2ntly scr.Lfe-ridJ e n C,>11gr12s:; of African Peoples . DurLn~ tl1c l9G7 rials (insurrection:,) in llc\rnrk, l~aralw was .urrl2:,ted with sevcr..11 companions anc.l chnr~eJ with . possession of two hanc.lgu11:, and ammunition. Between his arrest anJ tli'u t c_.ial 1' Black Poeple ! " was publ Lshec.l in Evergreen l~cvie1-,. The poem openly· 12nc,)uraf'.ed looti11g, whites, anc.l t,eneral insurrection: \,e-2k"; " You knO\✓ 11 L112ft, murder of \.Jiat about: t:k1t baJ short you List S:.lh' how to ~l'.t it, you can get it, no 111 onc;y dmvn , no money never"; "li e owes you .::rnythLn~ you \JanL , even his life"; "U p ai..;alnst tlie \/all mothcrfucLer tltis ls a stick up!'.'; to gether and kill him my 111.111 11 : 11 I S1.1,1sll the windu1•1 at n .i.,~ht"; "Let s e,et �... let ' s ge t to :s.e th cr the fru it of the sun , ll;t 1 s m...1ke :i 1-1 orld \JC•1vant LL1ck cliiLlren to P, rm, a1td l,-=:! ~lrn in do not l e t yo ur chilJn!n ,.,hen tli,!y )'. row lo ok in your . f,ice and curse you Ly rityin ~ your tu,,tlsh w.:iys . It \1L1s th e kind of nuJf.C and raBe th.it c lwr;:ic t e ri zeJ D:.ir;:ik;_i ' s ( and o ther J;lack µoets 1 ) output Le twe e n 1 96 5-1969. s i gnificant developments occurred. Dur in;_~ this pe ri oJ , l1 01-1 ever , <1 nu1nber o f I mpresscJ Ly thL· TJS ~'.roup o( l~on Karenga (whil e teaching briefly .:i t San T'l.·.:.inc Lsco S t a t(: Colle[:c. in 1 96 7) ,· J\:,raku returned to llewark and organized the 13 l ack Cor,ununity D<.!ve Lopm en t an<l Derens1.: · · Or~anization (BCD). llis effor t s eventually a ided iii th e e lection o·f BlacL mayor (Kenneth (;ibson ). · ;J Th ese thin gs were h a ving g r ea t iii1pc1ct on reBional and national lllack political/po e try scenes . ll;:iraka ' ~ ~ictures (with bc1ndages from th e 1967 scuffle \vi.th Newark police) be ga 11 nppcarin8 on walls of cultural centers, dormitories .ind homes. Many observ e rs, however, · were . somewhat wary of llarake , havin )~ see n him go throu gh the " clwni:es " from neat poet ,-,itlt ;i 11hite wife, to llarlem .:md !Unck Arts, into Me\~'.1 rk nnJ political \1ork (for g reat insi ght inLo a11 this, see TheoJore Hudson's From ' LeRoi Jones to Amiri Dar.:ilrn, 197'3) . . · Yet r.aral.~o I s influences were felt in most centers of the lkw Bla ck Poetry~-and even i11 places where liis poetry hacl not actually li een read; ' or, if .rea d, not fully understood and Ji ge sted. It was not unusual to hear a Black youth q11ote a few lines from a poste r-poem . or fro m a live reading, but who, vhen questioned nbo11t Darnka ' s works , did not know th e name of n single on~ . After Th e Dead Lect ur e r, Rar nl~a (nlso playwr i ~h t) rublished lHack Magic : �Poetr y l ~J(, ]-1% 7 (1 % 9), ln Ou r i.'c rriblcnl.' s s (197 0 ), Sp irit, !! encl (19 72 ), (19Ci o ) 1vhich , a]on [~ wic h J:a jor ' s Til l' '.l<.!1-, !: l ncl· ( o e tr y (1 9Ci 9, s hm,,-c ;1 seJ the new poetry) . lu t he Forward to !Hack Fire , B.'.lraka cullcJ Black ;;_rLi 1~. ts "the the pm,er of out· bl:li e: r s , by · Lhe puri.Ly :ind s tren ;; tlt of our acLi.on:. ." The Ll a ck man . hol y 1i1;1n . The black art .i.st. The 111 ..111 maker of pcuce . you s e ek . speaker . you seek . T\1 ' lover. Look in. The voice, cyeclosings. Co on . Tlte The climb e r t h e s triv e r . Tlie 1-1n rior . FinJ yr self . The \·le: arc th e y 1,Jhom Find the bein g , th1; tlw hack Just h o ver in yuur so[L Is you . or minus , you vehicle! :;elves . The blacL 1,wn . Is the cre.1tor. ls notldnt'.·· · \le are presen tin g . \·Jc a re p resc:n ting , f ro1.t r.otl , :::i l'lus \'our various tone , yu ur own . Now . lie thu s sets the "tone " for poets / philosopilers , rei t erati.np, at the sallte time · much of 1Jha t had been exclaimed in other 1vri tin gs . lleal, a perceptive critic and halanced thcoretici..111, has pnhlisllctl volumes : Black lioogaloo: Uotes on Bl n ck 1.ibcrntion (l9G9 , Jounrnl of Black. Poetr; Pre!..i::; , FonmrJ by Jones) and Ji., n d,)u liollcrin ' l~~liop Chost s llts Aftenmrtl to !Hack Fire is tanta1 111,1i11·_ L to llu r, hcs ' th e tw enties . t\JO (ICJ75). famous tlcclaration of Prcse11Ling " ntt Lst i.c _;i nd po] lt Leal 1-JOrk" t:ltat 111ust be " c<.1llcd a r adi.cal perspective" !:lack Fire should he read "as if it 1,l.!rc a er ltical re-examination of Hes tern J• .> lit ica l, sc,ci.11 and artistic vaJ ues." and exhor ti ng other writers, Nea l contlnuetl: We have liel.!n , for t l1e 1110s t p:1rt , talkin ;•, :il.ioul contc:111porary Cli;:i llenginl,; �r.;a l ities. Ive have not bce·n ti.llki.n )'. nbout. a return to some 2;lorious African past . total past . But \-IC reco g ri lze the paht--the Il.::iny of us refuse t u accept -.i truncat eJ N,, ,; ro history which cuts us off completely from our African ancestory. To do so is to accept t:1 c very racist assumptions which we auhor . Kat her , we wnnt to comprehend history t o tally, anJ understand the manlfold 1,,1<.1ys in 11hich contemporary problems are affected b y it . Speakin g ag.1inst the hinJsl g ht of psychology anJ turbulence, Neal iJdJed: There is a tension within Black Americn . its roots in the ge n e ~ai history of rncc!. .And it ha.s · The u nnncr Ln H:1lch we see this history Jcter m.Lnes how we act. should we sl.!e thi.s history? it? 11.:hJ Oh;.1t sho uld 1-1e feel abot1t This is lrnportnnt to k.11011, bec:luse the sense of how that history should be felt is 11lwt eitl1er unites or separates us. Final_ly, he sums up \•Jhat can be cal Jed th e creJo or modus operanJj uf the tle1{ Black Poetry and tl1c ]}lack Arts Novc111 nt: The artist and the political activist are one. They are both shapers of the future r eality . . JJoth under s tnnd a nJ manipulate the collective myths . o f ·. the race . 1,,mrriors , priests, lovers and d·t.!s tro ycr s. Both arc For the first violence \-/ill Le intcrnal--th c d~struction of a wenk spiritunl self for a nore perf c t self . be i1 n e:cessa ry vjol c nce. nut jt Hill It js the only Lllin g that wiJ 1 dcst roy th e douli] e -cons ciou~,ness --th c te nsjo n tlt a t is 1.n the souls of bl. .:k folk . �.I t wns the ki.nd of clwllenr,e th.'.lt sent many a 11cwly Blackened poet or activist in t o th e lon 8 night of the soul t o purB0 hims e lf of real or imn fl ined enemies of hi s people . Poetically speakin;~ , 1-iowev er , it was Ba r aka ' s " Black Art " that set mu ch of th e pace, form and violcint tone in the New Dlack Poetry. Poems arc L~llsh it unless they nrc t e eth or trees or lemons piled on a step. Or black l~Jies Jyine of men leavinG nickel hearts beatin~ them Jown. Fuck poems and they ar e useful, ,:<l thL!y shoot come u t you, love \vha t you a re, breathe like wrestlers, or shuJctcr stran~ely :ifter pissing. l~e wc1nt live 1v0rds of tile hi.p worlJ live flesh & coursinc hloocJ . :Ie,Jrts g r <1 ins Souls splinter inti fir ' . '.k 11.:.int poems like fists hentin[j ni: ;:.:,e r s out of jocks of 01.; ncr- j e11s . Black puems • Lo smear on g i.rdlemununa Hhose brains uce rec.1 1,1t.t1 '"i t:·co bitches ju Lly stuck between ' lizabeth taylor ' s toes. 1n10res ! 1_;uns . \.'e \Ji.Int St inking "poeJ:lS t:l1;.it ki1l." Poems tl1a t wrvs llL.! cops into alleys �nnd ta k e th e .Lr weapon s l oa v.i n;~ th f'm J e ,1J 1-1.ith ton 0 e s p ulled out ~mJ s ent to '. Irf'l.-rncl. pO P l\lS Knockoff f o r ,lo pe sell.ill L'. wops or s li c k h :J] f11hit e politi c i a ns Airplane poems rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr n· err rrrr r r r r rr . . . tuhtult tuh t11htuh t uh tuh t ur1 tuh ... rrrrr rr rrrtrrrr ... Se ttin ~ fires and d ea th t o whities as s . • • . lie want a black poem. AnJ A l:Hacl: ~/orld. I. e t th e 11o r] J h e· a BJ a c k Poem AnJ let /,ll JHack People Sp L: ak This l'1..lli11i Silently or LOUD " Black Art " wns often cited a s the s cm ;_; uin e e111hoJ.i111 e nt o[ t h t2. Taact Aesthl.!tic anJ a reject.ion of white cultur e a nd life style. Pol.!ms, 1::.iral:a · s t a t es, must not only hav e ,~uts a11J carth.incss (lik,.; lHacLs) but th~ y 111ust a l so be weapons and shi.elJs at.;ainst racism , police, merchants, hu s tJcrs , crooked pollticians anJ sta tu s - climh.in1 : IHack l>o11r2eosie. Ahov ~11.1, they s h o ul d exalt Blackness (" sons , 11 "lov e r ,,, 11 '.'warriors, 11 " poets , 11 :irid " all th e lov e liness here in this wor l d . 11 ) Th e se· then are the dominnnt themes in much of th e New Poetry and the phi1osophi ~s stated (witl1 radical divergencies) from coast t o coast. Baraka ' s purge ext,.;nds throu g h poems l.ike " Poem for lla lfWhit e Col l ege Students, 11 " The R,1c.Lst ," "Littl e nro1✓ n Ju r, 11 ('.'Wr. i\RE CODS "), "W.H. 11 ( attack o n wi~-wearin~~ women), " CIVIL JnGllTS POEM" ("Iloywill: ins is an eternal fa g1~ot "), " Ka ' Ba," and finall y , in " lcr oy ," hi s la s t wlll nnd testc1ment: �When I die, the consciousness I carry I uill to black people . Nay tl 1ey pick me nii.irt and t al~c th e us e ful par t s , the sweet rnea t of my feelin 3 s . And leave th e bitt e r bullshit rott en u hit c. parts But th ere arc also sc.,ns ltlvc· love poems in the L:iter period , poems cau~ht up iu the str·cssed life of I3L:1ckr1~ss ("St er lin ~ Str eet September"): "th e benutiful black man, and you, g irl, child ni ghtlove , ... : We are strange in a wny because who we are . \JC. know Black bein r, s passing thr n u:.;! a tortur ed p£1ssage of fleslt. In his Fonrnrd to BJ ack Boo ~a loo, Baraka s:iys of th e world : · " tlte solJi c r poets Hi.11 change it ." What Neal ' s volu me clwn g ed has not ye t been . ascer tai.n ed but it c e rtainly contain s ambitious a n J s uc cessf ul poetry . His :debt to th e older genera tion of poets, artists and thinkers, can be seen in pocii1s like " Queen tlothe r ' s Sermon ," " The Hiddlc Pass a ~:c and After," " Love So ng. in th e Hiddle Passar,e , " " Garvey ' s Ghost,." "Lady Day, " "Harlem Gallery: Inside," 11 1-!alcolm X--An Autobiography . " musico 8raphic interpolations. Neal (re: Fro111 the _- Hatin g u se of mysticism, chant and Dumas) is e[fectiv e--movi11~ ,sensing , and feeling: Olorum Olorum Olo rum The h o rr or o[ " The Middle Passa ~e Aftet· " is seen in t he "Decked·, s tack e d, pilla ge d" sJ av es . "Lo ng Song in Middle Passa;~e " Red g l ow of sea- d ea th mo rni~ ~s . vi c\ ✓ S tli l" �Other pO<' lllS ("Son f:, " "Jihad," "Kuntu," " Orishas ") r eveal Neal 's interests in supernaturalism, African philosophy and the a]iusivc, mystical powers inherent in the 1 '110rd." Il e seeks poe ticall y to implemet1t the ideas l1 e stated in Black Fire and a special Black issue of TDR (The Drama Revi.eH) in sunn;irr. of 1968. The issu e, edited by Tl)R's ·contributin g edi tor Dulli.ns, compj}pc[ i.dc.:1s and · plays root ed in whal was then· cal led the "new" consciousness also featured work by Sonia Sa nche z and Adam Dav.Ld !tiller . or the co1tccrn1, of ti1c· :~e\.J BL1ck Po12tr y . The spec.L:il issue projectC!d many ilcal ' s "ThL· Llack /.rls i,'.ovemC!nL" w:1s a bluc-pr.Lnl for J:l:ick Arts :ind po1itical chan~c. J.clio.Ln ;.:, state1:icnts in THack Fire, hC'! ar g ued against "nny concept of the art_i;, t t\\:i t ,1li,·11 .1 t e :;; l1.[ 11i [ro1,1 hls conununity ," anJ not~J: Black Art is the aesthetic and spiritual sister of · t!1e Black P01-1cr concept. As such, it envisions an cJrt that speaks directly tL) the needs and aspirations of Black Ainerica. In order to perform this task, tl1e Blact ,\rts Movement proposes a radical reorder in:; o[ tl1e western cultural aesthetic. 1t pr.opuses a separdte sy1nbolis1;1 , 111ytl1olo~y, critique, .:ind lconology. Th<2 BL1cl: Arts .:1nd Black Pm~er concept both rcla le.! broadly to Lh'2! Afro· American 's Jeslre for scl[-dctcn .tln;i.Linn '11\d nat Lonhood. noth concepts arc nwtlon:1lislic. · (Jne ls concerned with th e relation between art and p_,)litic:s ; the otl1er wlch th e art of politics. But his idea of .:1 11 separ:1te 11 a12sthcti.c was not embrac.ld by .:111. rnack poets, artists, or intellectuals. !~either \JaS unJ erstan,l ln ~) amon:_>; it::; own proponents. tltere a complete ,1r;reemcnt (or For example, Spri~r,s, a versa til·e �•artist an d thinker , l ed a l>oyc o i:t of l!ajo r ' s 'Lhe ;Jew l~lnc:k Poetry on the g rounds tk1t it \vas bl:in /~ l>rou;1ht out l,y ;J white publisher (Intern ati on, l Publish ers) . Dut Spriggs h;.icl not obj ec ted ear 'l ier to use of his work in Black Fire , also published by \.ih lt es (Morrow). llis position starl.!f,ient appeared in Tht: Jo ur n.1 1 uf Llcick Poetry (Fall, 190 ~.;) : how ln tll e hell cHl~ · the ·black pub 1 i slw rs ever t~oinG t o ,',e t off lnto it if not by the assis t ance of the! \ffLtt:rs. how are distril.Jutor s hip s ever .:;o i ng tu mature wlth th e publisher.., if the highly marke t able \10rk s o[ wm kelly , j . killens , j a wrns, l nenl , e bull..lns , ler o i j , o r the like n1;ver . comes th e ir way? does th e concept of black power .:mcl hl nck ;Jrts extend t hat far? l say yen, i say yea , yea . Sp1 izr,s jo Lned a l a rge n umb2r of critics a nd \H;Jctiuncrs of tlle 13 1::ick Arts--To ur~, Heal, Crouch , Bullins , Goncal ves - -in the cont rovcr.s·y ·over Jilack writers ' roles and responsil.Jilities . Despite the controversy, how~v~ r, Major ' s anthology appeared as a kaleidoscopic offe rin g of the Ne1.; Hlac J(.Poe tr.y. Majo_r incluJeJ a perceptive and fitLin~ Introduction: TUT:: i;rni:R crisis of l>lack r ea J ity is often s tudded in th ese poems by the svift , vividly crucinl fncts of social reality; ' which cons is ts in p;.irt , any1,ai, . of all the implicati o ns and forc es of n1ass media, th e soci~.11 · pc1tter nr; , the 1.Jureaucr;:itic and meclwnical rnc.d iums' of hu m~pi percept ions, ev ·n of th e quickly evolving nature of the hu1aan psyche in thls hi f~hly h o moge niz ed culture., in all of its e l ec tri c processes a nd specia li st fr ag11w nt at l on . Clnc.:I~ real lt y , i n otl1er 1-1orcl:; , is ULe any other r cc1 lity profouPdl y effected by tec.:hnolo !-_'., y . The �crisLs anJ drama of the lat e 196Os overwhoJms nnJ threntens every crevice of human life on enrth . Th ese poems nre born out of this tension. In his own poetry, Maj or ensconces Vietnnn,, alienation, i.mpendin:; uorld des true tion, Rlnck history,· music, mythology , and personal excursions into · dreams. He publislwJ Th c. Dlctionnrv of Afro-/\meric.:111 S J ang (1970), Sw..1llow th e J.r1 ke (1970), Symptoms and l!ndn 12ss (1971), Privo tc Lin c (1971), The Cotton r.]ub (1972) nnd The Svncopnted Cnl~ew.:ilk (197L,), as ,-i el] els novels and essays. He hns also clirecte<l the Harlem Writers Workshor. In the acknow- ledz ements to Poetry, 1!njor indebts the a ntholo ;o,y to l'l:rny :i,nflu c nccs : Lowenfels, Ishmael ReeJ, Raphael, Art ner ge r, He lton Smith; Hoyt FulJ.er; Nat !lend to ff, Dudley Randall, Russel] Atkins, Bremen, ,\l Young, nntl° David . Henderson. Maj or ' s "Down Wind i\gnins t the 1-lighest Peaks" is typical of his style: sharp and angled twisted language, spacings tl1at replice punctu~tion, tidbit s of world knowlecl3e applied to tl1c rncl.:il stnteMent (satir-2 ur· cxhor~ tation), and experimental typo graphy . Recnlling his 11 pass.1~c 11 h<! s l;es "Tonto SmnlJo Willic"--notin~ thnt even Hcxico--- "an asskissing nation"--now has the " super-blonde " on its " blllbuur<ls . 11 In the rni<lst of ;ill these events, Li1e poets vir:o roui, l y prOLioLed pro;_:1· .. un:.i · wliicl'·, e:..:tenJcd their concepts nnJ vl :-:, ton~: Sprigg$ und /\li1,1ed L\llwrnisi were corresponJin~ ec\icors u[ the Journ ~iJ; ·ear.::ika, l'.c1jor , Nazzmn Al Sudan (nO\J El Huhaj ir) nnd Neal ];ecoine 'c ontrll.iutLn[: editors . was later joined l,y Tour~. EJitor-at-largl' Bull Lns In the s2venU.es r::rnie Mkalimoto was .:icl,ieJ as a contributin 0 editor with Major ' s n omc J-Ls:.ippeurLug. lb jor, R.:tnd:111, lit.:! Ul, Spri:3g s , Bullins, liaraka , nn<l ,\Jhauisi h.::iv~, all s12r v cJ as ~uest special ec.lltors. · 1\.n important influence o n (;1nd outlet for) the n e1v pol.'.try , th e .fo un1al 11.::is �~'in 1;1 a ny \•Jays Lorn or So ulboo k ·anJ Di .::i lo r uc " (f:o ncalv e s, e ditor) . bo.ne , Journal nO\·J l1i1 The magazin e c o ntinues t o print the :n e \.;est poetry, z •niin:i in on other areas like the He s t Indies (Su111r.1er, 19 7 j ), print in t; ] i vc:l y ne\vS and announcements , as we ll as reviews and criticism . Its Spring , J9Gn , issue , for exampl e , _v1as Jedi ca t~ d· to Joseph T . Jol1nson, Los Ant;el~s po e t \•1ho had -· recently been k ill 0d . /1..lidul - Karim eJiteJ Ula c l: Dialo i•ue \vitli Sprlgr,s , Tour~, and Go ncalves servin g ;_is associ a t<~ editors . r,clocntin;,:, .i.n New York in the late sixt .i. es , Ululocu e ' s new editorial board was repr~senteJ by S11riggs, Nikki C:iovanni, Jaci Ear ] y , Elaine Jones, S . E . Anderson and Jam e s llinton . Alhamisi and Carolyn Rod g ers becnme Midwest editors; Spellman, Julia Fi e lds ~nJ ' ' ' Akinshiju became eJitors for the South; anJ Joans <1nd Ki..;ositsil e toot over ·as Africa and at-large editors . Soul1>ool: ' s editorial boa·c~l now incfwjc s : Hamilton , Alh.:un isi, Carol Homes , Baba Lamumua, Zoli li, Ng qondi Hasimini and Shango Umoja. AmonG th e administrative staff is Donuld Stone · (.Rahman ) whose . . work appears in Black Fire and all the _journals. . I . Alon e with Spri ~j s, Toure, and Larry Hiller (Katibu), Ralman aiJeJ Baraka at Spirit !louse. llis " Transcendal Blues ," full of chan t/so ng and line-experimentation, fuses th e world of Black music ( a nd mu sic i ans) wi th the " strife riddled concrete botto1,1~ of i,kyscrpper seas ." that ·. a Rahman ' s influences, obvi o us in his name, are seen in his statemen t 11 riff 11 so hi gh and grand "Coul<l be Alla h." Final l y windinr, the poems into a tribut e to th e Bl ack woman ("Hitter bit her bitterness humming "), h e rejects Christians a nJ whites and ~ a rns that My spears sha ! l rain .... The Islam influ e nce is a l so seen in other poets of the pe ri od : . Spriggs , I Toure, naraka , Iman, Ne<1l , Alhamisi , Dumas , Harvin :: , Sonia Sanchez, who along with Hikki Giovanni eme r ged as one of t he: most v1ell -knmm poets of th e �ern. Th(, se 1101.ien poets an<l others--.'\uJre Lorde, June Jordan, H.J.c Jackson, Kattie M. Cumbo, Jayne Cortez, Alexls Deveaux, Eolise Loftin, Odaro llarbara Jones in the general area of new York--lrnve crca tecl a ne1, 11ave of excitement about the possibilities and potentials of Black uornan poetry. A.Jdin r, to this flurry of active and interest are the new Black women ' s m;i r, azines like [ncore and Essence . The mo s t [.J.mOus of these poets is Nikki Giovanni, who is a profounJ thinker and provocative speaker, but tl1ese skills and insi g hts do not come throu g h to her poetry . Her route to New York was by w.:iy of Tennessee and Fis!: University where s h e was a member of Killens 1 \-lriters 1.Jorkshop. Fame came in the lute sixties after she penned n ser_i _es of .vol.1tilo pros~-l il;e statements which 1-1ere startlinr, : nnd even more so, co111in r>, ·from a wo;nan . In · the sixties she privately published her poetry and ,~as LJter broui~ h·t: -oi.1t liy _ Broadside Press and Li.ri~er publishers . lier volumes include Black Feelin,~, . . . Blacl~ Tnlk, Blacl: Jud~ement ( 1 9 70), He-Creation appeared ( 1970 ) ., 11y Bo u se (1972 and a book of poems for children, Spin a Soft IHncl ~ Son,' (1 9 7L) ·. Her antlioloiy of !Hack 1,ome n poets, Ni nht Co111es Softly , was publisli.eJ in 1970 and she has recorded nlbums, written an autobro g rnphy, and puliLished a series of "conversations" with Har3aret lfalker . . llighly contr_o vers.L.11 ai:1ong the new poets , she hns been accordeJ accolades: recip icnt of \Joi:wn of the Year 'Award; featured in mai3azines ll h ~ I'. hri11y, an<l Essence; appearcJ on the · Johnny Carson Sltow; constantly sou g ht -~1 fter as a speaker on the colle g e circuit; awarded an honorary' doctor Hte cl ~ree by Wilberforce University and labeleJ the "Princess of IHnck Poetry" by the I<la Le1-1 is, Encore editor. Denounced as an "individunlist " by 1-laJhuhuti (Lee) R.nd prn ised . by fbr g nret Halker aml Addison Gayle , , 1 ik.ki Giovanni dL:nied (Carson show hosted by Flip Wilson) Lein g n "n.evolutionary . 11 lier sin l3 in ~ of "CoJ [;less America" on �nutlona1 television , .:::ifter receivin g the 11 \/01,1.:::in o[ the Year J\\varJ, 11 prompte<l letters t o nlack publications questlonin~ her ~incerity. Durin~ th2 slxtles s ite wro t e " Of I.ihera t ion" : Dykes of the uorld arc united Faggots r,ot their thinr, tor,cther (Everyone is organized) Black people these arc f.:icts lfucre ' s your power .... Honkies r u le the world .. . The most vito.l commodity in America Is 131.::ick people' Ask any clrcumcized honkil~ . .. The final sta n za of this poern Ha r ns : Our choice now i s Har or death Our option is surviv al Listen to your own l3lack hearts 11 Concernin13 one Responsib] e Negro with too much Power" echoes other· t h emes in th e New ~lack Poetry . The " responsible ncgros " are " scarcJ" and on -the run . Sh e tells t hem that your tonr,ue mus t be rei.h)Vl.!d since yo u hnve no brain to keep it in check I n " Reflections on April 4 , 1 968 ," she calls Dr . J:ine, ' s assassinntion "an ac L o f war ." In " The Great Pax Whi t e " she pnr..1phrases a section fcorn Genesis in t he Bible , noting that the word was " Death" ; " deatli to all niggers ." Occusionally a l ine of inte,: est jutteJ Ldrou3h the otherwise pole1~1ical concerns . The pnnts I L.( \0 �oi . "lh:!autiful Ulack Men" "hur,h 1~hat i like to hug." There is the characteristic repetition anJ emotion-freighted lang11::ige as ii1 "The True Import of the Present Dialogue , elack vs Neiiro" · Nigger C.111 you kill Can you l: iJ 1 Can a ni[:l;er Lill Can a nig;~er kill a honkic Can i1 nl13ger kill the llan . . . Can you stah-a-jew ... Can you run a protestant clown with your ' 68 Eldorado .. . Can you piss on a blond head .. .. The poem continues , reciting names of the " enemy " and catalo~ing crimes and ·. wrong-doini3s visited on Blacks, fina]ly asl:in~: Learn to kill ni~gers Learn to be Black r.1en Mu ch of what Nikki Giovanni was saying in the sixties moved Black yciuth--it was not always safe or chi ' was a<l1nirablc . " l1y Poe111 11 ..."nd t_o disa ,~rce even if you w.1nted to--ai1d some or it · But these things do ·not in ci ke her work dcfensil,lc a:, poetry; 11 J)oe111 for· "'retl1"" ar•'~ cc rt.nin · 1 y wor tl1y, even no bl e, su b Jee · t·s b u t u t h ey fall leisurely down the' page, anelinG here ilnd there but revealin~ nothing of the insight into human beincs or poetic power tl1at one finds in a poem by llelene Johnso n , Margaret lfalker , Gwendolyn Brooks, or J.1yne Cortez. "Nikki-Ros·a," J1er most often quoted poem from the early period, is a hi c h point in her work. It hns .:i believable flow in the conversation-lil~e lan ~u.:i ~c (ch.1racteristic of �hc' r ro c• try ) :i n d the detnils pull on the. inner re.ac h es of the. collective Blac k exreric.nce a s she. un fo l ds the story of rantily Fun :i ncl misfo rtun e : your bio;;raphers n ever und erstnnd your fothcr ' s pain c1s h e sells his st ock ·anJ anoth c• r drear.1 g oC!s And tltou ;: h you ' r e poor it isn ' t poverty that conc e rns you My House is a n e wer Ni~ki Giovanni . The v e nom h as l csseneJ , thou~h s ome of the ramra~e is e vid ent in n poe111 like "On Seein µ; BJack Journ a l a nd Hatching Nine Negro Leaders f:iv e Aid and Comfo rt to the Enen\yt~ r)u ~ t c Ric.h,ud Ni xon ." Ag ain tl1ere appears to be no vi 3o r ous inter es t in stylis ti c o r lin~uistic development. The poems d a l with love, the city , childhood (.::ilH.:tys her rites of \,oman-possar,e), Africa .:incl Afro-Ar,erican culture . Iler pro mi SLt anJ poten tial can be glimpsed in " A(rica I": on th e bite of a kola nut i was so high th e clouds bLmketin:.:; africa in the 111id r,1orni11g f J j :)1 l \ Jere pu slt c J away i n nn an:~ry fllcLC'r of tl1e sun ' s ton~;uc .... Ni kki G iuvannl I s i111portancc lies 1.10J"c• :L,1 her pc rson.:il ln[lu12nce (e s pecially her 3re<.1 t drama on albu1 ,1s anJ in p1i l> li c ) which !tns inspired many young I.Hack . women t o ,,ri t e al.io ut th emst= lv es and their world . Jac kson who 1-1011 Hut so111c of tl 1em, like Hae l\L.1ck \lorld ' s Co n rnd Kent Riven; Av.rard , have yet t o s how th e "stu ff " of poetry in their writ·in ~s . 19G9 hy BL.lck Dlalo i3 ue Publishers . Ca n T po e t \Jitli You \.le s published .in !!il·_ki Giovanni lffOte the Introduction and I • �Ila~ .bcL::un, in turn, Je,licated the Looi- to h'-:r. Po~t is full of the "complaints" that riuickly becane mono tonou s in; th e poetry of tli e s i x ties . In themes ancJ usa ;-;es , the poems resc1,1l.Jle tllkl:i Ciov.11111.i. ' s \:orl:. Reactiona ry ," " To the ile~ ro Intelle c tual," i1nd 11 " To a :':o t e frou ,\ f L,/\.d :l .i.1;:e r , 11 are fa m.i.li.ar .to the confused crnJ di.sturlied ann::ils of the ne\J poetry . Sonia S.:mchez, clo~,t.: l'y· .i.denLif .i. c J 11ith the rtC\J poetry and tltc ne11 conscio usness , alternatL!S betueen terse, explicit ver se , :rnd the spr,n1lin3, prosaic m~a1 Ller.i.ngs tk1t often s,,rves the auJitory Je1:1;:rnds of the ne\v aucJ.i.ences . formerly marr .i.cd to the poet Etheri,l~c 1.:.n.i.ght, she has nc tiv e ly 1,orkeJ as a play1vr.i.ght , po2t ancl teacl1er . Iler books .:1re llomccomi.n'.' _(TCJ69), \·l e . People (19 70) , It ' s a Hc\1 Day : . . . . . :1 l~:1c!JJJd. . Poems for Youn:; Drotltas an-,l SH;tus (1971.) ,· Love Poems ( 19 73) antl an antholo~y from her younG 1/r.i.ter s \/orkshop · .:it th e · Co untee Culle n Library in New Yori: , Three Ilundred nnrl S.i.xty Dc r~ rCL!S of Blackness Cominp; at You (1 9 72 ). " Halcolm " is a l ament arnl a ni :jht-f.i.ll'c!c_l memo ry (or h er : Ye t this m:m this drc m1c r, thick-] ip[)etl with words will never speak agajn anJ in each wi11ter wh e n tlte cold air cri..lcks · \·11 th frost, I ' ll brca ~he h is breath and mo u rn I my eun - fi ll ed nigh ts . lier " for unl>0r n 111alcol111s ," however l s :motlier appro;:ich . str u cture, .:111J Constri.ctine words , stt e mptin ;:; to achieve a nJaclc strC!ct speech , she tells Bl ack!:> • �to 11 ['. i t th e \</Ork out" t o the "1nn n/ boy " murder e r wh o is tnLin r; il "holiday. 11 !Hucks a re "hip to hi s s hit" and \/h e n "blk/prin c e s ' di e .ip,a in whit.:: ''fa gg ots" "will die too." An exp e rimcntnlis t, Sonia Sa n ch e z a clcled h ~n:- v o ic e to the flood o( an ~;ry, cynicnl a n d dcr isi.ve lnn g ua ~e in the n e w verst ("c! Gnition for blk/chilJr e n"): n poli c . :!l!ln n is n pi g nnd shd be in a zoo with the oth e r pi i~~W ,:mi nw l s . nn:I until he s tops killin g ~ lk/people crackin i: o p e n their h e ads rememb e r . th e policeman is a pig . (oink/ oink .) She · lso .i olned th e poetry of Til ac l~ .l uv~ -:mcl mn11-wom~1n unity, Sl' L!kln[\ throu gh her particular style and voic e to !1 0a l wounJ s of Jouht, mistrust nn<l loneline s s. In "to all sisters" s he s a y t "hurt" · i s not th e "bag " women "sh<l b e in." Th e y ; ', are advised to love the Black man \vho make s th e rn "turn in/side out." Hc::r journ ey has cnrrie cl h e r from lhe fire of the hlntnnt r e volutionary to the quiet e n e d turbulenc e of Lov e Poems--l.ieing , ma ybe, a mo n :; th e fir s t of th e n e w poet s Lo fullfill l{andnll .' s pr e d'ict ·ion tha t DL1cl : po e tr y would "mov e from til e �declamatory to the subj e ctive mode." Jun e Jordan published \Tho J,ook at tic. (19 69), Some Chnn:.~es (1971), nn antholo EY , Soulscri p t (1970), and a vol11me of poet r y by s tu dents in her Brooklyn creative writin n work s hop, The Voic es of th e Children (1 970) . lier la st vol111w o·f poPt x- y is This is a tleH Day (1974). Concis e , analy tic c1l. and b ool:-fo lk bas ed , h e r poe try is a l so a fre e verse style characteristic of prnc ticnlly all t he recent IHack peocry . " Unclc; Bu ll-b oy " relates the cle.:itlt of a rnnn whose eye!:i " were pink \Jith alcohol ." Tl1c lirother (uncle) reminisces, in th e 1ni1nncr of n l ack men , about tht2lr si 1ar i11 g of s l n.!et-t:1lk , expens iv e shoes , anJ a lcohol. And finaJly : llis brother dead [ rum d rinl: ln:;. l'>ulluoy clrank to clear l ls Lhinl:lng saw the roach i ns id e the ri.dclle. Soon the bubbles from hi~, g lass ,1cre th e only bits of charm wh ich overcnme his fold eel an1s . Audre Lor<.l e ' s " Rites of Passage " ([or l!U( Jr) eulogizes Dr. King: Now r ock th e boat to fare -the -w e ll. and r emembers hirn thi s \Jay Quick children kiss us we arc grow in g t hr-ou2,li Jrvan . lluch· of ,\udre Lorde' s r ecen t work conc erns yo u ng peorle; even th e title of " her late s t Lool: , From a L AI \!here other People Liv e (1973), carries the m1c a ncl dre am of th e child ' s world . She writes nm1 a Lout teach(!rs , men-women re l a ti on~, , sea~.ons , drew,1s , "As I Gro\l ui) Ar~ain ," and "Elc1ck tio th c r \!o.1c1n" �v7!to ll1"i.11l, s of her O\m 1,10ther 1 s stren~th when "stran i_::e rs co1;1e to coupliml!nt" her: I learneJ frow you to Jeny c1yself throu g h yo ur Jeni.:.ils. Among the younger t:c,; Yorl<,· i10r.1cn poets, Judy Simmons , Alexis Deveaux nml Elouis , LofUn sing out . .JuJith' s Blues (~rondside) ,.ns puLlishcd in 197J. Tl1e poems submert~c themselves in the troubled human psyche. ("Schizoplircnia), :.ind explore the "Youth Cult," " Homen ," and "Daffoclils"--althou;~ h th e titles do not reve.:il the poet ' s pithy se.:irchint;s. l{cflecting Judy Simmons I s ~1st,1inccl study of psycholoi;y, Llie poc'try yields its me.::min~ as tlte 1i1ul L.i:pl e laye rs tensions :inJ insights are uncovered. In 11 of Schizophrc.:nL1 " the "ani m.il. ~.;c1u~1.t s 11 next to th e " piano" in a ,. (:Or ner" with nn abnormal nu mber of legs , anns , and a mouth th.Jt stretches from "for ehead to nbdomcn ." Bu t the poe,t' c1ssures herself that if she Joes not lose control it \JOU 1 t come bacl~ inside of me Elouise Loftin ' s poetry (JU111bish, 1972 , Emerson llall) hns youtl\ful, ·. zesty in1.:i~ery, inJic.itlve pcrb.1ps of these ne\v teclmiclans' e.:isc . "l:_a :ln Spreadr, informs tlwt Last nii3!1t threw her le g s open to me .... ' She has the new woman sc:nsibility, a 13 00d knm, ledgc of social lamlst::.ipe, and the cynicism often foun<l among toJay's young , sifted and !Hack. cau:;ht " Jispl:.iys h~r humor anJ wit: if they cntch yo u ~-. ··• " ,., .,e ttin • �1-1 ith your p.:rnts do1-i n Offin~ your ~uarJ or peein B for free if tlicy catch you <lo_in g s01o1ct!ii1Lr, cra2y vtith qu otes a round it anJ try to ma t e you feel lil~e you bec~n catche<l you must be doing sonc thing ol~ Spirits in the Streets (1973) is Alexis Dcvl!aux ' s st r an;:c but fascinacinc prose-poetry ac count of ~ rowing up in Harlem . A Hest Indian nio_thl!r , <lispail'.'s over a husband ' s misuse of his wife a nd chi] drcn, co111plains: lord why he beat that 1rnm.:.m so? and them children god only kn0\1 wlrn t ' s bo nna happen to them . e:i tin poison. jesus have mercy . children. has lyc. cat you up inside you can ' ~ be too careful with y ou got to watc h them every scconJ . The 1-,orld is s o evil h onl!y : yo11 knov, what i iuc,.111? merciful' jesus :;h,1 mc th em \vi.th th e la st word . Tliese examp les represent only a f i: act ion of the n w poetry U(linr, 11ritten by youn [; er (and older) New York ar.:.~n poe ts. Sorn:! o th e r s arc Cath erine Cuestas, .· Phillip Solor.iun, Gayle Jon es , Stephen KH,Htlcr, Vanessa llowanl, Rhond::i lli.11s, �nnJ (:len Thor'.lpson, to nm1e just a hnnJful . the earlier perioJ also publisheJ new it cr'.ls . Forest (1967) bears no <.bte . H.lS introJucec.1 by Jones . Poets who ::,o t their sturts in l!enJerson 1 s Fel i.x of the Silent T!1e 111e;1eor;raph,~J Th't • Po-2try of Sou] ll e nlso pu.ilishec.1 De Hetyo r of 1-brlcm in 1970, tll r- sar.1c year h e re- located . to nerk elcy . · f'.ssenti,::i 1 l y a llarlcm poet, lf c n,lcrson surveys_ e v ery thin~, from the "Harl 011 RPbel] ion, Summer 1964 " to "Harlem Anthropology . " The transitions and ou trcac~ lngs of these poets are also evident in et poet 1 like To u re wh o in 1968 wen t to teach Black. Studies at S,'.ln Francisco State Collei_;e . liis \vorks nre J~(l970, ThirJ \forlJ Press) and Son 0 l1td the lat tcr puLlisheJ by Songh,'.li P rcss unJ intro,luc..::d by Ki 11 ens ; ! (1972) , ',.lourc'1 ;,·. " Soul-gif_ts" ,::ire amply s 11ice~l 111th philosophy , ClacL his to~y, . !)lack. music, IsL:11.iic influ e nces , and " Juju " 1-Jhicll snys Coltrane ' s llllrn ls " cas<i<lin:_, · fountains of ulooJ .:incl bones. 11 Son:.,hai ran~es frur.i satire~, of Diana l~oss anJ Dionne \l.::irwick to insincere act iv ls t s ; the 111a~ical power o[_. 1,onls to . the structure ideal nlack society. Tour~ ' s list of influence s (se~-Fot~1var<l) expl.:iins much about sOiae of th~ P.L ck poetry emanating from the tleH York area i tle.::il, Durn.:is , Dar.:1ka , Goncalves, Coltrane , Pharoc1h Sanders, Cec il HcBee--all called " Poets of a Hation-in-Formatiun." Related developni;nts of the: new York movement can h · seen f°n such proj eels as the Ghetto 1 GC (Sol Bottle) n,11 tholo1.:,y of the l!orkshop for Youn~ Hriters in llarlem; \/akra, a neu Bost.011-l>nscd journal dcvoteJ to the examina t ion " of events , the arts,' iJeas".; Retch Ain ' t (1974), Ccles Tisd~1le 1 s antholo:_;y (nro a JsiJe) of "Poems from At tic a " ; a new antholOL\Y of youn:; poets, \,Jc Be Poetin ' (19 74) , Tise.Lile; and \Jritcrs \:orksliup .\ntho l o,•y . . 1-~o unifying threaJ runs through th e work of Nc:11 Yoi:k area poets, c:,ccp t that of a relentless acceptance anJ pursuit of their nJ :1cJ.:: ness. . _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - ---'---- - -- -- One notes, ho1vever; �-that 1;1y,-;t icism, e:~a1nin.1.tion of t·he occult, cosnic-music1l f orias anJ subjects, u11J the influence of IsL.1u are 1,1ore evident th l.!re than in the poetry of other regions . But these urc , of course, r,eneraliti 121; wbicl1 mwit 1:1ore hindsir,ht and resl.!ar ch before they can r,.e fi11alized and presented as signjficant phenoraena in the _l.'.ir ~er t npcs try of the poetry . finally, for th e IleH York area, the fire of the oral Lru Jition was i ~ nited by the drama tic incantory (Jrumaccomp.1.n ieJ) declamation s of " the Last Poets" nn<l "the Ori'•innl T.nst Pocls." /I.long Hith Gil Scott-lleron , theLr impact on the Black masses hnvc been obvio u s , if tcmpoi· ..11:y . Th e re 1-JL! re boo;:1c ran g i_n:..; L!Ve u t :.l ,,•hie h p r,)V id eJ . :1..::1.,' ·YO r l:·_ . \i . i Lli . . .1 . C\111 ti nu. 11 . flO\.J of l _ife Llood v1hill~ it repaid other arens throu ~h t.:xch:mi;e progr0ms among puets and teachers . Neal, for example , is a PhiL:1Jelphian 1~ho ·attc1i.J2J· Lincoln, but has ended up in Harlem , with occasional short su1ys nt - Yale, llm-1::ird , Southern University, anJ l~ent State University. Simi L:it patterns can be seen in dozens of other poets who criss-cross th e country·. a1iJ· the uorl<l, sometimes yearly, teaching and writin g . During the New York. rcsuq:~e nce a number of things were going well for Black Poetry in Pcnnsylvsnia; Lincoln llniversity--Hhich proJuced Tolson, llu ~hes, et al--delivered another diverse of poets durin2 this period : Carl C:rc ent! , M.'.lry-Louise Horton, Ev.irett lloa 1;_lanJ, S. E . Anderson, Kelly Benjamin, C:il Scot-Heron, Bernadine Tinner, lUta Hhi tl.!h12ad, and othe rs. lloaf;land is a Broadside po.et (BL1cL Velvet, 1970) anJ Scott-Heron_. (Free Will, Pieces o[ .'.l l!an,· etc . ) i s a r aco rJin g poet-singer . Conver i in g at · po intG lil ~e the Muntu Black artist r,roup--founclcJ by Noal, C . H . Fuller, tl1eoreti.cL111 Jimmy Ste\lart, and !larybell e tloore--Phil.::idclpllia poets found various kinds of assistance. Otlter Phi],ad e lphin poets are Greene (1945- Smith from Lhc older school, I,' .J . Br ya nt. (19/i3- ), Lucy ) , Clarence Malone y (1940- ) , �·Pat Ford, Joseph Bevans Bush, .T.:met M. Brool:s, -Dour,h try Long (1942Caro] Jenifer, Don Mizzell . Bl ack Poets Brite On : \fo r ks by some of these youthful poets are i n An Antholo ~v of Black Philadclnhia Poets (1970), publ ished by the Black History du ction stntes: ), !useum Conunittee . llarold Fran}: li .r1 ' s Intro - " A f;L,\Cl ( POET IS A KIND OF HJ\RIOR" --thus linkin ;,, Philadelphia s e n t i ments to those in n ew York nnd Boston . The Hlacl: Butterfly , Inc ., was one of t h e severa l c ro ss -road s f or v a riou s cu ltural / political activities in Ph iladelphia . Its founder was lialoney (no\1 Chal,a Tn) Hh0s,! Dl1,1c1t:;io11s of Morning 1,ms puLlislicd in 1964 i11 Puplona, Sp:1in . celeLrutL:S a " sultry brown iirl ' \·.'ho " sepln sircn " also holds II Sl.!llle!J 11 ,;ecms a supcrlor . ,1n i1_1al. 11 2 i~. ! l. 11 "C:o,lll Frl.,Lly: • p aS S l<)ll. poets explore city 11.fe , ,\ft·ica , and exalt BL1ckncss . 11 · 'l'lrts· II l. lierc ls, · ttio, the . rnge and vehemen ce of t en found in Ne1-1 York anJ Chl.ca:;o poetry . A sense of 1vhat k1ppens on "Cool lllnck Ni;;hts " (Traylor) also captures dri_.ving s t reet rhythrns anJ thymes: them hard-loving hnr<l-t.:ilklng ha rJ-lov in:; Cool blact Judes and ' them fine-lo,)ldn::; f ine-1-1a lkint; fjne-tall:ing fine-loving the111 fine soul sisters .. . . In P .it t:,buq~h there born tlie short-1 i.vcJ J;!acl: LLncs: StuJiet, (l<J70) . /\ Journ::il uf i3Lick lt published P.ittsbuq;li :.irea poets l.ike EJ l~uberson , August ·,: �_\Jilso, ·, .foann e :B ra x ton, i.1S well as poe ts from th ~ ;•lid\vcs t like Al Crover Arrnstrong and Hc<lntond. The univ ersi ty of Pitt:sl>ur~h Press opened up to Black poets tltat sa1.1e year , pul>lishin~ Michael Harper ( Dear Jolin , Oear Coltro.n e: , 1970; Song: Can I r;et a 1·/i t n ess , 1973) , Roberson (111 wn is a Eoy , 1 97.0) , o.nd Cc,pLI Ba rra x (Ano ther kind of !~ain , 1970). Thy l~ing ltuber so n ' s poetry runs the gan1 ut of Lhemes .:ind styles--from ne:.1t Llram;:i t o slan ted spacini~s and 8lc1shes. In " :nayday " there is a n " und e r s ide of heuve11" ~rnd the warnin~ from one misunderstood that he is " armed" to fingt the fin.:11 kinJling of your <lrew,1ing . " Othello Jones Dresses for Dinner " is c1 so.tirici.11 lo9k. :it t}i~ _" Cuess _\!h0 1·s . coming to Dinner" Lh c m2 . . . . After J a tin ;_; a white wom;:in, the narr.itor as:;ures her parents that he is '\,e ll munnereJ ." Roberson a<lds ·]tis voice · ·t o g r o up of Pittsburg poets whi ch includes Kirk Ho.11 (19 L,!f- Ll · !_\r-O\dng ). Poetic talent wo.s being sired soutlt1mrd in \Jashington, n·. C . 11here Sterling Brown continued to teach into the lat e sixties . llOIJ .:i r J , -1,y nb 1v. leaJing all Black universities in tl1e new consciousness , was the s~ene of a n u.mber of significan t disturbances . t oward the new trends. The Jis turbances nud ge d the·. school While Hownrd ' s poetic history can be tr ace J _throaul1 the early days of Sterling 13r01vn ( ,.tnd into the How..:ird Po e ts) , th e school has pro<luccJ a number of youn ge r writers -: Clay Coss, !Uc hard \!ehley , ~- Et helbert Mi l ler (Andromeda, 1974), . ;:ii1d Paulo. Giddin g s . The school ' s new imc1ge atmosphere was deepene<l anJ broaJenecl b y th e appointments of the Cuianese poet Damo.s and Stephen ll end erson ( Cn i3 lish Ch.:iirman at Mo rehouse) who heo.ds the Institute for the Arts anJ llu1:ianities . wo.s playeLl out ae nins t ..1 However , Ho\lnrd Llro.m.:1 series of J e velop1~1enu; in the surrounding communities _:· Federal City College (Scott-lleron) , Center for Black ~ducation (Garrett ), - - - - - - -- - - - - - - �Uew Th.i.ng in Art and Architec tu re (Topp h~r Care\·/ , Gaston Neal) , The ~Jev1 Sch ool of Afro-American Thought (Gaston 11eal ) 1 anJ Drum & Spear Booksr.ore (and Pr ess) , the D.C. Black Repertory (H ooks); In addition t o D,.J?nas ;inJ llen<lerson, the Instit u t e h.:.1s aJJcd ~bclh ubuti (L ee), Killens, Goss, l:rown , ,\rtl1ur P . D.:ivis and J\hmos 7.ul\o l ton . the pro:;r;11a ' s service tn 1-iocts hns h een inv:1111;:ible. Alre"1_Jy · Se l ec: t cd [or honoring so far, have been nar;:i] ~a , C\.rendolyn nrool:s , Joans, ;incl Dodso n. poets ucre a l so fe a tur ed in th e First Annu.11 Sy11posiur:1 : /\ nu mber of Lucllle Clifton, Cos s , Sc ott-lleron, Ad"sJnya AL:il:oye , l!iller, and tl<1ri Eva n s . ' Toure, Johnston and Kgo sitsile were g u es ts for a pror,ram exil!:Jin in:: · tl, e Af r:f c.:i n · Cultur nl Presence in th e Americas. Several poets h .:ive been in\/i te<l t o· r ead and be recorded for tl1e perman e nt Ruclio / vi<le6 liGr.1ry: Ja yric Coit ei , Crouch, Dnvis, S.1rah Webster Fabio, Ha rper, Jeffers, Joans, Redmo n_d , Sonia · Sanchez, Scott-lleron, Bruce St. Jolm, Margaret \·l..'.l lke r, and J,iy_. \Jr .i.ght. I n 196 8 Gaston Heal said his " philosophy " was "to purge 111yi,clf. of t;.he whit eness within ne aw.l link cm,1 p] c tely \Jith rny Blac:.:k brothers iu th2 s-Lrug~le to tfestroy t:1e enemy anJ rcbuilc.l ;:i I'i l:1ck ::.:.1t ion." Ue appe ared tlJ ·be work lni; at that task for a 11hile before the Af r o-J\meric,rn school closed. In " Tuday " he said the tone of h js llfe rcsl!1:llJled a " g rm1leJ li1ini:l 'cl 11 th e groan of the µ..is t .. ·, . anJ h e la mented th e j un;;les v1!1ich h:1d hL!cn Jeflouered by 'nap:11111 . .:. L1rl Car t er , another ll . C. poet, ~1p1;e,irs in ll1hl 'rsLrnd in: , the New 1nack PL)etry. lie evokes t11e spirits uf the " llerocs " of Oran~~cbur;_; , .L1ckson , . lfouph is, ;1ew York, anJ Jbsh ville, recallin G th:.1t durin~ llidlnt:, some11 h ere in !,1y ,1 riot i n ::.1shvi ]l12 h<.: 1r s uind with Ll J r ld;_,,e CleJ vcr ... �" noot s " i.s u n un s uccessful l a n::;u a~c \-titli .J u tt e1;1pt to f11sc:: th1.: .Jr:11 ,1n o[ co ll oq ui. --11 J;l.:1ck f onaal i:11:-:lis h n:.irrn tive a Lout: h i s gr-.:1 n<l1:1o th e r. poets livin g or- publishin;_: ir th e !J . C. c1rca d u i·ing th e s i :,cics i.lnLl sev e nties ) , llcn l-211 Qui f_\ less (19 !+5- were Berna<lette Colden (1949Nurphy (1 908- Other ) ,. irnJ 0eatrice ) , \,il10 ·uver the years has contributed grea tl y to th e ;_:,ro1-.1tlt of Black poetry . ~;hi:: cditcJ tl1r ee i1,1port;:int un th l1 l ogics : Ebony 1";l1ythm (191.i 7) n nJ To day ' s Ncrro Voices (1970). tlePro Voices (l 9JJ), · lier O\m volull\es of poetry are Love iG a Tcrr- ihl e Thinf' (1 9L1S) a nd, \lith l~a ncc Arnez, The Rocks C.rv Out (19 69 , llrnadside). li er- U\m poe tr-y ha s 111oveJ [roll! meter t u a tr:.iditional free ver-s e dealin~, in Ll k caused hy overemphnsizing Jirec t or o[ 11 \;hite " .::ind 11 .'.l traditLon.::il n _\v p!i;:isl',- 1-1 it h tl1nslons . BL.1ck , 11 nnJ 1-,.:ir . Sh·e i:.:l . cu rr- ent l y the Negro Bibliographic nn <l nesenrch Cent c·r _- and serves editor of its publication Bibliographic Survey : ;_i:,:; The l{e11ro in Print . ·munng Lr_1L~ Poetry by other D.C. area poets can be found in Transition , a journal _.of l!m,nrJ_ ' s Afro-Ame r-icc1n Studie s Department. Editors are Miller , Tris llolid a .y., '[lla llarJin r.; and Veronica I.owe . . Adjncent to D . C., in Baltimore mo r e strength i s atldeJ to the totem . Lucille Clif ton (1936- ) , Sa1.1 Corn i s h and Yvette John son (194 3- produce<l poetry tltat holds them ln ;•,ood s t ca <l . ) have Good Tim es (19 69 ), Good llews About th e Earth (197 2 ) a nd An Ord Ln ar v lhi111::in (197L1) c1re volumes produced hy Lucill e Clifton who a]s o writes man y clri l<lr e n ' s books. She currently teaches at Coppin State College in . lLll timore where she liv es witlt her husband . and six children . tempcrnment. Even her titl es suggest somethini; ahout li e r spirit a nd In the swamp of depression n ntl bleakness , it is. ind~e<l \•/armin g to see someo n e procla i m Good News ! which will not "ru st or br eak ." . . _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- ~- - - " Eldri<lp,e " i s compared t o a mc.:i t "cl ei.lver " And th e re is hu1;1o r, lrony anJ truth in - �11 L1 t l l'y' ': uh e r e th e " nlw;iys dru nk " ct eliver y ma n s:iys: and n ll th e white h oys .a_re yo ung£'r than me . But whiJ e some sin 0 goo d times in the kitchen, there nre also other a cknowlcd ge1:1cn ts: "Malco]m, " " Eldridge," " Bobby Sen l e ," nnd th e s tutl c n t-participants n t Jacl:so n and J(cnt S tat cs . Go od lle1vs About the [arth ~ives a temporary settinr, to Rihlical stories. D] ack or con- Most arc uniciue, like " Mary ": this ki.s s soft as cotton over my br e asts al1 shiny bri r,ht somcthin ~ is in thi s ni ~ht oh Lore! have mercy on me i feel a r,,1 rden in my mouth b etween my l egs i see a tree An On.linar y \.loman is conscio u~ly ,.,Onan and th e poems, like those in other volumes , d ea l with everyday thin r: s-- " ordinary" thing s. However, she has become more of th e mystic, usin i; surreal and n]lusory imn °,e ry . as in " Ka li," "Th e Coming of Kali, " "Ile r Love Poem, " and " Snlt ." "Co d's Mood" is: �lie i s tir e,! o[ Lone, it breaks. Ile is tired of eve ' s fancy and adurn ' s \/hinj 1g ways . Cornish . i::; a poel , LL!acher and editor . ll i s l>oob; incluJe An!:lc.:s (19G7), \lint er:, (1 9CS) , Your lLinJ · i n ~!ind (1 970 ), r.encrations ( 1971 ), and People lle11<.::tlh tlie \✓ ind01-1 (n. d . ) . Hitlt \·/ . LucL:rn, h e edited Chicory: Yuuni• Voices from th e B]ack Ghetto (19f, 9) \,hi ch d,~velope<l iul o a series stil l b2ini_; publish e d by th e Enucl1 Pratt Free Library (Comrnunity Act.Lon Prur, r;..un). editor of Chicory is He lvin Eu\.J<H<l Brown . Current Corn i s h _Jp:; 1:1uch · :. tyli!:,"tic a1:im u- . · . nition and is a precise nav.i r.;a t or of lan~uuge. lle tells " IHUDLE CLMl:. (;JRLS 1-JITII CRIPPLED fHICEnS Wi\.ITINr: FOl~ HI: TO LIGHT TJICIR CICARETTS" : yo u r fingers folded in y our lap control the se rpent in your eyes your foc c nev er s t u rin ". with a sm :i l e in your ruffled color your eyes popuL.1 te th e L rick . �Tlt~se B:iltirnore poets, and others, contlnuc the vast Jine of poetry outp ut that e1:1braces the South 1-1here many poets -now live: Spell1a:1n, Jeffers, ) , PinkJ c Lnnc, tl1e l~ lXAP,TSOUTll poets (New Orleans) , the Ex-U111ura poets (north Caro1i.n,1 Cent ml Univcn;JLy), Uetty Cates (Mlle:.; Colle~e, AL(Lar.ia ), Cer,1ld ll,nrn:{ (19JJPowel]), Leo J. l!i.1~;011 (.\tla11t.:1), Lor enzo Thomas . ) , L,dcl c X (Lesli e· The South hns received and giv en 11e1-1 blood to poetc/ t\1rou ~:h exch.1n~e pro2,r:1mG 11hi.ch, since tlte ]ate fifties, hi.1vc allowed for n flow of poets and te,1chcr,; to and f'rom th~ South . Some wel] known older n.:1mes nn! Johnson (James), Br:1ithwc1i.t - , Tolson, l!:iyd en, Jeffers antl Vesey. Some ynun~eL· poets South arc i\udr~ Lord~ (Too;.>aloo), Redmond (Sout h ern ),. Wri r,ht (Toognloo and Tallnder,a) , Spcllnwn (!Jo rehouse), and Kgositsilc (North C,1ro) 1.na A & T) . The South, too,· hns c.xperii,11c.o,l · tr emendous a nd dramntic clrnnges as a result of the Black Consciousness Move-' men t. Some symbols are everywhere : The Free Sout h ern and the ·n;,ish iki theaters in New Orleans, SUDAN Soutn/Hest poetry-music theater p,roup in llouston·, . the Th ea t er of /\fro-AL·ts in Miami , anJ ,\tlnnt:i ' s B]at:I: 1111:11.~e . ln /\tL.1nLe , S1wllman or~.::in.i.zcd the Center for lilack Art \·1 hich pul;llsher, 1~11vth111 (1970). editor , l:bon (Sl~cmonde l:J1;1rlo:, \·Jimher] i) poetry of essays anJ features . Jircctor o( 0 .• S.Lone bec:111112 llLur ;,ind SpL'll11wn· cdi.to:r The su1111:1l!r (1971°) lss11, of lU1vthm \las ,il!;o the \Jrltcrs \.Jorb,hop at 1.'1,°;L . h3cl puhlished three books: GrLih:rn1, \•1ho \·!3S ;i]so .'.l ~t 111l!111orinl· musician, iiJack Sun)', , ~iou1 HoLion , and Soul MotiDn IT. l~hythm E;n Ld he " via ... runnini~ one of the badJcst workshops ln thl! South " ::i.nd "t eacl11ng at the Revo lut ionary PeoplL''S co]let:c in r:::i.:;livill ·• ." . :-llssis:;ippl, hosteJ Ln 1cn3 the bi-cL'ntenni;,il ccle!ir.1tion of the puhlicatlun ~ - - - - - - -- - - -- - -- - - - - - �of Phyllis \/heatle y ' s PoeP1s . lier ll\!ll po0try, :10\.levcr, h:1s chnnL>e~l sol!1ewhut from the s tance she took in ror l'.y People . Yc·t: Propltcts for a i(0\J D:1v (1970) and October Journe y (1973) c1re difficult to jud;;,c i.lf~:.iinsL her 0tllt.!r worL She turned to th e novel Ln the fifties and sixties hut several po~1.ts .Lu Octoter were puhlis liL,d in journaJs between 1930 and 1960 . Prophets is a chronicle! of the Ci.v Ll It:Lghts noveme nt up to its allLrnce \vit!t ilL.1ck Po\,•er. She writes nbout " Birmingham, " " Street Demonstr..ition," " Jnckson, Mississippi ," on Hnshington , :ind the new prophets: " JeremLih ," "Is nL.1h , 11 11 the March 1\mos, 11 unJ " Joel. " In "Oford l s a Le gend " she says some " fought th e civil war all over again ." . New prophets are Halcolm, He.d r,ar Evers, Andy Goo;lman, fl iL:luel Scl 11,L'.rnc1:, c1nd James Ckiney , who fought "oppression" in Louisiarrn, Mi.s s Lssippi and . C:cor~~ia . October is a quieter 1;100,l, halla<l in "Harri et Tubman . 11 employing a variety of verse for ms including :the ller own unique sonnett is seen in ·"Fo.r. Mary McLeod Bethune " and " for Paul Lawrenc e Dunbar ." The earlier poet is suggested in "I want to \Jrite" with the poets telling us: I want to write songs of my people. Alice Halk.er, novelist and 'poet, shares the state of Mississi,ppi (llockdale) with :Margaret Walker. Iler volumes of poetry are Once (1968) and Revolutionary Petuni:is (1973) th e title of which , juJgin1.:, from other statements she has made , is pro}nbly Hl:.rn a pun. Her poems cover her own civil ri g hts activities, general experiences, and some satire. A poem in Once relates the story of the youn;_', lllnck man who wanted to int egra te n white '· bench in Alabama--in tlic " nuJe. to Petunias : 11 She: announces her debts in the dedicntion Ceor:.3e Jackson, "h eroes and heroines, ancl friends of early StJCC, " Bob Moses, and Fannie Lou !lamer· . These poems (written in personal tones) deal · �with history anJ folk-strength am! th e stuff the l~ lacl: South is made of: "romance " that " blossomed" in pews Ctt funerals~ w, imen with fis ts thnt " battered " doors; " Sunday School, Circa ]950"; ·-a "bnckwoods wolllan " who kills her hushanJ ' s murderer , then reinincls her e~:,, cutors to water the petunias . An<l she ,i] so writes of a different kin,\ of "Rn ge ": The sil ~ nc~ b~cween your words rams into ne like a sword . Yet another Mississipian and poe t is Julius Eric 'c'hompson, a history teacher at Too~alo o . Hopes tied up in Promises vas published in 1970 anJ njms at lifting the new consciousness above mere "hopes . 11 Thompso~ writl!s· ahout be i ng a Black man in Hississippi, "Delta Children,'' Ma.rtln Luther !(i n ~ , - and "Black Pm-,er . 11 Th e re is also a seri.cs of poems on Africa. In Louisiana much new poetry has be2n arribing from the pens of you_n g and old poets alike. Zu-Bolton, now in D.C., edits Hoodoo ma~ n zine _ throt.i;~h Energy Blacksouth Press in DeRidder . lie formerly co-edited The Las t Cookie baseJ in DeRi.d der, San Francisco, and Cenevu, New York . lloodoo I , Jedicated to two Blac k studen t s killed by policemen on the campus of Southe1 ,1 Univer·sity i.n November of 1972 , contained wori'- by l.on~n,:o Thomas, Hay Mi] Ler, · Pinkie Lane, Kalainu Yu Sa laam, Jerry \/arJ, anJ utr.er s·outhcrn-b.ascJ poeL ; , lloocloo 2 E. ·J , a double i.;sue published in 1975, cont.1i.ns \Jorl; of 1:1ore sot c her-n poets: Arthenin Bates Mj llican, Al'.i.cc \J:i lLcr, anrl Charl e s Rowell, frora the broader \Jorlcl of IH.:icL wr itinr; . 1s well as sclecLioa , Energy BlackSoutll Press will nlso publi s h A lti:,;1;crer Amen , Zu-Boltun' s first volu1;1, of poems. Under tli c guidanc12 of tlll' late English chairman, Helvin A . 13utler, '.; outhcrn est:abl isheJ the short-1 ived l:lacL faq~eriencc , the first issue of \lhich contained severa l �poci:1 s 1,y Alvin Aubert, a Southern alu1,111us who nm, resides in :·ic\l York ar"!d edits Obsidian: 13lack Literature in l~cvie1-1. ,i ubert I s ,\•1 ainst the Blues (1971) surveys blues, love and his Louisiana h~ritage . Pinkie Lane, new En13lish Depnrtment head at Southern, publislH~d \!Lnd Thou ~; hLs (1 <.! 72) ~is 1wll ns several eroaclsi<les: Too PocE1s (1972), Poems to t :v Father (1972), and _ Songs to tltL~ Di.aly s i s !·l..1chine (1972), all ]nought out by South and \·lest, Inc . , of Arka11 ~,,1s. South and \·Jest is also the pulilisher 0£ ti1c i.lnnual Po(~ms by B]acks (1970, 1971, 1972) for which l'inl~ie L~me has beco,ae pcrm,rncnt eJi.tor . Butler inauv,urated the annual Black Poetry Festival in 1972. In the program of the first festival, he stated: The IHcick Poetry Festival provides .:i rare opporLunity Lo urLn,:; to~ether professional and apprentice poets in : 111 <i f. fort to dcfLn.::: · and ler,itimize nll forms of Blnck poetic talent as n preludl.! and postlude to defining and legitimizin~ the renlity of Black_.pcople. Hopefully, the results of our efforts will be a better uulerstandinB and n 3reater appreciation of the lives , aspirations and achievements o( Dlack people. For the festivals, Southern has nttracted a number of poets: l!adhubi_ti, Sonia Sanchez , R..:inc.lall, Redmonc.l (1vrltcr-i11-resic.lence , sunuaers 1971-72), Zu-13oltci'n, Knight , Aubert, Lucille Clifton, HcLaurin . Ki.!1~11111 S;ilaam , l'leal, Audre Lonie, anJ Irma The festivals, which includ<ld· student poets nnd musicians, lwve inspired a Poetry Hritin~ Workshop un der the supervision of Rowell, an Enilish ,instructor . The first two volur,1es of Poems by Blacks contain a r icl1 loc.le 0£ soutliern poets : Leon E. \Jiles (Phi lander Smith Collc.•r:c) , Elijah SaLb (Little Rock), Booker T . Jackson (Lit tlc RocL) , Eddie Scott (;ll!1.1pl1i.s), Otis \.Joodar<l (Memphis), Arthur Pfister (Tuskegee Institute, Beer Cans nullets Things & Pieces, �19n), l!;)ton Pears on (J ac kson, !!i;;sissippi), J:.tcqut'lyn Drynnt (HcrjJ i an) , Lo i_s Hiller (Daton n.ou~e), Borbnri.l Jenn K11i;;ht: (Shr eveport ). J\ltliough Pinl~i e La11 t2 did not ed it: th'-" fix st t\ , ,1 _i :ssuC'.S or Poc·1,1s , she nctcd ns ad visor ond her o e, i ftecl , (''.c-rnph i s) anJ J:atlieJ L!Cen !teed 1- 1ord...:111a ni mm 11ork w1 . ; s 11list c1nti.:. l ly r ep resent ed . · Sl -.c is pu l :1to r with soncur.1111nte skill ancl passion . t!nrr-h of Baton Rou ~•, e i.n New Or l e.1ns, th e Fr c0 Southern Thc:1tcr hod burn ed out Ly the 1.:. t e sixt_i cs , but out of i. ts uorkshops c.1me _!:)_1 :ornhC?_ \vhj -: h corrj es th e work of BLKARTSOUTJI lffitcrs. FST, and Kalamu 11011 j ointly ed it the pub]ication. \foshin g t oi1 a nd J ol m O ' l!e:1 1. tozetlwr--excep t the Tom Dent, one of th e founde r s ,1£ 11 Some BLl:1\RTSOUTll pocl; .:. re A3.1in , no sinsl<.2 thrc.'.:ld t-L L!s th c:.;e puL!L~3 1i1,1ve111ent " in th e Suu th. But their concerns· Lor th e; movement are oft en expresseJ bett er outsjJe of the poetry tk111 l n ; BLKAln'SOUTll published individual volu1.ws oC 1,ue1,is Ly ~;alaam ('i':1e !\ L t!CS ·l,:rch;.in t), (Vis-Lo ns Fro m th e r:Jwt: to) . Afro-~\rn erican salvation. Jrinki11 :1 anLl l!lore time " Eacii,t Psycl10Lherapy " is Black ' s blue-.;,ciilt for. lie advises ]Hacks to spcnd le ss t.i1ae n1µpin~ a1iJ \·✓ 0rl:.i11g for t 11L' c:, cts<.2 . In " P,ay Cliurl L•.; , .. ,_ His.!; lss.i.ppi State" Dent s uys tl. e ir ltec1 n s .... Of "Tlte I\ lu cs ," Salon1:1 s.::iys : it i s not: s ubmission .... But too mucli of h is oork is speechy . Sn l:-i :m has a l so pu bli sh<.2J llofu Ni Kwenu : tly Feor Is For Ycu (1 ~17]) \.lh.ich ·rece iv cJ a l'i.ixed rcv.i.::•1J [ro111 Ko1,c l] i_ u the �SepLc1.1li, .c, 1974, issue of DJ ;icL· ',!or lJ. !!cw Orlei:lns-ba se,l Blacl- Co lJ cpi:1:1 . " Be<lti1,1e S tory": ironic.:iJly tl1ey Fcllu1-1 P, T.iC.:.\lrl'SOl1Tl'.erner :! ..1yu l.'riLC'~, a an c:..:ch:.inr,c l.H·t11e cn uotlier ;1.nd s,)n nbout "revolution. " Answer.i.11 0 the son ' s question , " when si:lys " soon ~:u.n ." Sa la :11 .. i s _, 1 s ,) nn ,. l i tor of the WL.: 0 01111 ..1 have the rev0Jutili1)? 11 , th' mother Till' 0Ll1L:C puets cnsti.~ate whitey :111,i pn1i!,C Jaac.:ks . 1-✓ rile V<'r)' 1ittl,· nl;l1 ut southern li[ · . the Co11~0 Squ.:1re \Jritin'.~ 1-Jorksh op . But, . Dent cucrcntly le.:ids 'j'lJere ace also 1Hitint; 1-: orkshops :it Dillard cmd Xavier Universities . Julia Fields, still livin~ i.n North Carolina, brour,ht ,iu t E:1st of J.!oonlii'ht in 1973, but one of h er 1,10sL eloquent t..:sti.L1.0 11ie:,· i. '.,_ II og II Iv h. 1c I 1 " gut " or 11 . I1es I1er rJ~~ . l 1l to l 1:1ve esta b 1 i.; J 01·1 l ." II • II c:.1v1ar or 11 Hi ,; h _,H1 _t!1e: .. - I.e1 II ,>vec . . ., l 1rirnp soul L . II l ' So111e menus and polit i.cal stances arc; ·nver-cxot •j·c i:~ed ·by' revolutionaries, she says , and she ha s " earnet.l " th0. rir,ht to <lo v1hat sh1:~ likes. She has even heard " Haus 11::i u s " scrL.:1rning ilncl "Romanticizing p'c1i11 .·11 But sho has paicl her dues, and h.::id enoui;h prc~;sures from both sides of Ll1L! color lln e . The subtle nudge, but direct pom~r of Julia Fields suggests that Black. poetry is i_n good han<ls in tlie South . North of North Cc1roJ in.::i, came John Oliver Killen :, irnpoctant \Ir 1 tl!rs . Confc:rences at Flsl· University, the mus t important one takin :; pl:ice :[n SprinL; of 1967 . Ila yden , who hnd bee11 at Fi.!;k ~;lnce the forties left in 1968 after a series of brushes with proponents of the Dlc1ck Aesthetic . The 1967 con- f erence (probcibly the stra\/ th:1t broke th e cnrnel ' s b:1cl: for Hayden) is seen by some as a major junctuce in th e Mew Bl;1cL 1ffiting . GuenJLily11 Brool:s tc1ll:~cJ about it .i.n her autoliro/iraphy , Ha r r,c1ret \7i.1J kcr Ji.scusseJ it w.ith i!ikki Giovanni · in thei.r publis h ed " convl~rsations ," nnJ lloyt Fuller 1-Jrote "- lowin :; l y of it i.n Black \!orld . \!rit ers attc.nt.l:i.nt: t'.1e confl.'rcnce \vcre Dav id Llorens, Fuller·, �!ton tlilner, Clarke , Bennett, Margaret lbnner, Nil:l:i Giovanni, R.::ind;1ll , Le e , Margaret Halk e r, Soni.-i Sanchez , JonC!S, and ?iari;ar ,·t Bur r ou~hs . Probably ]JQlJ in the South [or symbolic r easons , the conference prov id ed the f ir st real national dramatic a r e na for old a nd yo un r, writer s. Gwendo lyn Drool~s ( a 11 Ne 0 ro" then, she has · said) rec.'.l lls beins "co ldl y respect ,• d " after .iust havin r, flown. to Nashville from "whit e whi t e South Dakota ." ll01 •evc r, sh e was among th e first (with Randall and Fuller) to tnke u p the ba nner of th e Bl.::ick Aesthetic and the causes of th e yo un c writ ers . Sue!, a ction of course, was displeasing to a number of whit e and Black poe t s , not the lea :;t rn:io n g them Ha yden uho refused to ackn0\·1l edp,e the existence of a 11 sC'pa ra te 11 aest!1etic · for · 1n:,cLs (Ldeido,,co'1f', Januar y , .1968, Black Horld p oll). Althou r, b the Fisk c onfe renc e has b een followed b y ~ozens of l!laik colle ge s all over the South, Midwe s t and East, ther e is still no monolithic stand on. "directions" hut so111c Hr iters keep tr yin 0 to give tlieu nny,Jay . · One i nJ i cation uf th e healthy dive si t y BL.1cL 1-.1ritcrs is the jouril:i_l i~oot:, , .:11:1011 0 pulilished a t Tex.:i.s So uthe rn Universit y . Turn1.?r \Jlwr to n , and Hnnce l.'ill i.:iJilS . l.dLtors are Tou1:1y_ Guy, Je f.Cree ·Jawl!s , Voh11 ,i.:: I, number I contains es.s~1ys , . ar t · and th e works of se ver al poe t s, mo:;t of tl1c1:1 southerners. o[ The -ppoetry , Ji::v oid mo notono u s th eme or sLyle , reprl; ~;en t,; n broaJ ran~c of intcr12~ts in lln""'.' 3 uist.ics , s ubject s and fon:is . ~azed forever b ack1-mrds . 11 rn' Jo fn 11 ,1 love supreme" says In 'sh e' 1-l nc:,ve r k n mv'' J-lj 1 '.:111 rny :yes cb.,y Lcl.rnd write s of vari o u:; aspec t s o f th e socia l a11<l p\1y,dcal lanJscape:, inclu<lin~ the "KLnl-y l1aireJ boys " who LuilJ 1 \ 1rsena l s of stra1-1." Cl;1ren ce \!arJ notes in 11 11..mging On" that the rent ltas gone up, eviction is inunenent, there is no food [or th e baLy, nnJ llangi11['.. on a in t easy .... �_j • .:1lrn1ad j . ' s titl e " ilarJ llo ..1d Makes a So ft Pss " iI.1plies tlie poem ' s statement. And fan t asy cterna li z,:s , "liLe a ~oo,. i i~h , 11 f,)r To ,rn1y Cuy in " lirothL.:r ." But th e themes of 1 tity, self-e ,;te2m , t he African 11 mot he rl.:1nd, 11 and unab.:i t ecl anger remain i n the new poetry as the HiJwes t .:ind \Jest cQntr ibllte i mmensely t o the . br illit,nce and th e controvecsey . Ohio, for c~xamplc , ropr.e- sente<l a unique za th eri;1~ of d i ver~w views on th e new conscio u sness , attr.:ictin g ) , 1\tL ins, J~.uHes a nu1,1l.Jcr of poets to aid the worl~ of :~o r nia n .lorcbn (193JKilgore, (all fo r m Cl e v ela nd ) and Hern ton. Redmond \;ho ,1;1s ~low at OGerlin , Ilernton succeeJed writ er -in-r es idence t he re (1969-1970), the same year Troupe be zan a residen cy a t Ohi,J Univ e rsity. durin g Hern t on ' s l euve- of-absence . Sarah Webster h 2s also t.1u ..'.,ht ,1t Ob1..rli11. II ,we ver, Cleveland ac tivity was spurred by a loni tr ad ition of Bl ack 1vriters ncluding Hu ghe s , Chesnutt (<inL.: of the: fo und e rs of Kara111u ll oL,se ) and Atkins. This continuum produceJ Jordan an:! a host of young e r poet~: Anthony Fud ge.: , Lnrry lloward, Larry W<1de , .\.r Nixon, Clint Nelson , Robert rl erni ng (Ku \Jais 11 aiazi ne), Alan Bell, P-.olanJ · Forte, Te<l llayes , E . Bufor d an J Bil l " usscll of the Munt u Poet~ . Other participatin~ wr it e r-artist s uere Clyde Shy , l\p1eer Rashid a nd Ane tt a J cf[erson . for poet s and t heir oct iviti es ca1:ie from v a riou s p l aces : Suppor t the Clevcl,md Call and Post, l\fro -Se t Black Arts pro jec t, United Bl a~k Artists, Fred Lance anJ Karauiu llou sc h w re Jord::m ' s play s wer·e p roduced. l(il :..;ore \!r ites o ut of a stro11;>, trnd iti.on of Black hum ;:i nis m riurt ur ecl in reli g iou s hon1 ,!S . lli s volumes a r c The Big Buffalo and Other Po ems (1969), Hidnip.ht Blas e (1970) and A Time of Black Devotion (1971) . Th e poems ex pose the contradi ct ions in Am e rican De1n,1 cracy and s urvey the "llig h ·JUs8 Dre a ms" of metr o poliran Bl acks cau ght in t l1e urban r enewa l scrabble. Devotion, dedi- cated to Core tta Scott King, vibr ates w:!-th conc c rns fo r Black stuJents, Third \ �lfo rl d survival, nnd .'.l fascinatio n wit h F r .'.l n z F;mo n. A d iff e r en t k ind of poe t, Jordan i s somet iI:1e s a n gry, c y nic a l a nd vio l e nt; o th e r times p r o ph e t ic and mystic a l . He ha s p ublished thr ee volwnes : D~s tin a ti on : Ashe s (1 9 67, 1971), Abov e lb ya (1 9 71), n nc.l uith Na r c h a C:: .:1 g e , Two Po e t s (197 Lf) . Dedicn t e d to th e " Cor,1muni t y ," j)(:!S tin.a ti o n c on t ain s Jordan' s b es t anc.l mos t memorabl e po e ms . I n Cl ev e l and he 0~eig e d a s a mn j or fo rc e i n t h e n ew Il l.'.l c k po etry, unit ing the older tr a di t ion s yr1bo li ze<l b y f r ee Lan c e , a nd th e Huntu Poets . De stin a ti o n, f irst pu l, lishe d p riv..i t e l y by J o rdan, was l a t e r bro u ght out by Thir d \·/orl d Pr ess ( Chica go ) with an Intro du ction b y Lee , uho said h e "learn e d" th a t Hu gh e s h a d n o n eed to " re - writ e and r evi se ." (! ) " An yway , DestinatiQn chronicl es J o r dan's own deve lo pmen t fro m th e pe r iod of civ il ri g hts throu gh Black Power . Uis p o et r _· is a ll f r ee ~ e r s e , usu a l l y simp lis tic narrativ e makin g am p l e use of dram :1 ti s p e rson .'.l from ev e ry walk of Black li fe . Th e r e is al co holism, violen ce , po v e r _t y , lon e lin es s and ex altati on · of · Blackness . " I Ha v e Seen Them" d e '; c rib e s thos e on r e lie f, hun r, r y 3. n <l cold praying fo r "mira cles ." Ne llie Ree d u sed t o be a hirl-ab out-town, "Lnughing and dancin g , " put now a t 26 she ;is dead and he r gh os t "tr emb le s" i n an a ~l e y . win e bott le "nc ecii11 ~ a f i x ." Jor da n a l so sp, ofs 11 1!iz h Art n n d Al l t ha t J;12z 11 Fue l: y o u un<l yo ur d amn v e rb s le t rnc te l l it like it is 1v1:i,t;,,£..¥ arnl f i.;,;_lM;~ . " Feed i n r~ t he Li. o.1s " (1966 ) i s hi s r:1ost antho l ogized poe m. Tiu.~· "army " of bri ef - c CLr;e- c arr 1 in ~ s ociaJ worker s inv a d~ s Bl ac k n e i ~l1bo rhoods each mo rn inL\ , pass ou t che c ks , r,1ov e qui c k ly f r m one Joor t o ano t he r, ;:inu , af t er f i l l i n g : �L--- - - - -- their c1uot:.i~, leave "before cl ,rk ." • Th,~r~ are also poems about 111ys ticis1.1, reli~ion, rnytho OBY, c1nd b,n.1n , inclu dint.', drawings of eyes, trian g les and circles--all re Ucct in g th e many influenc e s on Jo rdan I s work unJ the nppro;.1chi11::; new mood (Abov e , [.:1y<.1) . But Destination, with its short, e:-:pizr.::inma tic verses and parab l0s , sees tilrou._;h allusory, romantic "unity" near the encl and no_unt s an atta .k on revolutiona ry clia'i-lo.tans , b a ck-sliders of the P10vement and those v:ho vie1·1 violence as the only solution to rncism. Yet "Cosmic Witchdoctors" reaffirms his faith jn 1310.ck writers working far into a "liquid nieht'J they provide the [o u11Jati on for tomorr ow ' s liber1tion. Jordan's belief in the 1.1ys tical, mag ical pm,ers of the word can be seen in the name Vibration, a Cleveland rnazazine 1.;,ith which he was closely .:issocL.1te<l. It is "Dedicated to the Resurrection of the :-~entally and Spiritually Dend ." Other Ohio poets found outlets for their work in Vibration ;ind other . journa ls: Black J\scensions (Cuyaho ga Community College), Proud lllack Ima?,es (Ohio State University) and Lifeljne: When America Sin:::,s She Croak s (Oberlin). Oberlin students also produced a ,spe cial Black issue of tl1e college is Activist macazine; it contained poems by bith students and well known poots. a staff m.:!mber of Rlack Ascension , , publishcJ Higration in 1972. Cleveiancl poet , D. Felton (1934- Judg0, /\notlier ) ; _ broucht out Conclusions wilh an Intr·o- duction by Atkins who praised tl1e y oun~ ~oet [or not consciously engaging in the "<lis[igurement of perceptions" to polemicize a " constrictcu kinJ oE 'rele va nce .'" In 11 /\n Elegy to Eternity," Felton, n vibrant poet, s.:iys: Tear-ducts swe Ll, bursting in a delight of flood and fury. Garfield Jack son, a young prize-winning poet, is one of tl1e editors of - ------ -- - - - - �Prou,J 1nack Im,H;cs. pages: Hany young and old e r Ohio : poets arc .includ e d .::unon:; its Forrest Gay, Dianne Gou:)..<l, Jackie Toone, Ebrahim /\ ljahL:z, Hohssen Asl.'.lm (Chri s Jenkins), !3 attuta LuL:::.mba Barca, Linda Callender, Beverly ChceLs, An tar Sudan Hberi, Leatrice Emeruwa, Roslyn Perry Ford, Ray Hon,t p,omery, Kilgore, Jordan, und o_tlwr s .. Al thou~h the jour,Hll I s title set s the conceptual pace and plac e s iL in the s tremn of the new con ; ciousncss, there is no unifyin c thei:1e or idea in the poetry . John \Jhittaker calls "Singers, Dancers," the "doers of initial d e eds" and Impl ,~ menters of the inevitable Black life. Hernton, who :i ttcnc.lcc.l Oj1io schools, b e came writ c r-i n- 1_-L·s hlen c l: u t Ccutr i..! 1 State Univer s ity, .in th~ sixtiL'. S . House of Nightso 11 Il e p ul>lishcd Th f> Ccmin:•, of Chron os LO th e in 1963 and since then he has written many books and ,1rticlcs on America' s soc L i 1 / scn1a 1 h a n g ups . in the first issu e· of Confrontation: One of his most powerful po ems appeare·d A Journal of Third Wor1 d Lit ~ rnture (summer, 1970) founded and eJi Lcd by Troupe at Ohio University. " S tr ee t Sc.enc" sho\1s Hernton pla , (ul _ly lookin r, at the identity ·question alon:; with other things . When he · c ets am! spenk·s to his "dream" on the "street, 11 h e rccc.ives this ansner: "Go • o hell, sonofabitch." ' Confrontation al s, publishes o t her Ohin ports; yet, its concerns nre bron<l as seen in the names of contribut .i ng e<lit6 rs: Damas, Sergio Mondra~on, FernanJo Ale~ria, ,•; c.'.11, l:c:dmon<l, Tam Fi ur :L, David llenderson, .Melv:Ln L<l\mr.<ls :ind \Hlfr e J Cart e y. In oth er Ohio co1,11,1uni L i. L'.:; related events oc c urr '-' J, Black Arcs Fe s t i v ,1 \J.J S Cincinatti' s [.ir s t ,n g an.i. :~cd li y ti :Lkki Ci.ovanni in 1 9(J7 and out of tli.is effort g,- l!•.J The :: .: Tl,L!.:.tLer. li'e rh er t Ha rt ln (1 9 J3- �i[j J l iO! -1 : J Other Poe1:1s (1 969 ), maJe :rn jru;ieas u rabl y vdlu.:.ible con tr ibutiun to th e un<l crstanJing o f Blacl~ poetry \Jhcn he o(;_,c11 i~cd the P: ul L.:.iurencc Dunbar Centennial in l:J72 a t the University of J)ayton . In<li.::ma h c.:iv ecl forth preciou s \,or<ls from Gary , Indianapolis , Purdue , Te rre Ha ut e auJ- ot her ar.:~as . t!ar i Evc1ns or~.:.i ni zc~l c1 rL s an:1 consc-Lou snc::::;s progr:.i11t,; in Indi:.in apul ii; u •,J J l oo .,in ",ton. f /\Jn :1 Blnck Wo111an, containin g poems wriLLun over scvcr.:.il years , unf o tunately did n o t fin d a pubJ.ishcr until 1970. llowever, th e book de se rv ed ly r ec~ivcd th e! Black .\ca dcmy of Arts a nJ Letters Second i:\nnunl Poe tr y .'\~tan! . She~ hets been closely identified with ac tivi tics in Chlc :.igo ,,here Tl1 :Lrd llorld Press publishes her _ch .i.J dn~n ' :; vll"it:ing'.;, li er tit le pOei.l i_s a spiritual , psycltolll~ical n nJ lli.storicnl journey o( till: J;lack \ uoman 1-1hosc "tri gger 1. re/<l finger s " no1v seek th e so ftness of 1;1y 1varrioc ' s beard ... A major poem arnonfj tL new poetry, it combines the best of th e modernists techniques with a cltart-work of mu si c so as to give the impression o f someone sin ~~ ing or hununin g a long with the re a dinr; of it. Mari Evnns scans other fie] ds of 13lack li fe , writing about lonel y a nd Jej ect,~J wo111en, self - pr iJe, . violence., Black unity anJ Af1-ica . In " Hho can be l\orn Black" she joyousl y anJ Jefi_a ntly asks : Who can be born and not exult! Also closely a ssoci.:.iteJ with the Chic a~ o nnd Detroit movements is Ethrid 0 c Kni g hL (] 9:33 - ) , 1vho 1,1as scrvint a 20-y ca r tcn,1 in InJL:ma State Prison i1hen Poem!~ fr om Prison (1968) appeared in 1968 wi th a Preface by Cv,cndolyn s �Brooks. She called his poetry Vital. Vital. This poetry is a 111ajor announc eme nt ... And there is blackn es s, inclusive, pos se ss c J and Biv e n; freed ~n d . terribl c uriJ beautiful. Her own version of th e ],l a ck Aesthetic was expressed in the snme stat:ement: "Sinc e Etherid g e Knight is not your stifled artiste, there is air in these poems." Kni g ht roams the deep crevices of Black spiritual .:ind p s ychic experiences as he combin e s the L:in r~u::ig e of the prison sub-culture with the rhythms of Hl.:ick Arneric;in street sp l~ ech . He bounc es o r dri v· s . hard-- n poetry of "hard .boµ"--lookinr, nt prison l i f e , love anJ ancestry . Exce µ tional pi ec es are the folksy "Hard Rock Returns to Prison from th e ll os pital for thc.: Crimin i> l Insane," the mysti c al anJ mythical "lie Sees throu r:h Stone," the g enealo g ical "The Idea of Ancestry," the innovative Haiku sections, and "On UniversalismJI ·which warns ;i g nins t applying "universal laus" to "pains" and "cl1ains" in America. llis technical abilities .:ire poignantly displayed in lwiku "9": Hakin t~ jnzz suing in Sev e nte e n syllables AIN ' T t o square poet's job. Knight, who W.'.l!, lnter released from p ris o n, also eJited Black Voices From Prison (1970) c1 nd in 1973 Bro.:idsid e . rr e s s published J; e lly Son g and Other Poems. He los e s his reach when he tries t o over-intellectualize in his poetry . And though it may be a bi t uncharitable to say , Belly Son g proves tl1at he wrote better poetry in prison. slips into pol e mics. The last book has some fine moments but it sometimes However, .Kni~ht is still stretchin r; out as a poet, currently doinL: research into oral lit e ra turc with the aid of a Cu :~g enheim ~rant. �Bel] v shous him pursuing this traditi on in "Th,, Rones of Hy Father" ,_.hich smile at the moon in Mississippi from th e bottom of the Tallahatchie. Finally , n _numb e r of · poe ts from this p;eneral re ;; ion of the Midwest and South are included in a specia l J3lack Poetry issue of Negro American Literature· Forum (spring, 1972) eJited by Redmond . The Forum is publisheJ by In<lianu State Un .Lv~rsity School of Educ;.ition and ec.litcd by John B.'.l.yliss, an Eng,lishman. It rcr;ularly revi e ws Jllnck litl.!rat11re. Chicai.;o is a l'-lilh-1 e s t h ,1rt ard h.:is a long tr.-:iJ _itto n o f DL.H.: l~ ,'..rts, go in 1: 0 back to, . and before, Count Basie ' s openin r, at the Sunset Club in 1 9 27. !iO\.ve vcr, some of tile more recent forces lielpine to sliape the n c 1, poetry move11 h.~ nt ther"t:-: are : South Side Community Arts Center, Johnson Publications, Kuumbn's Root Theater (Francis and Val \lard), the DuSable Museum of African· American History, OBAC , 1nstitute of Positive Ec.lucation and Third \]orld Press (Ha.<lhub-iti) Free Dlack. Press, Afro-Arts Theater, ,!nlcolm X Coller;e , Oscar Brown , Jr., l'luliar.rniad Speaks , Ellis Bookstorl:!s , Chic<1go Defender , Philip Coli ran (Artisti·c ller.i,tai.;e . J•:nsembl<'), to name just a few. As a major point - bet1,1cen East and \! _• st/North nn<l South , Chica go remains a city in transition. ~ Much of the ne~, poetry scene · i:.;ene·r ates from the hub known as th e Organiza tion of Black M,1erican Culture and (;\1e11dolyn Brooks . Fuller , Blc1c l~ \io rld managinc editor , is also advisor to OUAC I s \friter ' s \lorkshop·. In J. 9 G9 (fall) issue of Nommo , the workshop ' s journal, Fuller said: Hlacl is a way of looking at the world . The poets of - Ol:AC, in revealini.; their vision, celebrate their blackness. In tl1is moment in history, 1,hat might under clif ferent circum- �stn~ces be simp ly assumed must neces s a ril y be asserteJ . And the OBJ\C poets know--if others Jo no~ --tlwt pille men out of the He s t do not <lefine for mankind the peri111eters of art. Tbis th ey wan t all bl ack people to knoo . In the Journ t 1·• i, win·t er issue of the s rn,1c year , Fuller sa id OiAC 111emb c rs · ,-1 ere 11 seekin t; " to b·e "both si11pl e and profound. " They displ ay an "ima gi native re- prese ntation of the ir e,:per;iences, 11 but th ey also seek "to be rt=volutionnry." In t:he first quote, Fuller's tone, carrying the battle-baiting phrase , "even if other s do not , 11 s ee1,1e d to h..1ve been a siGn.:il fo r, among others , Don L. ), to continue his att.:ick on all fr onts . There were no sncred cows, as Lee saw it, and since "oth ers do not" know what the youthful Chicago Blacks presumably did l(now , Lee's assignment was to teach them. C\!Cndo l y n Brooks concurred with 11ost of this feeling , embracing as it were a 11 n ew" Blackness and (unfortu11a tely) occas ~onally engaging in a kind of self-defrecation: "It fri g hten s me to re n lize that, if I had died before the .:ige of . fifty ·, I would have died a ' Neero ' fraction. 11 Lee followin g the examples of_ RanJall .:inJ naralt a, began Third World Press-.:..a valual>le vehicle for th e new pocts--and changed his name in the early seventies to Haki R . Nadhubuti. Be also estab- lis hed the I.1stitute for Posit ive I:duc::ttipn which publishes Bla ck Books Bulletin wilh himself as eJito r. Sterling Plu Ptpp (19L10- J, Other poets Johari Amin i included in the eJitorial st.:iff: (J ewel Latimori..!) (1935- ) , Ern~rnuel, Sarah Web s t ~r Fabio, the late Llor e ns ( who launc hed Lee 's national career in Ebony , l~rch 1969), anJ Randa ll. OBAC was foun ded in 1967 and poets of varying. t emperaments were a ttr acted to it and Gwendolyn Brooks ' worksh.o ps : ) , \h1lter Bradford (1937- ~ - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- -- - -- - ) , Carl Clari~ (1932- Ca rolyn ) ' (i - \l �Hike Cook (1939- ) , Jm:1es Cunnin gham (1936- Sam Greenlee ( ), Phillip Royster (194 3- Lee, Linyatta (194 7(193 3- ) , Sharon Scott (19510 ) , Ronda Dovis (1940- ), ), Pe~gy Kenner (1937- ), ) , and Sir,emonde \-/il:1berli (Ebon) ), and continual str e..:im of newly arrivinG poets. Other Cliicazo area poets are St cp h .i ny Fuller, Eugene Perkins, Irma McLaurin, Lucill e Patterson, Jerrod, Zack Ci]bert (1925- ), Alicia Johnson ( 1944- ) , Rmm Chiri and n.ohart Butler. The work of many Chica go area poets can be fo11nd in Nornmo, Black Expressions, BJ ack l·Jorld, Black Writers ' News, Muhammad Speaks, and in the antholo~ies ~ Broadside Tre.:isury (1971) aqd Jump Ila<l : edited by C\vendolyn Brooks . A New Chic.:1 :~ ,1 .\ nLl 1o lo ·,v (1971), both They can also be found .h1 the numerous ot:1er na tionally-Jistriliuted ant:1ologies and journals alre.:idy listed . · Illa ck \,/or lJ , as naw:~ anJ concept, was concession won by Chicago area artists and activists , who protested a~ainst the old nar, e Negro Dir,es t in the lnte sixties. Fuller continues to g uide the ma~azine ' ~ new i1:1age through the ti cklish · \Hltcts of · controversy and chani:;e. ... as Black \Jorl, . ' s But many renders h.'.lve been critical of uhat is seen pnrticularize<l stands , lack of " open" foru m on pertinent Blnck issues, .:incl a tern.L:.!ncy t0 circunscribe indivldu::ils and iruups. But . the jour?al has .:in indispensable aid to many Black poets and writers, printing their Hork, identifying antholoLies, ·11otln:3 books publishec.l, and serving as facilitator for prizes and Benerul contac t. Amon~ all nc~1 poets, N.:1dhubutl is second only to Nikki Giovanni in the number of accolades ancJ the comr::ercia l attention he an~! his poetry h.:ive received. A sampling of critics, poets and schola rs who feel he is one of the greatest of the new poets oould !1:.1ve to · include Stephen Henderson, Full12r, Gwendolyn Brooks llargaret \folker, Pa ula Giddinr;s ,' Barak.a, Hari Evans , Randall and Gayl e . �CwenJolyn Brooks has sai d Maclhubuti r .:csenhles Jesus Christ an<l her IntroJuction t o Jump Dad hails hi1:1 as "the r:10sl significant, inventive, .:ind influential black poet in th e country . 11 Overlookin3, for th e 11101!1ent, the necessity of reading "all" the poetry in the "country" before making such a state111ent, it si1,1ply is 1 ot wis e in view of the "collec tiv.:/' policy--and the nnti-individualist f~-.;lings --which .:i lle gedly form the cornerstone of th e Ch ica go poetry scen e . Lee has published five volumes of poetry: Thin]: Black! (196 7) , Black Prid e (1968) , Don ' t Cry, Scream (1969), He llalk the Way of th e New \lorld (1970), Dir ec tionscor e : (1973). Selected and Ne,-; Poems (J 971) aml Tl1c Book of Life His Dynamite Voices, Vol . I (Broadside), publi s hed in 1971, is a study of lLf Black poets of the sixties; but it reveal s , like his other criticism, that hen hazy thinker, who lncks discretion and firm understanding of the Black poetry tradition. lie spends an entire page , fo r examp le, illuminatin8 ,md apparently advocating the use of the word "motherfucker ." And any book about the sixties should not come off the pr e ss without exami- ning - th e poetry of Le Roi Jones/I~amu Daraka . Madhub u ti attributes the fathership of the New Black poetry to Barakn , but apparcntly: is incap a ble of discussing the man's poetry. There arc oth e r, incredible flm-1s in the book; for which this youn g poet's older mentors must ·s har e some blame . As a critic, he did not (could not!) cultivate the " distance " of a Johns on, Drown , Redding, or Henderson, and consequ e ntly--alrea<l y lacking discipline and training--could not really see the poetry. But in fairness, it must he said that his bihlio ~raphy and oth e r random bits o f information about the new poetry arc ·usable. As a poet, Lee far es bette.r, emplo yin3 wit, irony, understatement an<l signifying . nut there are excellent poets in Chica~o which h is politico-poetic - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- -- - - - - - - - �ima ,.~e has dwarfed (Plumpp, Cunnin~harn, Rodgers, Gilbert, etc.) ran Ge from what Arthur r. llis themes Davis has calleJ "The !Jew Poetry of nJ.ack Hate," through love and Black pride, to the ha-cared pontifications in The Book of Life wher e h e r e -arran:~es sayings and parables stated better by Aeso;i, b ush Africans, Plntd, and nnraka , and Tolson . 1.ike Nikki Giovanni an<l others, his ea rly \lork re-inforccJ the self-love concept, castigated whitey an<l encoura~ed !Hack unity. Host of his themes are sumned up in the titles 'J'hinl~ 1:l « ck! and Black Pride anJ his devices arc ~very<luy conversation, often not wcllwroueht hut sornetir.ws quice startlin~~ and musical rhyth;11s (" The 1/all") . These he aJjusts in nn often effective typography which columns verticnlly or horizontally on the pa:1,es . 1,tLWl..! ::i lit pc1r.1llel In IntroLluctions to h is books and critical articles Hadhubuti :.il,_.ays gives "directions" Lo l:lack writers -- ns he does in much of the poetry itself . "First Impressions of a Poet's De.:ith , " his ele[;y for ConraJ Kent 1'.ivers, subtlely revenls the often un-talke<l-about thin cs th ~1 t cause prcraature !.\ lack Jeaths . Speakin~· of · '.' too much" sex ,:rnd drink, he s:.iys many "poets who poet" sel<lom die from overexposure. But he can unknowinzly dilbble llith tlt e ,aost complex aspects of !Hack life as in "The So.;lf-llatre<l of Don L. L2e 11 ·,.,1iere, after studyin~ !.lnck history , he l earns to love tile " .i.nner" person my light bro\Jn outer . ;:i;HJ hate (\/ith vehe1:1cnce) �Cert.:iinly .:i profound and tra gic dilemma i s stated here : si nc e h;iting o ne's color will not change it; and since one lws t o li.v e wi th it for the rest of one's life. It is a go o d poem for studying th e so-callee! " sol ution" th.:it some Black wr .i.ters claim tu have "found " to th e iclen tit y pro!Jle1:1 . 'l'lle r e are other peaks of .r evelry and · dunGeons of confusion .i.n Ha Jhulrnti' s poetry . . One of his mos t fanous poems 'is ·" Don't Cry, Scream ." Praised hi (jhly by Stephen llenJ erso n, the poem paraphrases th e heratical rantin gs of Ron l~arenga who e ncourag e J Blacks to renounce the Blu es . Hadhubuti's poem, ,3 tribut e to Coltrane , is lar ge ly crap l1ic with occas iona l areas of int el li g i b ility. Then there is the self - d is gust : i cried for billy hollidny . the blues . 1•1e ain't blue the blues exhibited illu s ions of manhood. Even the Gernian Janheinz Jahn knew bet tcr. must face the question: it"? And certainly , toJay, Hadhubuti · if the blues were destructive , then Lm-J <lie.I iic• "make Inc.leed, how did any o ne "make it" without th e tot em of surviv a lisms· necessary to "cro s s over"? Madhuhuti's influence on the new poetry • h a s been . substanti.:il, however, thou ~h in most instances the influence ha s b ee n in ~he area of politics rather t han poetry. C:irolyn H.odc c rs' volu,.i e s arc Papc~r So u l (1968), Songs of a .Blackbird (196 9) , 2 Love R~1 ps (Br oadside ) (196 9), · Blu es Gitt in Up (1972) and Ho\J I C-:ot Over (1975). l·!oma nl y ,m ·d convi nci n z , she \;rite s of younr, women, love, revolutionari e s and music. In "Pho enix " sh e recall s traveling "with the wind" and h ea ring the m;iny voi ces screrl1!1ing blooddrops of time . "Jazz" describes "thr ee " nt the bar, the clicking of drinking £,lasses , and the murmur of thick mouths .... �" Rcbolw3lLi.nary x - r1as/ens tuh julie 4/etc . etc. 0.cc . 11 is a sati.re on " militan t s ." And she t el l s us that hits o f r.-ic sp linterecl in to a mir ror in " Lo ok .::i t Hy Face a Coll ag e. 11 These idea s and th emes , :1 nd nwny others , c a n a lso b e fciu:i1d .in th -2 poe try of J oh a ri Am ini , Plumpp , :nul Cunnin3hc1m. Jolrnri /1m ini ' s books incluJ e Imaf'eS in ];lack (1 96 7), A Folk Fab l e (br oadside) (19 (i9 ) , Le t ' s r.o Somewherp (1970), and /1 l!ip Tnl e in lle., th Style (1972). She relies heavily u po n Black co lloqu i a lis ms , usu n ll y achievi n r, s uc cess . But she has other rRn f,es as ca n be see n i.n " Brother" which lon gs for the "s o il" of Hlack p o ep l e, where th ey can fe e l the univ e r se s huJder Plumpp ' s Portalil e Soul ( 1969 ), Half Black, Half Bl ncke r t o Bre a k th e Circle (1975) . (197 0 ) anJ Steps A southerner with a b.::ickground in psycl)o l or,y , li e h as also writt e n a provocative study call ed Black Rituals ( ). His interes ts are see n in titles like "From "lanless Sisters to Bi g llad Rappers,'·' "Black Hessaie!:> 11 ("believe in us"), "T.ivin?, Truth" ("bl nck history ... a k1nne<l ep ic"), an<l Egypt (For Black MothcrhooJ) ,., : an everlasting s unri. se awoke . . . One of th e most perceptive, skillful anJ innovative poets, ·. h u\vever, i s· Cu n nin glt,11,1 . ll is one volume i s The Blu e Iw rrator (1 974 ) nn<l li e has been p ub- li. slicJ 1,idely ln peri.oJicals . " The.: Ci.L y Ri.ses " as a sad s ti ff \100Jet1 pl;., ce " St .. Julic>n ' s J.:ve: For Den nis Cros s " he wo11Jerfull y mi xes the senses; the n ar r a t o r is tlt e " ear " hy Brahm s, and th en there ful]o\vS ;; reat poo2try : th e wind - 1,w.n t cnri.n~ at th e briJ 6 c as a man stnnds wonJeri.ng �why does the river float up to th e sky In a Tolsonian thrust, "Rappin13 Alon~ 1,1ith I'-.on ~l;_i Da vi s " i s ,1 de li ghtful combination of }'. oon hea1:1s yams E.. aml slto11s Cunningl1.11n I s :1 hi lity to pL1ce dispar a te orJ e rLn ~s in lils poetic vis e . 11 /\ Street in Kau fm an-ville: place" is u stu<ly of the 11 or a note thrmm to c,tr o l yn f r o:!1 r o<l ge r s fra3ments" of Bob Kaufman in whom th e poet sees a madness unlike my own . . . . Arriving "From the Narrator's Tra nce," a song thumbeJ-dO\vn a cruiser for a r iJe .... Cunningham also writes of other poets anJ artists . In conductin g Id s fascinatin g experiments with the language, he celebrates the wide span of the hybrid Afro-American heritage. And certainly, here is a po e t co be closely watched. AI:1ong other Chicago poets who published volumes are: Gilbert, I-lv Own llallelui a hs (1971); Chiri, An /\cknowled ~ement to Mv Afro-American Brother (1968 ) ; Perkins, Black is Beautiful (1968); Winberli (Eben) ~h e cto Scenes (1968) and Revolution (1968) (' 'a new Ina·ck voice to .:ilar01 the establishmerit"-Perkins); Hargaret Durroughs, \-Jhat Sha ll I Tell mv Children W1to ·a re Rlack (1968); Greenlee, Blues for an Afric11 n Princess (1971); Lucille Patterson, Moon in Blacl~ (1974); Steph~ny, Hovinc Deep (1970); Royster , The Black Door (1971); Kgositile, Spirits Unchained (1969) an<l For l'!elb.:1 (1970); Butler, Black Visions (1968); and Jerodd To Paint a Black Picture (19&9). Yet a newer group, not all Clticagoans, have been published in Third World Press ' New Poets series : Anr,ela Jackson, Voodoo/Love Ma r, ic (1974); Damc1li (Denise Burnett), I Am that He May Be (1974); Fred !lord, After Hours (1974) and \ �Sandr c1 Roy ster, \/ome n Ta lk (1974). Th e se yo u ng po e ts d ea l with a v ar i e t y of subj e cts, thou gh with a s ma ller variety o f f o r~ s ; mostl y , however, th e y are concern e d with revolution, self-prid e , h e t e ro sex u a l r e lat ions and Tilack lif e in urban Am e rica. Amon g t he _ 1:w ny ,',oo d thin g s which e me r g ed fr om Chic ago was th e "n ew " Gwend o l yn Brooks who, as we s aw in Cbnpter V, ha s c1 l.ways been s olid in her Blackness a nd wonderfully ma g ic in her po etry. The Bro oks of In th e Mecca (1968), Riot (1969), Family Pictur e s (1970) a nd Al o nenes s (1 9 71) is not drasti c all y diff e r e nt from her form e r self • . In Report From Pnrt On e (1972), her autobio graphy, she appar e ntl y approved the u se of a MA<lhub11ti Pr e face which t e lls more about his own rcadin ~ an tl writinz pr obl ems th a n it J ocs about this g reat woma n's poetry . Madhuhuti com p lc1ins . ah o ut h e r c omp l e x vers e ; but her poetr y has never b e en "eas y " to read (prob a bly never will) and I'-iot c o ntinu e s that tradition of tou g hn ess , a po e try whi c h yie ld s men nin ~ after many readin g s. She employs mytholo gy , histor y , sarcas m n_nd ·d rama t ic dialo r, ue to reveal Hhite middle class pomposity even in face of a "lUot.," · lat~r incorporating Bing Crosby and Melvin Van Peebles, and aspe~ts of love. The ''Black philosopher" is th e thread that spines the section call1::d The: Third Sermon on the \farpland. Th e re a r c traces o f h e r t e r se c.i rli c r s tyle, p a rti c ul a r ly h e r unique word-sound .pro g r es sions: as he r und e rfed Ji a u nc h_c•s ·je r k _j azz . And a wh it e J ih e r a l, o l>servin 6 a r .io t, ask s "But \JJJY do Th e s e Peo ple o f fe nd t he:msL:lvcs? " a Jdin ~: th a t lt i s time to "h e lp." Fam ily Pi c tur e s c o ntain s th e s na ps hot s of h e r n ew y o, 111~; heroe s , th e p eopl e wh o h e l pe d h e r be come "Black." But despite 11c ll- r.1ean L11g sci lut e s to K0 o s itil e , Don , Br a d fo r d , a nd yo un ~ Afr .i ca ns , th e re i s a 111o not o ny of praise. Admitt e d l y, no on e is pe r fec t, a nd s h e i s a p pa r en tl y _____________________ _ ....__ �struf.?)in['., .:is har d with conunitment ns she is \-Jith the ncH poet r y . " Spee ch to the Youn1.1, " dedicated to 0\·111 In chilJren , the sensitive mother-poet gives advise that many ano t her young person might cuddle anJ cherish : Live not for The-En<l-of-the-Son~ . Liye in ci1e a16ng . Su ch advice comes at an i 1:1po rtant juncture when the world is mov in g righ t .ilong, to use a clich e , and l eavi ng behind those too mired in their own "self-revel.itions" to look , lis t en .::ind learn . Yet one c rownin g salute to this gre.::it lady of Black l _t ters wc1 s an impressiv e antholo:1y of poe t ry and t es t imonial s , To Gwen Hith Love : A Tribute to Gwendolyn llroois (1911), assembled by MuJhubut i .::ind others. Chica~;o poets were only a skip from places like Gary , Indianapo lis, Detroit, c1nd St . Lo uis , Cleveland , Kansas Ci t y , and the closeness provided interchan ge s and excha nges on all levels . Hotm-m ' s poetry output , like that of other communities , was also interwoven with related symb ols· :1110 ·· expressions of the new consc i ousness : ~~rgaret Danner ' s Boone Douse for · the Arts , Rev. Cleage ' s Shrine of_ the Black Hadonna, Motown Records, Bro.::idside . Press , Vaugl1n's Books t ore , and area Black studies projects. The poet~y h~b for the l ate six t ies and sev enties , of course, is RandalJ J s Erondside Press . Randail has changed as a poet and per so n, he says, in ways that pe rhaps parallel the changes in Gwendolyn Bro ol~s ·. A "f.ither" fi g ure among some new Black poets, he publishes dozens of them (over 100 at this writing ) , releases new books of his own poetry , serves as distribu t or of Breman ' s lle r itage Serles, and t ravels \.,,idely cJ.s .::i l e cturer , teach e r , libr.::irian anJ tr :msL1 tor o f Russi.::in poetry. A formalist by training anc.1 temper.::iment, T(andall c.lescribe<l hls new poetic stance in a statement in Modern a n.J Contemporary AfrorArnerican Poetry �(Bell, 1972) : ~fy poetics is to try to write poetry as we ll .:i s I can . I think I have said elsewhere th.:it the function of the poet is to write poetry . My earlier poetry was more formal. a· I nm tryi11 2; _to wri.te No\,r looser , more irregular, more colloquial .:ind more idiomatic veise. I abhor logorrhe.:i, and try to make my poems as concentrated as possible . Indeed, It~mdall h.is tried to do just th.:it- - moving from a traditional to a loose conversational verse. This he attempts in volumes like Love You (1970 ) and After the Killinr, (1973) . village o.r the "Miracle " e, -c \Jhen Randall is descrihin g a g;i.rl in an Africnn · love , he comes over genuinely and s tron::; . nut poer:is like " Green App l es" and "Words \fords \for<ls ' 1 show him out of · his field. These and otl1er pieces are merely vertical prose , appearing as rou~hed-obt lett~rs . But he is primari l y a librnrian , publisher , and eJiior whose service to Black poets has been and remains invaluable . This is seen not only -in his prod uction of their work, but in the many antholor,ies which he has edit e d . With , Chicagoan llargare t Burro ughs , he co-edited Malcolm : Poems on the Life and Death of Malcolm X (196 7), a foresigh t ful and - cornrnanclinn work . · Also to hi s e d it ing c r edit are Black Poetry (196~ ) and The Rlack-Poets (1971), the l atte r imbalanced a nd a ppa r ent ly quickly thrown toge t he r since it has practically . no Introduction and contains no bio-:bibliographical material on the poets . In addition to 11,m<lall and Har[iaret Da nner, other poets "i.n this upper Midwest area are James Randall (1~33Thomas (1939- ) , James Thompson (1936- ), Richard ) , William Thizpen (1948-1971), Naomi }~<lc ett , Hayden, Rocky Taylor (Teju1aol1 Oloi3lioni) (194_5- ) , Pearl Cleage Lomas (now living in ) , Malalka Wangara (1938- ~ - - - - - -- - -- - - -- - - - - - - - ), �Re;~L11:1l ,l 1./ilson (1S27Leonea<l l~aily (1906- ) , SoneL-2yatta (1956) , He lLa Boyd (1950- Jill \!itherspoon (19.'.i 7- ) , Carolyn Thomp son (1944) , Sh irley 1/ooJson (1 936- ), La Donna Tolbert (19~6) an<l Frency llo (1950- ,.1. ~ . .t~ • ~ t~t:~ - t,: ), ), Ste ll a Crews [;CS (19 -'f0- · can be [ound iu· Te n , .\ ,~1:oa<lsicle Tr c,asu ry, The !Hack Poets, anJ (l(..,. ), jn ). They t he sn, 11 iJ\ ?,_J indivi ,lu .:1 1 volumes re:..;uLirly puLlishe<l by Hroc1Jside Press. For further de- tail s on Detroit anJ other P.roadsidc poets see Broadside Authors and /\r tists (Leonead Bailey, 1974). James ltamlall h.:is published Don ' t /\sk He \·.'ho I /\m anJ Cities .:rnd Other Disasters (1973). llis poetry is i ntense , con11'iandJn)3 and dr...i 1,1atic . In " Netuork. . News," we are told that For years he ' cl watched the ~:rowin g 111:idi1<.~ss of the State . There ls irony and pathos as in "Street Games" where a b oy is blacl~ as the ancient curse of Africa A different kind of poetry is written by O]ogboni \Jho intennin:1lcs drum rhyLhms , incantatory meditations anJ sharp estLblish1nent-dlrected Larbs in Drum Son;'. (1969), Intro<lu,ed by C:,,,endolyn Brooks . The poet is also an artist who tells us in "Untitled " that the nir,ht contains indifferent stars . . .. · llayJen has Le en teaching at th ,! Uu iv ersity of Hichir,an , his alma mnter, since tb e lat e' sixties when' he le ft Fisk under pressure. l!is Words in the l-lournin°, time (1970) ~mticipatc the theme of J ay n e Cortez ' s overpower.lng " Festivals c, Funerals. " He seeks a place v1here man Hill no longer be called ni gge r, gook , kite or hunkie , _but " man. " Th e re nre fri ghten in f, poems ,::md terri[yin g images in \.Jords as Hayclen surveys the " Sphinx" ("my joke and me " ) , . i " Soledacl " ("cradled by drugs , by jazz" ), - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - -- 11 Kodachror.1es of the Island " �("fin gerless hands " ) nnd " El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz" ("the w::ikinr-; dreai:1 11 ) . "Zeus over Redeye " refl ec ts on n visit to the r,~'dsto ne J\rse1rnl. It is an intense drama, joining other great poems ns a major statement on our times . Western man ' s mythic totem, his depravity, his quixotic movements at the speed of a 1,lur, the hur:wn "loom" of t ens ion--all a r e sta~ed aga inst th e hacblrop missile arsenal where decith-machines bear th e names of ancient Grneco-Roman mytholo gical fi gur es . mythologies" to "cor.1e to birth ." Such namin r.; allows death-denline "new Among terms associated 1.Jith Hayden ' s nightmarish world of visibl /invisible and anticipated violence are dra gon, hydra, basilisk, tulips, corQllas, Zeus, J\pollo, Nike nnJ llercules. The missiles tower ("st as is") as a sacred phallic grove . .. . Apparently the guides cit th e arsenal cannot satisfactoril y ans1,er que stions about the missiles ' des tinies and dan ge rs : Your partial answere reassure me less than they appall . I feel as thou r;h invisible fuses 1-1ere burning all a ro un d us burning all around us. Heat- quiverin ~s p,itch dan ~e r's hypersensitive skin. The very sunlir,ht here seeri1s flammable. And shadows r.; ive us no relieving shade. Dismal and final, Ha yden ' s poem adds its own pa rticul a r tone, style and language to the leng theninf totem of the New Black Poetry. For, desp it e his disa r, re cments with the Black J\esthcticians, ther e is no doubt that �"Z eus " r ea ffirms a b e li ef expressed b y youn~er, sometimes loude r, poe ts: that the Hestern world is rloomed to d est ruction at its m-m hands (uill "off itself," a yo unze r poet mi ~ht sa y) and this is . what has been decreed. In fact, the theme of an approaching end is quite "American" in poetry, still being pre.:ic hed by whit e poet s. and spokc~s1,ian : from Dobby Dylan to Bi lly Graham . Rich con tri b ut ions liuvc illso been made by poets lllinois and Hisso uri. i.111J ar ti sts in so ut hern Eas t St. Louis anc..l St. Louis, thou ;;h located in t\✓0 different states and separated by the Mississippi , have a mut u a l hi story tha t ~ocs back before th e days of the f:.1mous Dred Scott Case . These Blncl~ co11m1unities , alternately mir ri n~ anc..1 loving , worked closely to ge ther duri11 6 th e 1tei~ht of t!te Black Art:s Hovcmen t. Poe t s and artists Here drawn to or s upported by HAG (!Unck Artist Group ), House of Umoja, The Blacksmith Sltop of CJ.ne t Cul tu .re , Black Liberator projec t, the House of Truth, Impack llouse, the Experiment in Higher Ed uc.a t i on at SIU, Sophia llouse, Katherine Dunham 's Performing· Arts Train.ing· Center ( EIIE_- SIU ), Black lliver lfri ters, and the So uthend l,ei~hborhood Center. Some of t he poets in th e area wer e Bruce Rutlin, Rhea Sharlem Carant, Sherma n Fowl e r, Red1 ,1onJ, Cynthia Conley. (who later joined OBAC), Arthur Dozier , J.,obb. Elliott, Austin Bla ck (192 8- ) (who went to Los Angeles), Pved Horton;_ Dwight Jenkins, Romenethn Washington , Donald Henderson, .Henry Osborne, Jon TTil shn , Vincent Clark, Gloria Walkir; Vince nt Terrell, Reginald Al len Turriage, Hayne Loftin, Derrick 1.Jright , Crcgo:ry ·Anthony, Katherine Dunhm:1, and others . Hritings by th ese poets are in c luded in Sid es of the River: ,\ Mini-i\n th olor,y of Black 1-Jritin5s (196 9 , Redmond ), ne tt y Lee's St . Louis-b ased Proud magaz in e which offers prizes, Th e Hil l Creek Intelligencer, n special issu e of Sou ' wester (fall, 1968 , selected by Redmond), The Black Libe r ator , Th0 Crea t or (1969) , Tambourine (19 66 , \Jhite and Schwartz), Collectiot1 (196 8 ), �Volume I of Poems by Blacks (1970). Dum.:ts, \Jho t;:iu r.,h t for a year at E..1st St . Louis (SIU-1.:J-IE , 1967-196 3 ), an<l ReJmond co-sponsor~<l writin~ prograllls in the l'...:tp-\Jrite Now \Jorksl10ps and Black River hfriters group . Collection was stu<lent-proJuceJ under Dumas' supervision, with Fowler an<l I.inJa Stennis serving as editors . EJ liot t writes, in 11 T11C· Dream Time," about the "spirochete wornb" of the mo th~r of the universe, the Phoenix, and the Jeath "f ashioned ut the end" of 500 years . Great Phoenix that she was, the mother of the universe now leaves the dreamer 1-llth only her creut murky sexuality .... Elliott is a dreamer anJ durre alis t but !Hack ushers in a diffl!rent tc1:1perument with his The Tornado in My Mouth (1966), Ile 11as the irrev erence of · the Beats, the funkiness and <lrive of the hard boppers, an<l the s_e_x uulity of one in hou pursuit. ''Asexu.:tl Flight" says a lllan's last wish is to h e banishe<l to the island of remiss and loose his love. Another mood is presented in "Razor Mama Democracy/. the ache in J-D" where the blue haze !Jurts and now the hair is turning " into ,:in ach ing r;rey." Black salutes "the gladiator" in "Coeval Drums for Lc-roi " hut in th e meantime he covers quite a bit of ~round : "the dea<l arterial insanity"; "futility in jil[rneJ crags"; "Kierke gaa rd/Sartre"; "lil~e drippin g, brine"; "ov er th 12 \-1ln<low of my being"; and f lna lly " Iler pmwr in howlin g \vinds" bring s A DIUJHBEAT FO:R LEIW I . -------------- -- - -- - - - ,. �f . "Blnck & Funky" i s subtitled " a hyrothctical orr,as1:111 onJ there is irreverence in "DAHH YOUR god ! II His II (a poem fo r HALCOLH . :n II is sub ti t l d "th e lib erated war-h orse ." In " Ca rryin~ a S ticL " Fo1-1le r c.sks : \11110 c.:1r c s, that I h ad yesterdny I s stale g um for breakfast? "Thinking " n llows v ar i o us ·i rnnges s tr eam nnd burst forth vomiting tictin z s only the mind can h c nr . Student-mother Romenetha Was hin g ton writes about tl1 0 pressur Ps on tnJay ' s Black woman watchine people Scurryin ~ from sun to sun •.• Also pulled al o n g , she says I protest but still I run. Loftin, a youn g poet who writes with economy and simplicity, su111marizcs Wrlght ,. and IialJwin up in "Reali ty": out of t!t e cotton fields anJ bur'nlng suns t o overcrowded citi es _ and s h ~,des of slu1J1 !; Itc:Jrnond anJ Fooler fonnded th e !.; Jack JUver Writer s publishin'.':, co111p.:111y \vhich brou~ht out Sides of th , Itiver . Currently under the supervision of Ca'ther-i.nc Yo un1.;e , t!t c pre:;s lws µublisheJ 1:.ed111ond ' s volumes : Toms (bru:.1dside) A Tale of Two (196 3 ), ,\ T::ilc of Ti1ue &. Toilet Tissu e (µ a 111phlet) (196 9 ), Sentry o [ the Four ColJcn Pillars (1970) , River of Eones nnd Flesh and Dlood (1971 ) , Sonus Fro:: an ,\fro/Phone (1 972) , In A Time of P..ain & Desire (197]), - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - -- - - -- - - - • • �anll an Lp , lHoodl Lnl:s , Thin;, s \73S nu Sacre<l P l:1c c s (1 973) . Consider L,rncliness as Thcs~ published in 1973 1.Jy C . nt ro Stucl i r Sc.::rn1bi J nto.nwzionali in lLv.ly. Redmond, a ncJ.tive of East St. Louis, strives fro Black famil, hoo<l (irmn~J i a t c and extended) in his poet r y ; thou~h he a ttempts to do this \tithout forced .::il]egianc ,,~; ,_ h1 itl1out 11 disfii3u r enent of per c ep tio1 s ," but by al lO\vin g the Je e <l - s h:, pinG wore.ls co11c naturally and historically . lli s poe try ranges from humo rou s folk portrnits like " Invas i on of the No s e ": llis nose was his r adar , l!is eyes ic y darts that moved fas t e r tl1 a n s peed - of-so und jets. Il e could rap like a pneumi.l tic drill Or croon like Smokey Dill when th e occasion ::i ro si:> . to consiJ~rations of lov e under s train as in "Inside My Perimet er ": Inside my perimeter Of fear s A unit of g uerillas S tri kes at Lhc barbed-\/ t. l·e llovels th .1 L ·hoard ou r love: Tha t inc arce rate our needs-An insurBent army Ston, s the bastille u f pride Shells t h is fac a J e of custo1,1, Knells t he collap se Of th e st r aw men inside us-Accepts t he sun, Al lO\•.'S tl l(· co ntort ed face · of ,: �Stress to smil ~ again-To s low a ga in ! Allows Love to Live . Els e\,hcrc in the lar 6 er nrei..l there \Jere/are other i3oings-on _in poetry : Im-. .'.l , Neocas k a. a n,1 Kc1nsas . City wh e re l!llbur Rutl eJg e (1 9110- ) a m! ot!i e rs as8oci n t (•J \•l ith the Af ro -American Cultural Center and the JH.-ick Wi:iters Horlu ;hop r e ceived , s sistance and exposur e . Amon ~ these poets ure Nary Ruth Spicer, Guiou Tay ,1r, Hi l lesse Hes t er and J ,1 ckie Hashin g ton . in Anth o l o;,,y: Black Hrit e r ' s 1-lorl~s hop (Kizna, 1970) Some o f th c r.1 are incluJ e d ;:J 1Hl Wnshin g ton has pub- lished Jomo (1971) . Locat ed nt the University of Denver for the year 1974-1975 where he s ubstituted for Hphahl c le Juring a leave of absence, Kg ositile U.93 8emb o di.es Pn n-Africani ~, m in fact a ll d symbol . ) Ile was born in Johannesbur g , Sou .h i\fricc1, nnd has be e : exiled in the United States sine 1961. His . articles , poems and interviews ha 1e been published on an international scale, and he h;:is t n u :>; ht at several Ame r i can colleges and universities . In ad,lition to books a] rc:id y menti o n e d, he h . s publj s hed Hy }lame Is Africa (1 971) ;:incl edit e d The \lord is ll e r e : Poetry from l·lodern Africa (197J). llis own esthetic is stated in hi s Introduction t o the antholo gy: Poetry, th e word at its most ex·p re s sive, can be a prayer, an appeal, condemnation, encoura r~ment, affirmation--thc li s t of en de avors is endless . And i f it is authentic, as anythin ~ else ex p ressiv e of a p e opJe ' s spirit, it is al, ~ays sociaJ . This con c ept he e mbraces in hi.s mm poems, especially in Africa where in the Introduclion, Gwendolyn Brooks writ r s thnt his Art is life wo r ked with; ... �llis Afro-Ame r ican brothe r s incorporated the Africanisms into their works and, K~ositsile combines his own indiginisms witl1 u mastered fluency of American Bla c tisms . He assays the ,~a l e of our turnu tuous times (in Africa and America), in terming linr; a n a c f[ u ired Bl a c k st r eet l an ;: uage wi t h a der:iand i ng and strin r, ent form . One cf tlte mo s t ;:ible crafts1nen, he unites excellent poems about chilJren, women, v i o lence, 1 usic, 1l~1 lcolm X, Lur.1un1ba, Gwendolyn Brooks, /1.frican Jances , eLll y llo]liday, or ''The Nitty Gritty" in ,,hich the~ once furious SLrngs ,1re nm, frozen on battered black lips The poets of t:1e. East , So u th , Hid,,,est anJ near West are a bit more than a hop, sl~lp and jumr from California , but many of them \•Je r e ln ~; pir 2 d by tv appea1anc c> s , lli!L ion~:l na 6 ..tzinc coveru~e, and cross-country tours of the W.:itts poets . Born, ,, ,:; i t 1-1ere, ie t ween the Cnlifornia sun a nJ tl1e rebellion of 1965 , the H.:itts \-lritcrs ' \ .orkshop was initially umler the direction of BudJ Schu luei:g . vision 0 ( Later , .:is 11lJer wr iters left unJ newer ones came in, tl1e super- · the \/Orkshop ,-, as assumed by Har r y Dolan and Herbert Simr,1ons . Related centers of culture and influence included the \!atts llappenin~ Cuffee House , the shor t-J.lveJ 'hreu magazine , J:,he \fat ts l~epertory Thc.:i t er , the Acquiarian 1 Bookstore, the Sons of \latts , the Bla c k Ponth~rs, Karenga s US oq1arii2ation , nnJ Frederick Douglas i; lhi ~e r s ' House which housed t l 1e \/a t es writers program . · Among those associate d with t his n nJ i.1ther writing groups were tl.llton HcFarlane , ) , Troupe Bowen, Pamel.:i Donegan (19~3- ' (1 9 131 ) , Robert ), Stanley Crouch (1945- ) , -Emme r y Evans Lance Jeffers , Lino , K. Curtis Lyle (l94L1- (1943 - ) , Fanita (1943 - ), Vallejo Ry.:in Kennedy (19~3- ) , Blos;,01 Powe , Ojenke (1\lvln Saxon , 19L,7- C . k . Horclnn<l, Jimmy Sherman (194 !, - ) , Johnie Scott (1948- ), T:dna Gipson ) ' ) ' ) , Ernest ) HayhanJ, Jar:ies Tl omas Jackson ( 192 ,'- (1946- ' (1947- ) , Simmons (1930Eric Priestly .) ' ); Jayne Cortez (1933- ) ' �l\lo s so1 ,1 Pmvc (19 29- ) , Sonora Hcl~eller (1 9],!f - Blr<l 2ll Chew (1913- ) , Riclhian, , anc.1 other s . antholo 0 i e s: ), Harley Hims (1925- ) ' Their \vorks arc in t\vO From the Ashes (19G7, Schulber3) and Wa tts Poets and Wr iters (196 8 , Tr oupe). Other poerns are scattered throu 2,h such periodicals as Los Angeles Ha :- ,:.1z.ii1c, Sitreo , Confrontation, and \le st . Seen as a movement, the Watts group, in quality a nd quantity, emerge ns one of the most powerfuJ_ on th e New Black Poetry scene (roughly res embling the magn ificent lloward g roup) . For although the poetry is not uniformly good or excellent, th ere i s cournge i n the visions, styles and th ewes th.:it one looks ha rd t o find in othe r groups . This may be du e in part to tl1 C' ml :; ratury patterns of lll ncks in th e Hest--most of these poets were not born in Los Angeles-- and the racial kaleidoscope of California . Whatever th e reasons, th e re is a prismatic rani3e in the poetry that moves from th e earth-1101.wn musicality of Jnyn c Cortez, across the a llusory nnd often mysLica l _ex_c ursions of Lyle, t o the si gnifying blue s interludes of Crouch who has a l so writte n s01ae <larin,_; and seminal criticism in Bla ck World and the Journal of Black Poetry . :.in' t No Ambulances for • no Ni13guhs Tonight (1972) is the titl.:: of both hi s hook and Lp recording which includes "r ap " as we ll as -poetry , wiL.h liner not e s hy Lyle . Crouch uses folk forms ancl themse i ntercwined with mus ic a nd variou s <lramntic t ec hniriues . Many of th e poems are deJicated t o mus icians lil: c Pnrl~cr and Co ltrane; oth e rs at t empt th e complicated s pont anei t y of live j az:: solos . The ti.tle poc1•1 anti cip.1tcs th e day of the f ina l riot when there wi l l . not be "no " ambulances for "ni g~ahs". But the poem's hero , Honkey Junior, · " go t on his job" like Na t Turner- . I Lyle says l1i s influ ences a te Artaud, Octavio Paz, Cesar Vallejo, Cc saire, and other s . His poetry is •,rounded in elliptical. phrases and obscure information • �which h e co nstricts into frightenin ~~ , surreal ima ge s and states. " Sometlmes I Go to Camarillo & Sit in the Loun~e" <lescr j_hes ho\v the poet s t.-ires into "an awnin)j of spirit ," viewinr, t he uorld as yellow tru11pets of starving blues Yet he;:ir i. n~ a _\'ietn ;:i: ,-.: Sc i,;othe r' s " ultra-hl[.)1-frequency screaw, ." told that "cob al t LulL~L!. ' ~.1i10 s '. t the henrt or t liere j_s a need to Sc ream." or \!e .ire t il e "J one ranie:r " i.n "Lacrlnws llm:ever , Lyle ' s most fa1 ;1ous poc' i,1 is "T Can Get it for You IT11olesalc ," .:.1 staten ,·,1t 0:1 the contempornry politi cal-r eligio u s- raci al scene . Oj 'nl~e has nn u1tllr1ite<l ran:3 c or intell e ctun l anJ s,h:la l concerns is he s c ul pts _1i i. s poetry from tlte <liverse in~re lien ts that produced the Ah-o-,\Jncrlcan . Apparently well-versed, ref lect ln~: hls f~ r eat knm1leJ1;e o [ Graeco-Rouau cLJs ~ Le s , " l\letck Pmver" has th e lyre of " Blnck Orpheus " pierce the dark solit u de of a 11.Jdean world : Ile wo1tders into anci e nt Greece .rnd in the same poem . is a cui.uuot i un caused by li~hlning nnJ frn'1ine, assassiu.J.ting tin people and whole grass-blaJ,. s? Later on Dio Lc nes, Socr.:1 tes a nJ th e Ora cle of Delphi e nt er tl1 .- poem. Blit these: characters only come t o \Jatts to fi nd pc1op le escapinr, lnto .J " toxicant " s ane t oo - true truth .... O_jenl~e :.lso 11ro te an Ln tr )ci uction to Evans ' b ook Tile Love Poe t Ev ans ' r e.::i Jin G ability, Ojenk.: said: (1971) . 1'Emmery is crying slyly into you r cnr .'' F,)r this poet, Evans ' ,, " Roach es " d epic ts n f.::i1;1iliar scene to -sor.1c : t 1vo ro aches dance across th c1 room to the tune of pover t y ; ... About �Scot t is one of t he mo re ucll Imo .r11 of the 1/o.tts poets . In "T he Fi sh Part y ," he s.:iys The fish are r;athering again tonight, ... And fish-watchers, i r_; norant of th e wor ld's prob l ems , ze t th e ir cha r ~es from trying t o 2ue~_s \-.1lwt th .:: fish will do . During th e conversation , Sco tt t .:.ilks partnt hetica lly about ,:~rind pover t y, but all i s Hey , look ? 11 excla □ atnrily interrupted: · Goldie has ea t en J es us up! 1-latts , 196 6" is a poem millions he ard on nat i onal tv . It has th e familiar th eme of Blacl: ra ge and ,,h it e indif ference . • Dut Scott closes it on memorab l e lines : The wrn named Fear ha s inh er it eJ half an acre , a nd is <1n[jry . Other l~tt s poe t s deal with love, viol ence, contemplation of fr•cdom and music . Hany left \fatts after th e l a t e sixties. Troup e wen t to Ohio Universi t y . (t o e dit Confron t a tion) and publish ed Enb r yo (1973), As h Doors and JuJu tui t ars (1975,, and co-edited Giant Talk: on to New York. Third World Voices (197~), a f ter moving Lyle, who has _not published a voluem, went to Was'hingt.Qn Universit y in St. Louis, and recently returned to Los Angeles~ Ja~ne Corte~ went to New York where she has lived and wrote since the late sixties. Her thr~e books are Pisstained Stairs and the Monkey Man's Wares (19o9), Festivals and Funerals (1971) and Scarificatioris (1973). She has also recorded an Lp, Celebrations and Solitude, ' (1974). · Her themes and styles are broad, but mostly embrace music as aspect and form. Africa, as stru gr; le and s pirit, is also a dominant th eme in her poetry. Pisstaincd is especially rich in its · t erweavings · in o [ mu si· c an cl s t r _u zg 1 e. "The Road" and is 1· s "where another l{anl<. moans'.' �Stoney Lone s ome "Lead" describes the kind o f hard li f e th a t i s "cra cklin ho t a sunrise." Lead, of course, is Lead P,~lly whom the "nigguhs" de s pera tel y want to hear spit th e blues out. li e r strur\g l e s a r e no t simple "contrivances" as they chronicle the ha rdshi 1J s a nd i~ ood times o f Dinah, Birc..l, oi:-nctte, Coltran e , " fa ts" Navarro, Cli ffo rd Brown a nd o thers--a veri f iable poetic ta pe stry o f Black e xp res s ion in d ef i a nc e o f death, f rom one who would ... eat mud to touch the r oot o f you .... Among other Southern California poe t s are Robert Dow en (1936lloze (194..,- ) , Arthu.r ;, ) , Dee Dee McNeil ,l:;,...,J- ), Kinamo Hodari (1~4v- Bill Thompson, and Lance Williams. Northern California has also been characterized by in- anJ t rans mi gr a tion o f Black poets and wri t er s. Indee d a l is tin ~ o f poe ts f rom th e ~cne r a l a r ~a o( the Sn11 Fr a ncis co Bay re a ds like a na tiona l conv entio n : Reed, You n3 ( 1939- ) , Anr, cl o L '1i s (1 950- ) , Mil ler, Lm1rc nce McC :.iu~;h (19L10- (Ha rv:!.n X), Lco ua \)e lch ( Hcifoir ( ) (n m, a t Br own), Conyu s (19 4 2- ) , Hnr per (] 938- Cl ycle Ta ylo r ( (1 947- Con cn lv~s ( l937- ) , He n a.:rn f'. r o1 111 ( ) ), Jo s eph ) , Gl en llylc s (1933- ) , Da vid llend crso11 , ,Jo n Eckel s ( Cc·o r:;c Ra rlow (1948- ) , ) , L.V. Ha ck ), El Muh aj ir (1944 ~ ) , Jo yc e Ca rol Thomas ·( 19 38- ), ) ) (Muu mba ), Pa t Pa rk er ( De Leon Ha rrison (J 9L1l- ) , Sarah Webster Fa bio (192 8- a nd }~ya Ange lou (1928- ). , ) ' ) , \H lli arn .\nde r s on : Ba y a re a ac tiv i t y in th e ar ts has been he i r,ht ened nnd enh a ncc<l b y the Sa n Franci s co Af r o-Ameri can ll l s tor i ca l a nd Cultu ra l So c i e t y , bookst ore s su ch as Herc , llarcus .::md New Day (Go ncalves ), nc tivit i.cs o f l' a nthci-s an J s i mila r t ro ups, the Rainbow Si r,n cultura l c ent e r i n ll e r l~c ley , J·"'\ I ,• �Nairobi College , a nd nume rous other cultura l a nJ lite ra ry pr uj octs. Poems by man y bard s are inc l u<led in Hill e r's Dice s of Bla ck Bones ( 19 70), J ourna l o f Black Poetry, Yarclbird Rea der (a semiannu n l e d it e<l by Reed, Yo un g , Cecil Brown, Youn g and My le s ), Umbr a Dl nckworks (H end e rson, all issues, esp ec i a lly 1970-71), and o t h or nationa lly di s tribut e d antholo r.; ies a nd period ic a ls. Re cd ha s published three voluuc s: c hurch (1971), Conjure: and seve ra l novel s . critics: cat e chi sm of d ne o.:11.1 e r i c.J n hoodoo Selected Poems, 1963-19 70 (1972), Ch.:i tt anoo ga (1973), His work has dr awn a curious misture of nt!je c tiv es from "brillia nt," " c ute," "jumbles a nd puzzl es ," "imp ort a nt," "bad comics" and so on. Tnceed ,Re e J wr it e s hi s po e try i n Lo h i s nov e ls ·and his nov e l s i n t o his poems . In this s e rvic e , h e emp l oys .dialec t s , Voo doo , t he occult, whimsic a lity , wit, mysticism, satire, which he obviously e uj oy s, a ll reinforc ed by .:i ssorted libr a ry information and stre e t-instinct s . lli.; violates time ba rri e rs, placinG an ancient Cr e el~ fi gure in a contem po ra r y poem, or vice ver s a. His verse f orms are experime ntal, rou ghly recallin ~ th o Beats and o tl1 e r r ecent or p.:1st stylistic irreverencies. There a r e no s ac red .cows for ReoJ \vho sometimes lambasts· Blnck nationalists nnd whit e lib e r ,1 l s in the same poem. Gen e r a lly, his techniques wor k (some a re a st oni s hi n: ; ); bt1t he often s pends to o 1:1uch time a tt ncki n;'. re a l or cr eat ed a nta [_;o nists a nd liavi nG fun at tl i.:.: expens e of r e aders. lli s titles alone are enou [!_ h to keep you slapping your thi ~h or scr~tching yo ur hea d: "I nm il "Re por t o f t he Reed Con:111 is s i on , 11 cowbo y in the hoat of Rn ," "The r e 's a whal e in my thi gh," "The fera l pioneers," "The Blac k Cock," "G r i s Cr is," Pinto, which She al s o Rout ed." 11 AnJ the Devil Sent a ford In 1973 Re eJ b cc aic1e th e f ir s t Bl a c k \ffiter to b e n ominat e d fo r a Na tio na l Book !'-. wnrd in two c c1 te go r ies . - - - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - �GoncRlves ( Dinga ne), an occas i on~ l po e t , i s u nique in his int elle ctualt yp o grap hical tap es tr y of ideas (se e BJnck Fire), but h i s serv i ce to Black poetry has been more obvious in h is wo rk as found er-edito r of Jonr n a J of HL1c k Po etry. He also served as poetry ed it or of Black Di.nlor;ue. A q ui et , but stea d y , i nfl ue n c e o n t he t!cw Black Poetry , h e has 1ff.itt12n some of t he most informed cr itici sm t o co11ie o ut of the period. Currently h e: ru n s/opcrat8S Neu JJ.iy nook.store in San Frnncisco, where Th e Journal nn<l its pres s ;.ire hcndquartered. Amo n g poe t s publish ed Ly the presi; arc Nenl and Uelt o n Sm.i.tli (Pen etrat ion, 1971), a virtuoso poe t 11ho was horn a nd rais e d in San l'r a n c i.sco . " tfa l coJm" enc.ls discuss.in t th e l~incls of tracks t e ,irs 1,1,, h.0 nncl t0.l l in}~ t l1e. · reader tha t in my h ea rt there are many unmarked g rnves. There a re a lso word- g ifts in "the dan g er zone,'' "If I could hold You for . Li ght, 11 "for a sorceress" ("you kee p chang ing me into air") and "Blac·k · Mo ther" ("an odd ecstasy movin g "); these join blues, excursions throu p.,h ·city streets, and thoughts on Africa .. Youn1; and Harper both teach wri ting at S.tanford and Brown. Yoi.m g has published Dancin p, (19o~) and The Son ~ Turnin P. Back i nt o -I t self (1971), as well as nov els a nd articles. His 'p oetry satirizes militants ·, salutes white and Third World po ets, and inc or porates legends into a bro ad base of linguistic knowled 8 e, t i tles o[ hi s books. There is a consistency of interest as seen in the In "Erosong " he finds himsel f dan cin r "naked" thou gh J\11 my shores had been p ulled u p 11 '' es, the Secret Mind Hhls p ers , " dedica ted t o Kaufmn n , calls poetry a "tree" forever at y our door .... - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - -- - -- - �('. Yo unR ran Res over the whole of the life experience, writin ~ about squirrels, jazz musicians, Spain, Stockholm, ni ght time a nd sorrow. His poetry is markedly diff erent from that of Harp e r who le ft California in 197u. llar pe r's volumes are Dear J ohn, Dear Coltrane (l:,7-., ) , llistorv is Yo ur Ch,m Heartbeat (1,711, Photo grn phs: Want a Hi tness (1973 1 (1::,,4). Nega tives: , History as Apple Tree ( 19/2;, Son,~ Debridement (l'.- 73 ; , and Ni 1~ht ma re Ber, ins Responsibility Praise for his poetry has come from a wide spectrum of eminent critics and poets, prima rily academicians, including Gwendolyn Brooks and Ha yden. Critic M.L. Rosenthal recently sing led out Har per and Bar aka as important examples of Black poets contributing to the new Arne r -i can po etry scene New York Times Magazine, November 2..,, 197 -, J. ~ The Laurence Lieberma n has also praised Har per who received nominations for the National Book Award as ~ell as the Black Academy of Arts and Letters First Annual Poetry Award. Har pe r has kept a consistency o f tone which critics pa rticul arly en joy a nd though his poetry sometimes lacks metaphorical tension ~funk ? ) to ignite the important statements he makes about Black music, there is a f irm intelli nince at work. His themes are illusion, pained creativity, war, racism, ja z~, nature, histor y, death, and the mythological evolution of mankind. Huch of his poetry is personal, confessional , and he interweaves a medical vocabulary into some of it. and musicians. He often inclu.-;ies chants, hums, and names o f songs His musico-poetic concerns can be seen in these lines f rom "Dear John, Dear Coltrane": Why you so black? caus e I am \fuy you so f unky? caus e I a m �Wh y yo u so bla ck? c a use I a m Why y ou so sweet? c a use I am Why yo u ~o-.E_l a ck? cause I am a love supreme, a love su p reme: El Muh aj ir (Marvin and ad amantl y Bla ck: ... X1 is a different kind of poet, Is l am-in f luenced Fl y to Allah (Bo 'o , Black Man Listen , bu ~;, Woman-- Man' s Be s t Friend ~l i7 3;, the l a tter obvious l y a reje ct io n of wh i te America' s · f eti s h fo r a nima ls. Ea ch book s a lutes All a h a nd cont a ins some occasionally well-turned poetry interming led with proverb s, parab les a nd song s. He p r a i s e s Eli jah Muhammad, Tommy Smi th, a nd announce s th a t "Bi gg er · Thomas Liv e s!" I n " The Or i g ins o f Bl ackn ess " he says Bl ac k is no t a color. bu t t h at All color e c ome f r om Bla c k ...• Myles a n d Eckels are also at di.ff erent e n ds of t he poe t ic S[kCtrurn v1hile lfcN;lir is i n t he middl e. of h i s drm1 i nr,s a n ci poems. My l e s published Dow n & Co u ntry in 1 97 l1 . . ~H, a col l ige He surv eys cont empo r ary li f e , his u pbrin~in:~ on " Bebop and blues in Ph oen i x , " a n c.l his experiences as :rn artis t anc.l art s tuden t . Ecke l s ha::; mo v ed from a p o <..! t ry or- :rn r: e r and prote st to a " p o e t ry \lrit t e n by a ln1man b e i nr, , for huma n b e inr, s." lli s books include Black Dawn , Th i s Time Tomorrow, rnack Ri g h t On, Tlome is Wh ere the Soul Is (1969), 011r Business is in the S t reets (1 970 ), and Fire Si ~~n ( 1973) , whic h giv es its name t o his press . In his early phas e Ec kels wrote ·abou t " Black Is, 11 11 1Jcll, Mary, 11 �"In Men,ory o[ Marcus, " "A Respo nsible !·l ee gr ow Le ad e r," a nd other poem s a lso coining an inter e stin g tenn : Western Syphilization Fire Sir, n " f or th e fre e and will be," s hows a thema tic a nd cultural b readth 1/ as he writ <: s l ov e po ems ,:rn <l salutes freedom in 2, enera l. NcNa ir, a cosmic poet who brid ges African spirituality and his own psychi c revelatio ns, has published Earthliook (1972) -and Juba Girl (1973). Cert a inl y the world \Jill hear more from this gifted young wri t er. J\rnon~ northern California women poets, Haya Angelou i s prima ril y a prose and script tffit e r , but ltas pµblished a book of poems : Drink of Water 'For I Die (1971). Ju s t Civ e l!e A Cool It wa s nomina t e d for the Pulitzer Prize. Pat Parker's 1rnetry can be foun<l in an excellent little volume called Cli.il<l of l[y s e lf (1972) and Di ce s. She uses her ovm woman- feelings t o asse ss landscape of the current upheaval. "Brother" reveals contradictions in the love -but-hurt approach some Black men take towa rds their women . The "system" she has just been struck with, she says, is calle d a fist. Otl1e~ poems deal with humor <1nd tra ged y in husband-wife r e l a tions. In "A Moment Left liehin9 11 she asks Have you ever tried to catc h a te a r ? "From Dee p Within" says the way of a woman is turbul ent with many forces and colors of feelin gs, but A woman 's body must be tau ght to speak-- ... Pat Parke r's work searches b ehind the cosmetics and the vo gue to tl1 e truth and t he disturbance . So does the work 6f Joyce Carol Thomas whose two books, �Bitterswee t (1973) and Cryst a l llreezes (1974), were pub lished by Fire Si gn Press. lle r poems are about women's moods, church, Black mus ic, children , and love. There is a moder n feel and te x ture ih her lines which e conomize and without <lisp] ayin g a bru p tness or und cciph er al1l e code. Yet he r s tren gth is unmi s tc1kable a s in "T .rnow a Lady": I knO\J ii Lldy A careful queen She bows to no one lier will is a Fine thr ead of steel .... In these poems, and the works' of Pat Park er a nd Leona ·ueld1, one sees a .. strong hea lth a nd future in Bay area \JOmen poets. Welch's first book, wa s published in 1971. lH n ck r.tbraltar -, Leona Here and there, one fin ds sub- dued ra ge and impatience before racism and ignorance; but her poetry also exalts th e Black woman a nd speaks in low tones to men. from f olk e xp re s sions to formiJl examinations of love. Her la11 ~ua ~e _ranges "Status Quo" i ~ th e study o f a Black with "class" and di gnity: Got my white poodle by the leash. Less able than the o ther women, he r poetry salutes n nu mb e r of l1eroin~s including women in her fnmily and tlil.i~i Gfovannil Fin;-illy there is tlte muc h-travel e d .Sarah F;-ibio, instrumental in Black studies developmen t in nortl1ern CiJli f ornia, but who now lives in Io wa. publi s hed two vo]umes, A ~ irror: She A Soul (1969) and Blacl~ Ts a Pa nther Caned (1972), and then without notice, brou ght out seven volumes (!) all in 1973: Soul Is: Soul Ain't, Boss Soul (also the name of her Lp), Black Back: Back Black, Juius & Jubilees, My Own Thin~, Juius/Alchemy of the Blues, �<" ',, and To µ-~ther/to the Tune o.: Coltrane's Eciuinox. Her later Hark is more formal than the later which shows that she has j oined the new poetry movement completely . One of her more memorable earlier pieces is "Evil is No Black Thin~" in which she takes all dark things traditionally a ss_ociated with evil an<l · reverses them; or, allows them to be seen in a lar ger context wherein they invariabl y embrace somethin~ that is li ~ht. Her later volumi- nous efforts deal with experimental blues, ra p-sty les, folk narratives, and the reconstruction of a c eneral Black oral histor y . This she does quite well on her album but much of the writing in the new books is too conversational. Cruz has published Snaps (19...,9) and Nainland (b7.,;. A Puerto Ric a n now livin g in the Bay , he writes with brevity about other poets, New York Cit y and other large northern cities, and Spanish mythology, often interpolating bi-linp, ual phrases in lines. Barlow (Gabriel, l':i 7--.; has done i mp ressive. things with language and history. Il. Rap published Revolution Is ·\17~~; and Netamorphis of Superni8cer (1973;. \-n1ile an inmate at Vacaville, Brown (Muumba) published Some Poems and Thinp,s (1~71). In Sacramento, the youn g poet Clarence }!Kie Wi ~fall has shown promise in The Other Side . ~1970), while Wes Young published Life Today (l7JQ, and Ramblin g and Thin~s tl97L;. Grant High School young Hlack poets 0ere included in Omnibus (1973,. At A number of youn ger and older poets ar e itudying with Redmond, who has tau ~ht at California State University since 19iO. His workshops are located on the campus as well as in community sites like the Oak Park School of Afro-American Thought. Meanwhile, in Seattle, 13lack Arts \vest is attractin g many poets; and across state at Washington State University poet Primus Sc , John writes and works with other writers. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_07_55 Title A name given to the resource Copy of Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, typed manuscript, Introduction, Chapter I, Chapter II, and Chapter VI Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/382390ab6c05d8f127b7ae3fbcd6d447.pdf da48b7c97632c6ef1ea70ac4e2524ec0 PDF Text Text DTTRODUCTIOH CHAPTER I BLACK POETRY: II VIEWS, VISIONS, CONFLICTS .. . the double obligation of being both Negro and American is not so unified as we are often led to believe." Countee Cullen I During the last decade, Black American poetry emerged from its assigned position as an illegitimate--sometimes embarrassing--child of American literature to an official flower in the garden of world writing. Everywhere, on all continents, Black poetry is vigorously read, listened to and sometimes imitated. "Often imitated but never duplicated," quip the disc jockeys on Black-oriented radio stations--assuring their listeners that the "soul" or "heirloom" of their tradition is alive, well, and locked in ancestral safe-deposit boxe£. However, a silent reading of the DJ 1 s casually delivered quip belies the charismatic power and verbal dexterous·ness in "how" it is said. But, the '~ow" is always important in Black poetry and it will be one of the cornerstones in the discussions that will follow. To say that Black poetry is read and heard all over the world is not to say that it is studied in equitable proportion to other kinds of poetry. Indeed the current rash of anthol- ogies, individual collections, and the re-issuing of previously published volumes, suggest that a literary vacuum of criminal 1 �proportions has existed. The publishing flood, coupled with the appearance of new Black publishing houses, makes this vacuum glaringly, paradoxically obvious. The absence of Black poetry (or Black literature) courses from English departments at predominantly white colleges and public schools is ignominously aided and abetted by the culpable neligence at many predominantly Black learning centers--which often religiously place Walt Whitman over Paul Lawrence Dunbar, W.B. Yeats and T.S. Eliot over Jean Toomer and Melvin B. Tolson, Robert Frost and Carl Sandburg over Owen Dodson and Robert Hayden, and Marianne Moore and Edith Sitwell over Gwendolyn Brooks and Margaret Walker. One could go on, of course, reciting the cultural and literary negligence so officially a part of the academic and grants-in-aid scenes. The purpose here, however, is to explore, with teacher, student and layman, the vast richness of Black poetical and mythical life. II The study or teaching of Black poetry presents many frustrations, challenges and problems. Instructors preparing themselves to teach the subject must be aware of the many pitfalls, not least among them being the tendency of teacher and student alike to stray from the study of the poetry into political and rhetorical catharses. "Black" is a political work in the United States--and in most of the world--and to study or teach anything "Black" is to become embroiled in 2 �controversy and burdened with sociopolitical stress. That thin line between the ideological implications of a poem and those "trials scenes" so many classrooms and groups find themselves victims of is a line walked by all teachers and students of the Black Experience. In approaching Black poetry, then, one must "set" the atmosphere by dealing, from the outset, with substantive background materials. By "substantive" I mean the deepest philosophical, religious, ethical, artistic and cosmological tenets of Black life and expression. Thus a further intent of this handbook is to examine the scope and range of Black poetry via folk origins, methods of delivery, language, phonology, religiosity, racial character, recurring themes, individual and group identity, and poetic devices as they are developed indigenously or borrowed from other poetic traditions. III Like all bodies of writing , Black literature s,tems from a folkloristic trunk, making the job of teacher or student twofold: one) to deal with the great and complex storehouse of folk materials and themes; and two) to explore the chronological development of Black poetry--from about 1746 to the present. There are harmless differences among scholars over just where to start the study of Black written poetry. For example, in The Poetry of the Negro, Hughes and Bontemps begin with Lucy Terry's "Bars Fight," the account of an Indian massacre in Deerfield, Mass., in 1746. The Negro Caravan (an inclusive 3 , . �anthology edited by Brown, Davis and Lee) omits the Terry poem. Caravan was first issued in 1941 while the poetry anthology was published in 1949. The former begins its poetry section with Phillis Wheatley who first published poetry in 1770. Also omitted from Caravan is the work of Jupiter Hammon whose poetry was published in broadside in 1760. In Calvacade (Negro American Writing from 1760 to the Present), published in 1970 and edited by Davis and Redding, neither Terry nor Hammon appear and the poetry section begins with Phillis Wheatley. Early Black American Poets (Robinson) acknowledges Terry but Johnson's The Book of American Negro Poetry opens with Dunbar. Kerlin's Negro Poets and their Poems (1923) makes no mention of either "Bar's Fight" or its author; but Dudley Randall's The Black Poets {1971) does include the poem. ~t.14-ig~ This ~ only a random survey from the dozens of general and specialized anthologies. However, it seems that many teachers of Black poetry begin with Phillis Wheatley despite the fact that at least two Black poets were writing before her. Each one of these earlier poets was a slave, privileged by masters and taught {or allowed to learn) to read and write. Generally, they were spared the sustained hardships experienced by the majority of their brothers and sisters of color. -=Butmore w1JJ be said of them in Chapter Ill. In preparing this outline, I have allowed that some --en- -~~ will want to cover the full history and range of Black poetry while others may be interested in periods or 4 �regions. I have also assumed that many persons will want to move systematically through the poetry--establishing some sense of historical dev·e lopment and tradition in Black history, Black music, and the broad web Black culture in general. Hence, one of the main ingredients of this outline--as we move from chapter to chapter--will be the study of related and integral forms of expression such as folksongs, spirituals, blues, jazz, rhythm&: blues and what is known today as soul music. As stated earlier, however, the Black Experience is complex and frustrating. 1 At each juncture in the study of the poetry, for example, one teaching it will meet difficulties which may at first seem insurmountable. Some of these difficulties will be presented in familiar questions: Is a poet considered Black if be writes consistently--or temporarily--out of the "white" experience? 1. Can a Black poet really record Black experiences Most attempts to define the Black Experience have failed. And though I am dealing primarily with Black (North) American poetry, there will be references to other parts of the Black World. When one considers the cross-fertilization of folk and literary culture in this country, together with the existence of hybrid cultures all over Latin America and other parts of the world, the term "Black Experience" does indeed rebel against definition. It is hoped, however, that through continual return to the idea of the Black Experience (and discussion of Black life), the complexity and range of the term can be appreciated ·( also see bibliography). 5 �and feelings in English? Can a white poet write a Black poem {like the white musician who has developed a "feel" for Black music and has learned to master the technical vocabulary of that music)? Can white people "understand" Black poetry? Should white critics of Black poetry be taken seriously? 2 Black poetry primarily emotion and lacking in intellect? there a Black Aesthetic? poetry? Is Is Can a white professor teach Black How does Black Language differ from white language or English? And does Black poetry express the universal human condition? Black and white students will ask these questions (of themselves, each other, and teacher), indicating that they want more realistic and direct answers to some of the in-house issues which have consumed Black activists, artists, academicians, and white scholars of the Black Experience. The Black and white teacher confronting a racially-mixed class, an all-Black class or an all white class, will sometimes confront a distressing panorama of anger, rejection, fear, condescension,' accusation, anti-intellectualism, intellectual snobbishness, racism, distrust--and any number of other combustions of the contemporary student personality. The Black poets do not make burdens lighter since they, critically and thematically, are dispersed along a boundless spectrum of opinions, attitudes, creative 2. For a balanced discussion of this and related subjects, see Mphahlele's Voices in the Whirlwind. 6 �approaches, ideologies, techniques and literary ph i losophies. The teacher or student preparing for either a semester or year-long course (or for a "Black" unit to be integrated into a Humanities course, an American literature course, or a Black interdisciplinary project) should become steeped in the literature and lore of the Black past in order to give tentative answers and carry on adequate discussions when questions such as those above arise. After having been exposed to Black poets of national statute--via television pro grams such as Soul and Black Journal, at campus readings and conferences, Black Arts f es ti vals and coi,it::un i t y book parties--man:r students ( es pee ially Black students) may be informed, at the popular level, about the opinions and reading styles of the poets. However, neither student nor teacher must--and this point has to be stressed again and again--succumb to the temptation to "skip all poetry up until 1965. 11 IV True, there is great and growinG interest in the Black poetry produced out of what has been variousl~r called the Black Consciousness/Black Power/Black Nationalist/Black Arts/Neo-PanAfrican Movement. Yet one who defies the Black (or any) tradition will find himself engulfed in a maelstrom of conjecture and ideological hysteria; and the class, whose posture will be anti-historical, will be riddled with soap opera-type rhetoric about revolution and liberation and will s mack, again, of anti-intellectualism. Harold Cruse (The Crisis of the Negro 7 �Intellectual) points out that each generation of Black artists and activists suffers fro m a lack of historical/cultural tinuity. con- That is, they fail to study (or are unaware of) the mistakes and the pitfalls of past struggles and consequently find themselves in predicaments not dissimilar to those of their predecessors. Needless to say, such "cultural amnesia" is not the state from which one approaches the study of Black poetry. As observed earlier, the poets are not in agreement concerning what Black poetry is supposed to do, why it is written or whether whites can (or should) write or criticize it. 3 Reasons for the diverse beliefs and positions are numerous: the situation attending the birth and upbringing of the poet (note, for example, the distinctions between Claude McKay and Countee Cullen); his religious affiliation (Robert Hayden is of the f Baha'i faith; Askia Muhammad Toure is a Sunni Muslim; El-Muhajir 3. An important point at this ju ncture of Black poetry. For there is growing feeling among some poets and writers (many of who will not express the mselves in public) that there are concerted attempts to muzzle, circumvent or circumscribe some authors because of their personal political view points or their brand of writing. For further allusion to this, see back issues of the Journal of Black Poetry, Black World, and other periodicals dealing with the contemporary Black Arts scene. 8 �(Marvin X) is a member of the Nation of Islam (common called Black Muslims); K. Curtis Lyle was raised in the Catholic church; Sonia Sanchez expouses an Islamic position); his political leaning (which, in the case of many writers, is also religious); his preparation for poetry (did he go to a well-known writers school, pick bis talent up via individual study or apprentice under another writer); his associations with other poets (many Black poets, for example, hobnob (and this is historically true) with writers of other races; I met one Black poet in 1970 who had two masters' de grees but had not heard of Melvin Beaunorus Tolson!--a Black poet praised by the white literary establishment as having bested Eliot, Pound, Stevens and company in his technical virtuosity ); his current personal situation (does he live in the inner city? teach? time? play a musical instrument? write full write in other ,~enres? read primarily Black poets?), and his feelings on the question: t¼re you a poet first and then Black; or are .you Black first and then a poet?" Harmless as it raay seem, that rhetorical utter has entrapped scores of Black writers in ideological and political prisons-from which some would like to extricate themselves by asking simply: '~·Ihat difference does it make? 11 For the many poets, however, it matters a great deal and they have written profusely on the implications of this question and the several others listed earlier. The teacher or discussion leader must sample opinions of writers and students, sharing the diversity of opinions with the same vigor and thoroughness that 9 �the diverse creative works are shared. Such parity allows for a continual balance in criticism, social undercurrents and the poems themselves. be illustrative. Perhaps some examples here would Novelist Ralph Ellison has suggested that he is a writer first and that his racial identity is subordinate to that fact. Poet Robert Hayden has taken a similar stand (see introduction to Kaleidoscope, Poems by American Negro Poets, 1967). The same position had been take·n several decades earlier by poet Countee Cullen. In his critical- biographical introduction to Cullen's poetry (The Book of American Negro Poetry, 1922), James Weldon Johnson observed that: Some critics have ventured to state that Cullen is not an authentic Ne gro poet. This statement, of necessity, involves a definition of "a Negro poet" and of "Negro Poetry." There might be several definitions framed, but the question raised is pure irrelevance. Also there is in it a faint flare-up of the old taboo which would object to t he use of "white" material by the Negro artist, or at least regard it with indulgent condescension. Cullen himself has declared that, in the sense of wishing for consideration or allowances on account of race or of recognizing for himself any limitation to "racial" themes and forms, he has no desire 10 �or intention of being a Negro poet . In t h is he is not only within his ri ght; he is ri gh t. (italics mine) Johnson went on to note that because Cullen "revolts against" racial enclosures, the "best of his poetry is motivated by race." One could make a similar comment today about Ellison or Hayden. The works for which both are internationally acclaimed delve into the deepest regions of the Black man's psyche and feelings. Meanwhile some younger poets--those who gained exposure in the 1960's--and several poets and critics who straddle both generations lash out, sometimes not so diplomatically, at what they see as compensatory actions and unnecessary self-deprecation by the older poets. Pulitzer Prize winner Gwendolyn Brooks said in a preface to Poems From Prison that Etherid ge Knich t was not t h e "stifled artiste." The comment represented an i mplied rebuttal to Black and white "academic" poets. Elsewhere Miss Brooks referred to the "inelegance" of some Black poetry as being consis~ent with the bleak, drab landscape of hopelessness and despair felt by some inner-city dwellers. (Other critics, h owever, support the position of poet-critic Larry Neal tbat t110 Black Experience should not be defined in terms of "negatives.") During the late Sixties, Miss Brooks became a ki nd of matriarch of the New Black Poetry Moveraent (at least i n Chicago), ceased publishing with Harper and Row, and began to rel ease h er writings t brough Broadside Press--a new Detro i t- based Blac k publish ing 11 �house under the supervision of Dudley Randall, a poet, librarian, critic and translator. Miss Brooks' new con- sciousness, she declares, came about as a result of having attended a Black writers conference in 1968 at Fisk University where she heard and mixed with poets Imamu Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones), Don L. Lee, Nikki Giovanni, novelist John Oliver Killens, and a host of other writers, activists and artists. The violent social explosions in the cities, the Vietnam war that took so many Black lives and crippled so many others, the persistent emergence of Africa--all, Miss Brooks said, aided in the development of her new consciousness. written that it 11 She has frightens 11 her to think that if she had died before she reached fifty, "I would have died a 'Negro• fraction." Hayden, disclaiming the Gwendolyn Brooks' position, assumes he has been 'Black' all along and continues to reject any singular, unarguable position on the Black Aesthetic, or the poet-first, Black-second/Black-first, poet-second controversy. Assessing Baraka, Hayden admits that he recognizes the younger poet's power but deplores "his Black nazism. 11 J. Saunders Redding, a dean of the Black critical establishment, feels there is no such thing as a "Black Aesthetic"; Poet Paul Vesey (formerly Samuel Allen) calls it "a voyage of discovery--! think it will y ield return not as greatly as in music, perhaps, wh ere the black aesthetic dominates an entire cultural area of the west." 12 Many poets and critics, �on the other hand, ignore questions dealing with aesthetics, the level of Blackness in their work, to whom they direct their poems, and out of what mood or spirit they write. At the same time there are trends, some regional and some national, that teachers and students can identify. Needless to say, identifying and exploring these trends is immensely rewarding. Some prerequisites to an understanding of trends and attitudes that stem from the on-going creative process, including the poets' knowledge of their own as well as the general literary tradition are: a study of slavery, as it was instituted by Europe and refined in the United States; an examination of Black social history, and a scrutiny of West African and Afro-American folklore. The thorough teacher or student of Black poetry will want to steep himself in the history of Western Civilization; he will also develop an appreciation for the complex web of Black-white interrelationsjips in America, and prepare to navigate the often tense-filled readings and discussions. V Slavery is not the most pleasant situation to explore; and investigators of Black poetry quickly notice that practically every poet writes about lynchings--especially poets writing after the Civil War. Those poets who do not deal with actual lynchings, as we have come to know or interpret them, deal with half-lynchings, character or cultural defilement and the 13 �mental and physical destruction of Black humanity . If a discussion of slavery is unpleasant, then, a consideration of lynching is horrifying. However, skilled teachers and students will maneuver judiciously through the rough waters of su~h sessions--keeping emotional deluges to a minimum by admitting facts and clear interpretations. During such occasions, everyone must be on guard less the classroom becomes a courtroom. At the same time, a convener who cannot preside over vigorous and thorough discussions of these painful events and details may find himself, at later junctures, trying to bridge even wider gulfs of doubt, frustration, mistrust and alienation. Again, the teaching and studying of Black poetry (or any aspect of the Black Experience) assumes the complexities of the Black Experience itself. Nevertheless, t h e study of Black poetry is infinitely rewarding because it is a vehicle which distills the particular insights and perspectives of Black Americans into concise and authentic forms: mer 6 ing the rich rural-Biblical-urban idioms with colorfully luscious imagery and (in many cases) peerless technical proficiency in the use of literary English and Western poetic i'orms. When students are coni'ronted with the various poems on lynchings, for example, study can be underscored by an examination of language, form, posture, poetic toolery and overall achievement or effeciveness of the poems. In Richard Wright's "Between the World and Me II the lynched poet becomes the persona; the oak tree narrates the lynching in Dunbar's "The Haunted Oak." 14 . �Cullen speaks as "I" in "Scottsboro, Too, Is Horth Its Song" which admonishes white American poets for remaining silent over unjust treatment of Black men while they sing: ••• sharp and pretty Tunes for Sacco and Vanzetti, I said: Here toe's a cause devinely spun For those whose eyes are on the sun, Here in epitome Is all disgrace And epic wrong, Like wine to brace The minstrel heart, and blare it into song. In McKay's "The Lynching" the killing of the Black man is made ahalagous to the crucifixion; a sonnet, and awesome throughout, the poem descends to its rhyming couplet with a final ghostly irony: And little lads, lynchers that were to be, Danced round the dredful thing in fiendish glee. Certainly in these poems--and the dozens of others that employ the lynching theme--there is much fuel for papers, classroom discussion and teacher preparation. In the four poems mentioned, the poets span such diverse forms as the sonnet, the ballad (Dunbar) and free verse {Wright). Helpful in this area will be the additional inquiry, by teacher and student, into the development of white hate groups such as the Ku Klux Inan 15 �and the history of race riots in America. Riots in at least a dozen American communities in 1919, for example, helped spur McKay to write "If We Must Die", a poignant sonnet with its even more poignant and popular ending couplet-Like men we'll face the murderous, cowardly pack, Pressed to the wall, dying, but fighting backf --a poem which Winston Churchill read before the Ho-qse of Commons, during World War II, to spark his countrymen in the dim hours; during the 1972 prison rebellion in Attica, N.Y., journalists found the poem scribbled on the wall of a cell and the national press attributed it to a prisoner! Of great assistance, too is a knowledge of tre history of slave revolts (many Black poets write about them) and the patterns of violence in America. Attuned teachers and students will want to consult sources such as 100 Years of Lynching (Ginzberg ), back issues of Black and liberal white news journals and papers and especially past issues of The Crisis, the official news and opinion arm of the National Association For The Advancement of Colored People. The scholar, W.E.B. DuBois, one of tj1e first Black men to receive a Ph.D., edited The Crisis for over 20 years from its beginning in 1910. For further readings, the teacher can refer to my extensive bibliography plus appropriate sections of any of the numerous anthologies, textbooks and bibliographical sources available. VI While I admit that information and opinions contained in 16 �this handbook reflect my own biases as a teacher, critic, activist, and poet, the prescribed patterns for teaching and studying Black poetry are ones generally adhered to across the country. The organization of any course is certain to mirror at least a minimum amount of the teacher's own political and critical biases. Consequently, when lecturing on or pre- paring curricula for Black poetry, I normally allow for a flexible outline, including options in both textbook use and period emphasis. The same holds true for concentration or saturation of study with re gards to individual poets. Teachers, naturally, will have personal preferences; in fact, like the students, teachers may even have developed attachments to specific poets, attitudes about the poets or prejudices toward poets who do not reflect what they feel is a correct posture for Black poetry. Just as there is ereat and h ealthy diversity in the poetry and the poets, t h ere will be divergent attitudes and critical points of view among teach ers and students. Some of the differentiations will be due to age differences (the "generation gag "?), as is the case with the poets, and some will occur regardless of age. The Black or white teacher should arm h imself to the best of his ability with the tools of criticism and a knowledge of Black culture. He must have some idea of what part "duality" plays in the lives of Blacks and how such "twoness" is manifest in Black poetry ; he sh ould reco gnize the key issues being raised by and debated among Black artists, scholars and 17 �activists--and have some feel for t h e historical circumstances out which these issue s and debates grew; he ought to understand Baraka's reference to some Black poets as "integrationists" and "art~r poets 11 ; b e will have to know ·what many of the Hew Black poets mean wh en t h ey say t bey reject Western "forms" and refuse to be judged , y wh ite sta no. ards (Bara.ka, for exa,:iple, 1 talks about post-American forms); he will also want to recognize Black in-house humor and intracommunal disparagement in words and phrases like "nigger, "oreo, 11 "colored, 11 "the man, 11 11 11 "negro," ''Uncle Tom, dicty," "bad mouth," "bust a nut," "brother," "crumbcrushers," "main squeeze, "Mr. Charley. 11 11 11 and (For further indication of this dictional and phonological richness and t h e breadth of Black Language, see The Dictionary of American Slang, Afro-American Slang, the 11 :i'·Ta jor' s Dictionary of Glossory of Selected Terms" in The Psychology of Black Laneuage (Haskins and Butts), Abraham's Deep Down in the Jungle, Andrews' and OWens' Black Language, Claerbout's Black Jargon in ·white America, Twi ggs' Pan-African Language in the Uestern Hemisphere, Welmers' African Language Structures, Kochman's Rappin' and Stylin' Out, and Dillard's Black English. Additionally the teacher or student will want to know the motivations of some of the poets. All poets, for example, do not rate being called "poets" in the traditional (white or Black) sense. Redding, in a. recent Muhammad Spee.ks interview, accused some of t he new Black writers of lacking •moral and 18 �esthetic' integrity' and called them 'literary hustlers'. Observing that Baraka recently signed a 10-year contract with Random House, Redding said such an act is inconsistent with the poet's nationalistic assertions and positions. In a recent Black World article, novelist and poet Ishmael Reed spoke disparagingly of some of the new Black critics ("Blackopaths") and poets ("nationtime poets," was the reference). Poet-essayist Lee has chided poet Nikki Giovanni for being an "individual" who lacks technical abilities; and in a recent issue of Jet magazine a reader irately asked if Miss Giovanni deserved respect after accepting a Woman-of-the-Year award from a national wh ite women's organization. Miss Giovanni and Reed were nominated for Pulitzer Prizes in 1973. Hayden, a member of the older group of poets, wh o was only 17 years old when the Harlem Renaissance burned out, feels that Lee (praised by Gwendolyn Brooks, Hoyt Fuller of Black World, Randall and Baraka) has potential as a poet but lacks discipline and seems unable to separate poetic technique from ideological ranting . On the other hand, Stephen Henderson, author-editor of Understand The Uew Black Poetry praises Lee relentlessly and says his popularity is "tantamount to stardom". Henderson, who holds a Ph .D., is currently chairman of the new Humanities division at Howard University where Lee is a writer-in-residence. Miss Brooks gives Lee credit (in her introduction to The Poetry of Black America) for spawning much of the contemporary Black consciousness literature. 19 �Any seriously dealing ·with the development of Black poetry as a body of writing, must be aware of these intense feelings and positions. One must also organize orderly discussions or readings around the divergent views; in this way the classroom or rap sessions do not become melees and participants get a complete picture of the richness and vastness of Black poetry and the political, social and h istorical tensions out of' which the poetry is generated. Writing on the New Black Poetry, (The United States in Literature, Miller, Hayden and 0'Neal), Hayden says: The emergence of a so-called school of Black Poetry in America h as been one of the si gnificant literary developments of the modern period. Although the Harlem Renaissance of t he 1920's brough t certain Afro-American poets into prominence, it was not until t h e intensification of the c iv il ri ghts struggle during t h e 1 960 1 s that a separate group of black poets began to take sh ape. Avowedly nationalistic (th at is, racially proud) and scornful of western aesthetics, these poets continued the protest traditio n, h istorically associated with Ne gro writers. But t h ey were more radical in outlook t h an t h eir predecessors. Unlike the Harlem group, they rejected entry into the mainstream of American literature as a desirable goal. Th ey insisted t h at their poetry 20 �could not be judged by white standards, urging its importance as an expression of black consciousness. LeRoi Jones--the most influential of the young activist poets--Don L. Lee, Nikki Giovanni, Sonia Sanchez, Mari Evans, Etheridge Kni ght, and David Henderson attune their lyres to the 'black esthetic.' Not yet satisfactorily defined, this term, originating in the sixties, may be interpreted as a sense of the spiritual and artistic values of blackness. It is, perhaps, a logical (some would say 'ch auvinistic') reaction to negative American racial attitudes. Perhaps the concept is best summarized by the slogan 'Black i s beautiful.' Those wh o accept this point of view re gard Ne gro subj ect matter as their exclusive domain, feelin g t hat only those who h ave shared 'black experience' can articulate it. Older poets wh ose work shows some ali gnment with the New Black Poetry include Margaret Walker and Gwendolyn Brooks, winner of the Pulitzer in 1950. 'Whether poetry should be valued prini R.,.. i ]."tr f 01" t ~~P. n11i nue. ·i 11ner exper ience i t I �that often recurs in discussions of true function of art today. Hayden's opening comments, then, corroborate tbe opening sentence to this introduction--that Black poetry , re gardless of one's position on it, is one of the most important movements on the literary scene today. Yet, while it is exciting to study this "poetry in process" (if you please), tbe enthusiast must be on guard not to skip the tradition (tbe folk precedents) in favor of plunging into a Black poem that heaps wrath on Watergate conspirators, or urban policemen who shoot rioters and looters. Swirling around and through the whole range of Black poetry, then, is the complex and multi-leveled nature of Black life. VII Many of the "literary hustlers" to whom Redding refers have capitalized on tbe topical and episodic issues--with little or no training in the Black tradition or writing. Hence, the student must assume that just because a statement is "relevant," it is poetry! will 11 The Black or white researcher dig ••• deeper to the gold 11 --in the words of James David Carruthers-- and "establish" a sound tradition against which to measure the Black poetry of today. If the Black poet in question fails, he fails because be collapses from the weight of the past--instead of being buoyed up by it. In establishing this sound tradition, the teachers and students must realize, first, that the Black Experience is not monolithic--although 22 �recurring trends and broad i r.1plica.tions do exist in the areas of language, religion, humor, dance, music and eeneral life style. Oddly enough, however, there is often more consistency in what Blacks know about popular "American" culture. L~ There are several reasons for such a paradoxical i rabalance and lack of .focus--many of them locked in the eni gmatic see-saw of Black history. Ellison observed in t he 1940's that if Black leaders ever unraveled t he puzzle of the zoot suit and the dark glasses (meaning t he secret of Black urban "styling" habits), they could, perhaps, take the political and psychological reigns of Black masses from whites. observation was accurate. Ellison's James Baldwin has written that, in Europe, he looked at the great Renaissance masterpieces and felt ashamed that his race had not produced such work. Baldwin was not aware that the great Italian painter, Pablo Picasso, had borrowed h eavily from African motifs, nor that the architect, Lee-Corbousier, was greatly influenced by thatched-roof huts used in Africa by Balwin's ancestors. The implications of this part of my disc ussion are many and far reaching because central to the idea of teaching and learning is what teachers and students expect from each other. 4. Ellison's, For an exciting r ecitation and indictment via a "cultural quiz", listen to poet-critic Stanley Croucb•s Ain't No Ambulances for no Ni gc;ah s Tonieh t (Flying Dutchman). 23 �Crouch's and Baldwin's observations are ti mely' and i mportant. They suggest to us that many, if not most, of t h e students who are in Black poetry (Black Studies) classes do not have a working knowlede e of the tradition out of wh ich the poetry grew. It bas beco me popular, in some quarters, to i gnore this fact which Ellison and others have so painfully and poignantly expressed. The teacher who assumes that a class of Black (or white) students is knowledgeable about the Black literary tradition is in for real trouble and many disappointments. The fore going point cannot be stressed too often or too emphatically. Interestingly enough , t he majorit:r of t be persons who want to know something about Black poetry are not preoccupied with the craft of poetry--wi th the bows and wh~rs of poetry. Rather the students and casual readers, Black and white, seem to be more interested in the sociological (some teachers say "pathological") aspects of the poetry. The situation varies, of course, fro m campus to campus, fro m atmosph ere to atmosphere, and from Black to white to interracial settings. Here again the enthusiast has to draw tbe line and keep the persuit of the poetry "ti ght" in terms of the discipline demanded by the poetry itself. Another problem the investi gators confront is how to organize segments when an appreciation of the material is what is sought. Th e "appreciation" approach could be the result of one's initial conception of t h e poetry or dictated 24 �by level of interest and preparation. A casual reader, for example, would not study the same poems with the same intensity as would a senior or graduate-level English major. Nevertheless, the teacher, students and poetry lovers must bear in mind that they are investigating Black poetry and not merely some literary imitation of traditional Western poetry--even though the two converge time and time again. Here, too, the point cannot be over-emphasized because in the context of racial and intellectual mixtures, the melting pot is all too often likely to boil over. Example: white students, well grounded in t h eir own literary tradition and having a skeletal knowledge of Black Culture will want to surge ahead. Not recognizing that many Black (and some white) students do not know the meanings of simple poetic devices (such as metaphors, similes, alliteration and onomatopoeia), the insensitive teacher and "aggressive" students could press on to the point of premature destruction of group participation. Such situations occur over and over. ' Even the best teachers of literature often take for granted that every student has been drilled in the use of fi gurative language. Ironically, many of the students have been "drilled" in the figures; but, the holes opened b y t h e drilling allowed the information to go in one ear and out the other! Many students, in the whir of words in the classroom and group discussions will not say they do not know t he names of poetic devices-especially if they happen to be Black students and think the 25 �instructor expects them to be "experts" on the Black Experience. On the other hand, the intellectual snobbery that often accompanies the development of student "clicks" should not be allowed to prevail in a course in Black poetry. Luckily, for teacher, student and general reader, the curves and crests and peaks in the study of Black poetry keep bringing all aspects of human nature full circle. 26 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_07_54 Title A name given to the resource Copy of draft of Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, Introduction and Chapter I Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/cb4023140eb6f7fc36e3e86fc858f284.pdf 06d4ad6a2055d7ce98d661c472904121 PDF Text Text INTRODUCTION \ During the last decade, Black American Poetry emerged ·). t rcm its assi gned position as an ille gitimate--and sometimes . ' eml:ja,rrssing --child of American literature to an official flower in the gar•den of' world writing . Everywhere, on all the continents, Black Poetry is vigorously read, studied and sometimes imitated. "Often i mitated but never dupli- cated," quip tbe disc jockeys on Black-oriented radio stations--assuring their l i steners that the "soul" or "Heirloom" of th e ir ancient tradition is still alive, well, and locked in Black safe-deposit boxes. Yet, while a silent reading of that cas ually delivered quip belies the charismatic power and verbal d ex t erousness in "how" it is sa:td, the internal rhyme and r hy thm a.re obvious. The "how" is always important in Bl ac k Poe t r7,r; a "how II that wi 11 be one of the corner stone s in tb e discussions that will follow. To say that Black Poetry is read all over the world, is not to say that it i s studied in equitabl e proportion to other kinds of poe try . Indeed the curr e nt rash of anthologi e s, indivi dual collections, and the re-issuin~ of previously published volumes, suggest that a literary vacuum of criminal proportions has been allowed to exist. The new publishing flood, coupled with the appearance of new Black publishing hous e s, makes the 3OO-year-old vacuum glaringly, paradoxically obvious. The absence of Black Poetry (or ., Black Literature) courses from English departments at l �predominantly white colleses is 1gnomjnously aided and abetted by the culpable neligence st most predominantly Black colleges--which have religiously placed Walt Whitman over Paul Lawrence Dunbar, H.B. Yeats and T.S. Eliot over Jean Toomer and Melvin B. Tolson, Robert Frost and Carl Sandburg over Owen Dodson and Robert Hayden, and Marianne I•-foore and Edi th Sitwell over Gwendolyn Brooks and Margaret Walker. One could go on, of course, reciting the cultural and litera1..y negligence so officially a part of the academic and grants-in-aid scenes. The purpose here, however, is to explore with teacher and student the vast richness of Black poetical and mythical life. The study and teachj_nrr, of Black Poetry presents many frustrations, challenges Bnd problems. Teachers preparing themselves to teach the subject must b e aware of the many pitfalls, not least among them heing the tendency of teacher and student alike to stray from the study of the poetry into political and rhetorical catharses. ''Black" is a political word in the United States--and in most of the world--a.nd to study or teach anything "Black" is to take a political position. The thin line between the ideological implications of a poem and the diatribes or ha:r•J};ues so many classrooms find themselves victims of is a line walked by all teachers and students of the Black Experience. Classroom teachers, then, must "se t " the a.t.mospbere by dealing from the beginning with subs t antive hackground materials. By "substantive" I mean the deepest philoso- 2 �pbical, reli gious, ethical, artistic a nd cos molog ical tenets (1 of Black Expression. Thusifurther purpose of this pamphlet is to examine the scope and range of Black Poetry via folk origins, methods of delivery, language, phonolOGY, reli giosity, racial character, recurring themes, indi vidual and group identity, and poetical devices as they are developed in Q. ~, Black Poetry or borrowed from other poetic~strains in the 1:testern world and elsewhere. Like all bodies of writing, Black literature stems from a folkloristic trunk, making the job of the teacher twofold: one) to deal with the great storehouse of folk materials and themes; and two) to explore the chrono lo gical development of Black Poetry--from rou ghly l 7l~6 to the present. There are some harmless differences among scholars over just where to start the study of Black written poetry . For example, in The Poetry of the Neg!o, Hughes and Bo nte ~ ps be gin with Lucy Terry's "Bars Fight," the account of an Indian ma.ssacre in Deerfield, Mass., in 1746. The Ne gro Carava_~ (an inclusive anthology edited by Brown, Davis and Le e) omits tbe Terry poem. Caravan was first issued in 1941 while the poetry anthology was published in 1949. The former be p.:ins its poetry section with Phillis Wheatley who firs t published poetry in 1770. Omitted also from Caravan is the work of ,Jupiter Hammon whose poetry was publised in broadside in 1760. In Calvacade (Negro American Writing from 1760 to the Present~ published in 1970 and edit e d by Davis and Redding, neither Terry nor Hammon appear and the poetry 3 �section ber-;5..ns with Phillis Wheatle y . :g:~_!l_y_~_1-ack America~ Poets (Robinson) opens with Terry ana Johnson's The Book of American Negro Poetry, with Dunbar. Tt seems that many teachers of Black Poetry be g in with Phillis Wheatley despite the fact that at least two Black poets were writing before her. All three of the earlier poets were slaves, pri vi ler-,:ed by their masters and t anp;ht to read and write. For the most part they were Spo t' • ,.;. bv I the sustained hardships ~pe,,.~eJK£~ the majority of their brothers and sisters of color; in short, the horrors of slavery--though certai nl~r known to thern--rarely touched them intimately. In preparing this pamphlet, T have as~umed that the teacher will want to cover the full history and range of Black Poetry. I have assumed, also, that the teacher will want to move systematically throu~h the wor ks--and establish some sense of historic~l development and tradition in Black History, Black Music, and Black Culture in general. Hence one of the main ingredients of the course - -as we move from unit to unit--will be the study of relateJ for ms of expression such as Folksongs, Spiri t uals, Blues, Jazz, Rhythm & Blues and what today is commo nly called ~0111 mllsic. earlier, however, the Black Experience is frustrating. As stated complex and At each juncture in the study of the Poetry, for example, ~ teacher will meet difficulties which may seem insurmountable. Some of these difficulties will be manifest in queutions such as "Is a poet considered �nwbit e " ex pe r ienc e ?," "C an a Bl Rck poet r e a ll:r r ecord Bla c k experience s a nd f ee l in? s i n E ngli s 'h''," "Ca n a wl1 ite poet wr it e a Bl a.c k· poen,. nf , II ( 1 1.• k e ·t h e WhL. 1• ve -I- mu si• c i. e.n w,h o h.as d eve 1 - oped a Hfeel Tl fo r Blac.k r1.us ic a rid ha s l e ar•nec1 t o rnas t er the technical vocabulary of tha t music ? ) "Ca n whi te people nundersta.nd" Black Po e Lry ? Tl, "Sh ould wb i. t e c.r i t ics of Black Poe t r y b e take n ser ious l y ?,'' "Is Bla ck Poe try primarily e motion and lacking in int e llect;?, 11 TI T.s the r·e a Black Aesth etic?, 11 "Can a whi te pr•ofes sor t each Bla c k Poe try?," !!How does Black Lang uage diff er fr om whi t e lanf-~U a ? e or E ng lish?" and ''D oes Black Poetry expr es s the nn j vers al h uma.n condition? 11 Blac k and whi t e st u/lents wi.1 1 ask tbes e qu e s t i ons, indicating in th e ir q u eries th a t t he y wan t; .-:·.ore realis t ic a..nJ direct answers to some of t he i n -h ous e is s ue s which ha ve consumed Black a et i v i s ts, ~r t i s t s, a cademi cians, and white scholars of the Black Experience. Th e Bla~ k and white teacher con.frontin~ a racia. l l y - t.,, i x ed class, an all-Black class or an all whit e clas s, will 11 ave t o work a p;ainst a. distre s sing pan orama of a nr;:er, re .i ec tion, f e ar, condescension, anti- i ntellec tualis m, i nte l lec t ua l sn c, 1,b ish nes s , re.cis rn , distrust--and any number of ot her c ombust i ons of the student personality . Tb e Black p oets do not make burdens li r,bter in that they, critically and thematically , a r c ois persed along a seemingly boundles s spectrum of opinio ns, attit udes, creative approaches, ideologies, tech nique s a nd li t er ary philosophies. The t e acher, preparing for eithe r a se me s t er or y ear-long course (or for a un i t t o be inte g:r·at e d into 5 11 Humanities �course, an Aneri.can literature course, or· a Black interdisciplinary project), will ha ve to s te ep hiri:self in the literature of the Black past in order to give tentative answers and carry on adeqcm t '3 discussions wben such questions as those listed arise. Having been exposed to Black poets of national stature--via television pro~rams such as Soul and Black Journal and at conferences, Black Arts festivals and community book parties--many st nD0 nts (es:_:,ec :i. ally Black students) may be informed, at th o popular le vel, about the opinions and reading styles of the poe t.; s. However, the teacher n1ust not--and this point has to he stre s sed a ~ain and again--must not succu -r,b to the temptr.i.tion to poetry up until 1965. ,, in True, there iP ,yrec.d <>-nd 11 skip all 'il""~wtw-.3 infes-"( Sf the Black Poetry produccJ out of what bas been called the Black Consciousness/Black Power/Black Nationalist/Black Arts/Nee-Pan-African Movement. Yet the te~.cher who defies the Blac:k tradition (or any tradition) will find himself engulfed in a maelstrom of conjecture and ideological hysteria; and the class, whose posture will be anti-historical, will be riddled with soap opern-type rhetorical drama about revolution and liberation and will smack, again, of anti-intellectualis n . Harold Cruse (The Crisis of The Negro Intellectual_) points out that ench generation of Black artists and activists suffers from a lack of historical/cultural continuity. That is, they fail to study (or for some l'eason are unaware of) the mistakes and the pitfalls of past struggles and consequently find I' 0 �themselves in predicaments not diss imilar to t~ose of their predecessors. As observed earlier, t he poets are not unanimous on what Black Poetr:r is supposed to do, wh y i l, whether whites can write or criticize it. di ve1~se be liefs and posit lons are nu111ero us: is written or Reasons for the the situation attending the birth and upbringin g of the poet; his reli gious affiliation (Robe rt Hayden is of the Baha'i faith; Askia rr,uhammad TourJ is a Sunni Muslim; El-Mub a jir [Jfarvin X] is a member of the Nation of Islarr1 [ :::ornmon called Black I'.tuslim~]; K. Curtis Lyle was re.i:_:N1 in the ·J8.tholi c church ); his polit- ical l e aning (which, ir. the cas e of ma ny writers, is also reli g ious); his preparation for po e try (did he go to a well-known wri te rs scho ol, pick his t al ent up ·,ia. individual study or apprentice under another writer); his associations with other noets (man:• Black poets, for ext:1,mple, hobno b with writers of other ra ci al extra.ctions; I met one Black poet in 1970 who had two masters der;rees ~rnt hat~ not beard of Melvin Bea.unorus To] son~' --a Plack poet pre.lsed by the white literary establishment as havine be sted Eliot, Po und, Stevens and company in his technical v i!•tuosi ty); his current personal · situation (does he live in the inner c i ty? teach? write full time? play a musical instr1m1e nt? write in other genres? read primarily Black poAts?), ana his feelings on the question: "Are you a poet first and t~en Black; or are you Black first and then a poet?" Harmless as it may seet,, thitf rhetorl~al utter has entrapped 7 �ideolo '-;ical and political prison}from which Sonic would like to extricate themselves by askin g simply: 11 1:Jbat difference does it make?" For the many poet s , however, it matters a great deal and they have written profusely _on the implications of this question and the several other-s listed earlier. The teacher must sample opinions of writers and students, sharing with students the diversity of opinions on the creative process just as the diverse creative works are shared. Such parity allows for a continual classroom balance in criticism, social undercurrents and the poe~s themsel~es. here would be illustrati ve. Perhaps some examples Novelist Ralph Ellison has suggested that he is a writer first and t~at his racial ideny(·-tr tity is subordinate t o thaL fact. ~Robert Hayden has taken a , . ' similar stand (see introductio~ to Kaleidoscope, Poems b~ American ~re,;ro Pc~_!E_, 1967). The sa.me position had been taken several decades earlier by poet Countee Cullen. In his critical-biocraphical introduction to Cullen's poetry (The Book of American Ne gro P_?etry, 1922, 1931) James Weldon Johnson observed that: Some critics have vent ured to state that Cullen is not an authentic Negro poet. This statement, of necessity, involves a definition of 11 a Negro poet II and of "Ne c~ro Poetry." There might be several definitions framed, but the question raised is pure irrelevance. Also there is in it a faint flare-up of the old taboo which would object to the use of "white" material by the NeGro artist, or at least re gard it with indulgent condescension. Cullen himself has decla~ed that, in the sense of wishin~ for consideration or allowances on account of race or or of reco gnizin~ for hi mself any limitation to G �"racial II the'1es and forms, he has no desire or intention of being a 1'Je gro poet. I n this be is not only within his ri ght; be is ri :'h t. . (italics mine) Johnson went on to note that hecause Cullen '1revolts against" racial enclosures, the ''best of his poetry is r;1otivated by race. II One could make a similar comment today about Ellison or Hayden. The works for which both are internationally acclaimed delve into the deepest regions of the Black man's psyche and feelings. Heanwhile some younp,er poer.s--those birthed in the 1960's--and several poets and critics that out, sometjmes not so straddle both generations lash Otf; ,•r,· diplomatically, at what they see as compensator y ,,and unnecessary self-deprecation by the older poets. Pulitzer Prize winner Gwendolyn Brooks said in a preface to Poerns From Prison that Etheridge Knight was not the "stifled artiste. 11 The comment represented an implied rebuttal to Black and white 11 acader:1ic II poets. Elsewhere Niss Brooks had referred to the "inelegance" of some Black Poetry as beinr; consistent with the bleak, drab landscape of hoplessness and despair felt by some inner-city dwellers. During the late Sixtl~s, she became a kind or matriarch of the New Black Poetr::r Hovement (at least in Chicago), ceased publishing with Harper and Row, and began to release her writings throu 0h Broadside Press--a new Detroit-based Black publishing house under the supervision of Dudley Randall, a poet, librarian, critic and translator. Miss Brooks' new consciousness, she declares, was achieved as a result of ha.vine attended a Bl~ck writers conference in 1968 at Fisk University where she heard poets Imamu Amiri Baraka 9 �(LeTioi Jones), Don L. Lee, Nikki Gi o?an ~i, no 7elist John Oliver Killens, a nd n host of other writers , ac t ivists end artists. The violent social explosions in Lhe cities, the Vietnam Har that took so many Black li ves and crippled so many otbers, the persistent ~ mer: ;ence of Afd.ca--e.11, Hiss 1 Brooks said, aided in the development of her new consciousness. She has written t;hat it 11 fri p:btens" her to think tbat if she had died before she reached fifty, "T would ba ve died a 'I'Tegro' fraction." Hayden, disclaimlng the Gwend ol:n1 Brooks' posj_tion, assumes he has been 'Black' all alon r: o.nd c ontinues to reject any singular, unarg uabl e position on the Black Aesthetic, or the poet-first, Black-secona_/:3lack-fi r st, poel:,-second controversy. Assessing Baraka, Hayden ad1n its thnt he recognizes the younger poet's power b ut deplores ''his Black nazis!':1 ." J. Saunders Redding , a dean of t he Black critical establishment, feels there is no such thi nr~~ as a ''Black Aesthetic If; Poet Paul Vese y (fo1~nerly Samuel Alle~) calls it ~a voya~e of discovery- -I Lhi nk i. t wi 11 y ield re t ur n not as r-Teetly as in mus :i.c, perhaps, · where the black aesthetic 6.01dna.tes an entire cultural area of the west.'' : iany poets and critics, on the other hand, ignore questions dealing with aesthetics, the level of Blackness in their work, to whom they direct their poems, and out of 1-1bat mood or spirit they urite. At the same time there are trends, some r e ~ional and some national, c(r)t\ tbat tl\JJui; l:;eacberslan id enlify . Needles s to say , identifyinrs and exploring these trends is i nwensel y rewardin g . 10 Essential to �a.n uncle-rs tandin;-:: c:i trends ano 9.tt i tudes :_., , ::1_ • :st.em fro rn the thej_r own an well as ':;he f~cneral litey,ar:· tradition, is a stud~r of slaver:, as it was :i.nstituterJ. ':,~- Europe and refined in the United 8 tates, a s tnc1y of Blo.1".k soc i~ 1_ West African anr ll.fro-A;:-1erican Folklo:..,., e. 1·,i story Rnd of- The tl10pouc:h teacher of Black Poetr:r will want to steep l:·i_ n self in the history of Western Civilization; he will 3 lso develop an appreciation for the cor:1p1.ex web o::' I31P..r..:k--:1hi te interrelationships in Ar.1erica., and prepn.-re hir.:scl:f to :': nide the studento througli the ofter, Gens e -filleo dI:1c 1.-<s s i.o ns. Slavery is not a pleasa ut th:I ~1:·: to rec a 11; and the teacher will soon notice that prac t ically (~1· c r ~:' pc e t writes about c;I f, ,, ('I \ ' ~ ~ i f,r ( / i f '-,\ / ~-.-~ <f r()«· lynching s--es?ecially poets writin ~ afte r" who do not deal with actual lynch-t:1 c s_, o.s k n ow or :i.nterpret them, dea] A v! c • Those poets have come to with balf-J.::·:1cl:t.1Ys, defile- r, ent and the l7i.ental and ph:rsical destn.: c.tion of Plack hm~n;1ity. Jf a discussion of slaver; is unpleasant, the 11, a consideration of lynchtne is horrorfy in J . The s~illed teRcher will man- euver judiciously throu e h t he rouch waters of such sessions-keeping cr::otiona.l deluges to a rri inii~ium ty presentinr:; facts ov·e r-pass-iona. te-, a·ccusa:tions or tear-drenched con:fe-s,s·iomh During such occasions, less the focus of the course becomes ~lurred and the classroom becomes a courtroom. At the same t:h1e, -the :-: eacher who cannot 11 �preside over v i p,orous a nd t.h orou;:h cHsc :rns:! o i-:s of t hese painful events and de tails may finC hi mself , a t l ater junctures, t rying t o br i d p;e eve n wi6er ~ulfs of d ou1; t, fru s tration, mistrust and al i enation . As ain, t he t eaching of Black Poetry ( or any aspect of t he Bl ac k Fxr:ieri e nce) assumes the complexit i e s of th e Black Ex pe r ie r,c e i t self. Ne vertheless, the st udy of Bla ck poe t r y t s i af i nitely rewarding because it is a vehicle wh i ch dis bi lls Lh e particular insights and pers pe ctives of Blac k Arr, e rica. ;1s 5_n t;o concise and authentic f orms: Ge r ~inc the ri ch r ural-Bi blical-urban idioms wi th colorful ly l uscious i ma gery and ( in ma ny cases) peerless technical proficie ncy i n t h e us e of l it erary En~lish and We stern poetical for ,r_s. 'Hhe n st udent s s pe confronted with the various poems on l ynchin ~s, f or exaMple, t he t eacher can lead them into an examination of posture, poetical toolery and overall ach ie vement or e ffectiveness of the poe ms. In 1.'l ri gh t 1 s "De tween the Horld e.nd He 11 the poet becomes t h e persona; the oak t r· ee na r rates in Dunbar's "The Haunted Oak~ Culle n speak s as ''I" in "Scottsboro, Too, Is 'Horth Its S onp, 11 which admoni s hes whit e American poets for remaining silent over unj us t t rea tme nt of Black men while they sing: ••• sharp and pr etty Tunes for Sacc o and u[m zetti, I said: He r e too's a cause de v inely spun For t ho se whos e ey es nr:-c on t b e sun, Here in epitome I s all di s c:rac e And e pic wr ong , Li ke wine t o br a c e The minstrel h e art, and b le.r c it into song . 12 �- .- ·-------· ___ ,. __ ' ._ -- .•IcKay's "The L~· ncbing " the k~.lli. nr; of the Black .nan .... ::; 111ade a.nalag ous to the crucifixi.o n ; a sonnet, and aweso'ne throughout, the poem c1csc-ends to 5.ts rh:rni :·lr~ couplet with a final irony: And little lnds, lynchers that were to ~e, Danced round the dreadful th:t nc; in fie ndis11 c;lee. Certainly in these poe ms-- and the dozens of others that employ the lynchine theme--there is rr1ll.cb f uel for papers, classroom discussion and teacher pr eperation, In the four poems mentioned, the poets span snch di verse forms as the sonnet, the ballad a nd free verse, Helpful in this area will be the additional inquir:r, by teacher and student, into the development of white hn te :,ro i1ps st~ e h as tbe Ku IQu.x (lflO tue ' h istor~ • r In an/.. o...f' race ., ~ Ot,S ~ s · ..• • I 1.1 ~ D;~o t s i• n a t rtrn.erica. 1<. • least a dozen A11erican co mmunities :in lc:'19, for example, caused McKay to write "If 1·!e :-::us t Die", a poi r:nan t sonnet with an even more poi g na n t: end :l nE; co u ple t -- Like men we'll face the murderous, cowardly pack, Pressed to the wall, dying , but fi [-:;hti ng back! -- W (1)'f{, t l --a poem which ,.,C lrnrcbill read before tbe F.o use of Coo1mons, during l"Jorld Har II, to spark his co t~ntryme n in the dim hours; during the 1972 prison re b elli on !n Attica, N.Y., j ournalis {found the poem scrj_ bb led on the wal 1 of n eel 1 Oi-- i'i{J.Jt,,+·~J,.t4ftt,H-~c/t;; and th0 national press attri b uted it t o a prisoner! . . . oJe «"<tric:hr'\C\ o Ftl I e r .. •\'\u r- . ,.__his'tory of slave revolts ( rr1 any :Slack poets write about them) and the patterns of v iolence i ~ America. Attuned teachers and student s will want t o co nsult so urces such as lCO Yee.rs of L:rnchj:E_G. ( 0 :i. n zberg ), 13 1 ~aek iss ues of Black �and liberal white news :ournals a~e pap e rs and e specially pa.st issues of The Cris ·is, the o.ffi c: ; al L ews and ori nj or: arm of the !Tationnl Assoc.:i.ation For 'l'he Ac1,ra t ic:ernenJ..; Of Colored People. ri _ ing the first a Crisis for over 2C years 1 Pr.. n., in 1910. f1•o m its he c ir..nir;._:; further reading , the teacher can refer to ~dited The ~r For bi b liography in section IV and appropriate sections of any of the numerous antholo s ies, text 1 ·, ooks and '..'! i', lio r;·raphical sources available. While I must adrait tha t information and opinions contained in this pa1nphlet reflect my own ;)iases as a teacher, critic, activist, and poe -f.. , tl1e patt.e:r-n for teachin e; is one qe•ir.- r•tr u.y adhered to across th.e country. Tbe organization of any cour•se is ccrtai n to mir1·or at least a minimum amount of the teacher's own political and critical Consequently, ·whe:n lee turi n:r, on or prepar:i. ng curricula for Black Poetry, I normally allow fore flexible outline, including opt!ons in both textb ook emphasis. t1se and period The same bolds true for- concentration or satu- ration of stuC:y with re ::;ards to indj_vidua.l poets. will have personal preferences; in fact, like the students, teachers may even have developed attachments to specific poets, attitudes about the poets or prejudices tollard poets who do not reflect what they feel is a. correct posture for Black Poetry. Just as there is great and health) diversit~ in the poetry and the poe t s, there will be 14 �diverc;cnt at titudes and crU:ical p.::- ~:, 1 .s o.f ··5.ew a.r:1on1; b e due to a e,e dlffere nces (the rr:;e:1e,rati.on ('8.p"?), a.s is t he case with the poets, and so;.1 e 1-r~:1 oc e tn·· re :-=;arcHess of a g e. The Blac.k 01• white tc ach e1· shonld e.r,;;1 hinself to the bes t of his a1)ili b:· with tbe tools of cr·i.. tic ism a nd a know- ledge of Black Cul t..ure~ He r:rns t; ha.ve sorne idea of wcat part "duali ty " plays in the lives of Blacks and how such "twoness" is manifest in Bl ac k Poetry; 110 should recognize the key issues be ing raised ;)y a.nd deb a ted amon g Black artists, scholars and activists--and have some feel for the historical c ircums tances out wb-:.ch thes e i_ssues and debates grew; he ought to unders l:o.n 1l Ba roka' s :reference to some Black po ets as "inte::,;ra.tionis ts" e.na irar·t.y poets"; he will have to know wh a t inan:r of t1 c :'.'Tew Bl~.ck Poets mean when they say they rejec t Hes tern "forms rr s.nd refuse to b e j ud 6 ed by wl:i_.!_~_ standards (Baralrn, for P-Xan;.ple, talks about post-American forms); be wi l l also want t o reco r.: nize Black in-honse humour a nd i nt:r·A i::.ommtmal dispara12:: ement in words and phrases like 11 n i 0 ger , '' 11 ne r;ro, 11 "Uncle Tom," 11 ore o, 11 11 co 1 ored, " "the r1a.n , 11 rra i ct;:;,.· , " ''bad mouth , " ''b ust a nut," "brother,'' ''c rurnb c rushers, '' "main squee ze, 11 and "Hr. Charley" (for further indica ti on of this dictiona.l richness and the b readth of T'.la.c k La:-: -:na r·:e se-e The Dictionarv ' . --··- - -·- --- ~- of American Slang, l~j or 's ~icti onary of Afro-A~erican Slang , the "Glossory of Selected Terms'' in The __Psycholop;y of Black Languag e (Haskins and Butts) and Abraha•.11 's Dee p _Down in the 15 �~Tungle. Additionally tlle teacher will wa:·, t tc1 knoH t:1e motivation of some o.f the po e ts. All poe ts , for exa:'!ple, do not rate being called "poet s'' in tbe traditional wl1 itc (or Bl ack) sense. Redding, in a recent :Mu1?arr:rr:ad Spea.10_ interview, 8.ccused some of the new Black writers of lacking ' more l and esthetic' integrity' and called them '1 i terar s· hns t l~ rs '. Observ ing that Baraka recently si gned a 10-year ccnLr act with Random House, Redding said such an act is inconsiRtent with --fu('._~ ~~ts nationalistic assertions and position. In a recent Black World article, novelist and poet Ish mael Reed spoke disparagingly of some of the new Black cri tics ("13lac-kopa.ths," be called them) and poets ( ''nationtime poet s," was the reference). Poet-essayist Lee bas chided poet Nikki Giovanni for being an "individual II who lacks technical abilities; anc1 in a recent issue of Jet ma gazine a reader irately aske d if Miss Giovanni deserved respect after accepting a Woman-of-the-Year award from a national white wo men's or p;an i za t ion. :·t ss Giovanni and Reed were nominated for Pulitzer Prizes in 1973. Hayden, a member of the older group of poet s , who was only 17 years old when the Harlem Renaissance bur ne d out, Lee ( praised by Gwendolyn Brooks, Hoy t Fuller of Black 1.'!orld, Randall and Baraka) has potential as a poet bu t lacks discipline and seems unable to separate po eti c technique from ideological ranting . On the other hand Stephen Henderson, author-editor of Understa_nd The IJew Elack_ Po~_~_!':' and a for mer English department chair~nn, praises Lee relen tlessly and 16 �says his populari t y is ''tan tan;onn t to ::; tar c'h ·::.''. Render s on, who holds a Ph. D., is ~ur i' ently chail"11 a r c f th e new Hur;ia ni ties divi s ion at Howard Univ er si t y- wh ere l iee is R u r i t er-in-residence. Miss Brooks g ives Lee credi. L (in her i n t ro<3ucti on t. o Th~_Pe:etry of Black America) for spawni nr: much of t h e c on l, e ,np orar:r Black consc i ousnesG writing . Older poets and c Y.· ·i t 5. c s, y o une: er poets and critics, old e r and youn Ger reade r s --a re a ll assuminG positions for whatever and h ow many rea son s. Th e teacher, uhile dealin g with the de velo pment of Black ~o e t r y a s a ~ od y of wri t i ng , must be aware of t hese i nte nse f ,~ o l i n r~s and po sitions. di·ver g ent Be rnust also or p:anize ord erly d i s c uss i oos -ar o un d t he views; in this way the clas s roo m s .:iss io nu <:, o not 1)ecoli e me lees 1 and students r e t a c omplete pic t ur e of t he richness a nd vastness of Bleck Poetry and the poli t i c al, so cial a nd historical tensions /1 out of which t h e poe tr:- is ;•;enerat ed . rt! Hr i t; i n 1•:. on the f\tew Black 11 [.. __ - - Poetry in an ar ti cl e 8 nt i tl ec1 "A:ner i c an Poetry Touay 1 (The United State s -:n Literatu r e , : :il lcr, 1fa7der; and 0 1 neal), Hayden says: The e ~erge~ce of a s o-cal l ed school of Bl ack Poe t r y l n i':. :-i1erica has 1, 00 n on~ .: :,f +:l1e s i;,.nif i.c ant literary develop me nt s of t h e modern peri ; d . Al t hough the Harle m Renai ss a nc e o:' t ~rn ic:·2') ' s 1·) rO'l.1 n:ht c ert a-tn Afro-Ame rican poets i nt o pr omi nenc e , i t va s n o t until the intensificat io n ot th e c5.v t1. r i c hts s t.r u r:r:le during the 19E-0 1 s t hat n separ a te 12;ro up of hlac k poets he t1;an to take shape. A·,·0we-c1l:,r r; a.t i onalistic (that is, racially pr oud) and scor ~'l.7-'ul of western aesthetics, th e se poe t s continued the nrotest tradition , historically a ss ocia t ed wi t h Ne gr o writers. But they were more rad ical i n outl ook t han their predecessor s. Unli ke t he Ha .r•l cm r:r o ,1;:; , Lhey re j ec tea entry into t h e mains tr e am of Av er i c a n literature as a deo!rahle goal. The y i nsi sted th a t th~i r poetry could not be judi ed by whit e s ta nda~as, ur r tn ~ its inportance a. .s a n ex pres s i on of h lack co:-;s e1.0us ness. 17 - - - -- ------ - �LeBoi. Jones--the most 1_:·,f1.~1.e, nti.B.l o: tl:e ~roung activist poet3--Don L. Lee, ITi. kk i Cio ~Rnni, Sonia Sanchez, Tla.ri E v ans, Ether id ,r; c 1:ni. :'.h' , and :)avi <1 Henderson attune t 11eir lyres t o t he l ~lack esthetic.' Not yet satisfactorily def~_ned, tb:!.s ter•:·,1, ori r~ inatinp; in the six ties, may be inter pr ~tec1. as a sense of the spiritua l and artistic 7 aJ. u0 s of blackness. It is, T?erhaps, a log ical ( so me 1:10 u.ld s a:· 'chauvi- nistic') reaction to nep~ti ~e Ar1erican r acial attitudes. Perhaps the concept is oes t sun:.r-:a1°ized b:,~ tbe slor; an 'Black is beautiful. 1 Those wh o accept this point of view re r:ard Ne 1-:;ro su1)_ject 1-1a tt er as their exclusive domain, feeling t h2.t only thos e W'"} O bav e shared ' black expe r ience' can arti.culat c 7_t. Older poets whose work sbows so:ne ali p,nment w:. th the }~ew Black Poetry include Ifar r-:aret v!al k er and G-wandoly n Brooks, winner of th e Pulitz er in 1 9 50. l:Thether poetry should b e v al ue d primarily for the unique inner experi (' nce i_t, Ga .i provi d e or for its effectiveness as political or s ocial statement is a question that often recurs in discussions of true function of ar t t oday . Hayden's opening comments, then, corrobora1,e the opening sentence to this introduction--that Black Poetry, re ~ardless of one's position on it, is one of the n os t i mportant movements on the l _iterary scene todA.y. Yet-, whlle it is exciting to study this "poetry in process" ( if y ou plca.se), the teacher must be on guard not to skip the tradition (the folk precedents) in favor of plunc in~ into a Black poe m that heaps wrath on Watergate conspirators, or urban police,nen who shoot rioters and looters. Swirling around and through the whole range of Black Poetry, then, is the complex and multi-leveled nature of the Black Experienc e . Many of the "literary hur:,tlers" which Redding refers to have capitalized on the topical and e pisod~c issues--with little or no training in the Black tradition. Hence, the teacher cannot assume that ~ust because a statement is lS �"relevant," it is poetry! The Black or wr1ite t,e acher will "di g ••• deeper to the g old ''--in the words of ,Tac:i es David Corruthers--and ''establish" a sound trad:i tion a r-; ainst which to measure the Black Poetry of t,oday. If the Black poet in question fails, he fails because he collapses from the wei ~ht of the past--ins tea.d of beinp; ~, :1oyed up 11y it. 1n estab- lishing this sound tracHtion, the teacbe1· ,)'J ust realize, first, that the Black Experienc" is not .-i1onoli tr.it; --al though recurring trends and b1~oad implieations do exis r. in the areas of language, relie;ion, humor, dance, mu.sic and p:eneral life Oddly enough, hoi:,:ever, there is often .1Q1''e consistency &. · · ~~14 i!J 1ut~'L/!, in what Blacks know about popular "Ar1e·ric an '' cn1 ture,f There style. are several reasons for such a paradoxical i mb ala nc e. Ellison observed in the 19Lt0's that if Black leaders ever unraveled the puzzle of the zoot suit and the dark ~lasses (~eaninf Black urban ''stylinr;" 1-ia'o i ts), they co u ld, perhaps, take the political and psycholo p; ical rei r-~ ns of the Black r~_asses fro m whites. Ellison's ob servation was accurat'3. Jar ,es Baldwin has written that, in Europe, he loo~rnd at the g reat. Renaissance masterpieces and felt ashamed that his race had not produced d such work. Balwin was not aware that the ~reat Italian t,.. p~inter, Pablo Picasso, had borrowed heavily fro m Afrlcan motil; nor that the architect, Corbous ier, was " greatly influenced by thatched-roof huts used in Africa by Baldwin's ancestors. The implications of this par t of my discussion are many and far-reaching because central to the idea of teaching and of being taught is what the teacher - - - -- -- - - 19 - - - - - - �expects from the s tudent and vic e v~r sa. Baldwin's observations are i mpor t a rit. Elli so n's and Th e y su r~est to us that many, if not most, of the st ud e nt s wh o are in Black Poetry (Black Studies) class e s do not have a workin 6 knowledge of the tradition out of which t he poetry ~rew. It has become popular, in some quar t ers, t o i s nore the fact that Ellison so painfull~~ and poi r; na ntl y exp r essed. The teacher who assumes that a class of Blac k ( or· white) students is knowled geable about the Black lite r ar y tr aditio n is in for real trouble and many disapp o i n t ment s . Tbe fore r-; oinc point cannot b e s t resse d too often o:r too e n:pi--,.aticall y . It is also safe to say t ha t MdnV 3lacks d o no t come into a classroom with a readi ns prepara t ion on par with whites. The reaso ns for s uch a d:!..s pari L:- our h t; to be obvious; and the teacher w~o wa nts t 0 d o ~ore than preach will neither assume laziness nor conde sc e nd and pa t r o~ !ze t~ e political -r~~ d « f:tci ,e;,fJ~ ,. 'ffl If' ........... ' · whims,._of students. Hence, keepins in r:-1ind the ob .;ce tives LI ... ,.,.,.. . ... ,d "V,'r he has set for himself and the st ude nts, th ,J t:ea.cher will may find that he has to b e se veral t each ers in o~e. Such a r equirement exist because of the vario us r- 0adj_ ng and perception level s , a nd political perspecti ves, repres c ~t ed among the students. In additio n , L~e re a re t he num~erless reasons why Black and white st ude nts t a.1-:,~ a c ourse in Black Poetry (or the Blac k Ex per ience). 2() The t ee cher will discover �that students who would ne ver ~rack or Ar,nold want to study Black Poetry. told 8. a boo\-:. 'uy Shakespeare A white stuc.ent recently visiti.n:-r, poet that rhe harl n ot liked. poetry at all until she began to read Black poets. On anotter occasion, a Black student said she could not "relate" to Shakespeare or Pound or Ginzhere . Both coli!ments could ~) e sli e;htl:r loaded , but the point is well taken: neaders ar·e i)~int~ draw1.1 t;o the r.1agnetic "''it.ho Loft " l. power e.nd t-.acl eptness of Black "Poet:,:,:-. Jt mi <l'"'t help to list some reasons wh:~ students enroll ~n a Black Poetry course. Following are sorne reason s r; i v~n 1' 7{ ",lack students: 1. 2. 3- Desire to know more about themse1ves . As an option in the Gene~el S Ludies requirements. Read or heard or met a Black poet ancl want to know more. 4- Working toward a major in Eng lish. Hork:tng toward a rw.jor in Black or Etl::nic Studies. 6. A desire to write poe t r y . 5. 7. 9. 10. 11. A desire to convert teach er or s t udents towara his/her wa7 of tbinkin g . Interests in i:,he "!Tew Plavk Poetry'' r.1 0\/ement. A Black or whi t. e couns elor r cco,,;n ended it. Wants to learn how to present Black Poetry orally. Turned off b7 traditional white poetry and literature courses. White students give the followin r reasons for enrolling in the courses: 1. Lovers of poetry . 2. Want to understand a Black 1·,oyfri.end or c; irlfriend 3. Desire to broaden oneself culturally. An interest in writin~ poetry and desire to learn Blacl{ forms. Specializing in Black Experience or Black Poetry. (at one university there are at least four white students completinB masters de gree requirements in Black Literature or Black Poetry) Working toward a major in En~lish. Intend to g o into the Blac k or wh ite communities and teach (out of a sort of ~ issio~ary fervor). Grew up around Black pe ople. 4. S. 6. 7. 8. better. 21 L �9. 10. Have been collecting Black mus~ c a ~d hooks and now want more f orrr1D 1 s tud~, . Turned off by tradit:i.onal- "acarJ e-·1ic'' l}OetrJ . The numbers do not sucgest order of preferer:.ce on the parts of students. Yet one can see that while there are similarities in the lists, there are also differences. ~:ore i ~portantly, though, is the fact that tho maj ori t:~ of the students are not preoccupied with the craft of poetry--1-:i t'.1 t "1e hows and whys of poetry. Rather the students, Bl acl: and write, seem to be more lntore3tod i::1 the sociolo[r, -Lcal (sorri e teachers say ,,pathological") aspects of the poetr;:,r . The sit ua L5.o D varies, of course, from campus to campus, from at mosphere to atmosphere, and from Black to whlte to interraclRl classroom settings. Here a ~ain the teacher ha s to dr aw the line and keep the course "tight" in terms of the discinl1.1e /-,e -'~ff Mrtnd !; af·f1 ,,., Another problem t}Je teacher confronts is ~1ow to control a run-away se 2:rn ent when a n appreciatior. of t:1e nater:1.al is wha.t is sought. Tl:e "apprectation" appro a c1" c oulcl. be the result of the teacher's i nitial concep t io~ of the course or dictated by the preparedness of the s tudents. An all freshman class, for exar.1ple, woulrl not stud:r t }1e same poems with the same intensity as woul d a se n i or or ~raduate-level group of Ent~lish majors. !Je-v-c1•theless, th e teacher must bear in mind that he is teachin c D\ack Poetr7 and not some literary i mitation of traditional Wester n poetry--even thoush the two conver;;e r.i me and ti. 1e ari:aj n. 1-Iere, too, the point cannot b e over-en phasized b ecause inn class wbcre i ',fl f �there are racial 011 intellectual r 5.x t. ur cs, t,i,~ "'~ cltinr~ pot is a.11 too ofteD likely to :, 011 o,;e r. 1:•n~ite s t.c1c~ents, well crounded in their own li terar:· t.rad i'L i. on anc1 11a ·,c 5.n.r · a skeletal knowled 0 e of Black Culture, will want to sur r·e al1Aad. ::rot (ft'l4,''i recognizing that ,.,_Black ( anc1 :wme whi tc) students Jo not know the meanin~ s of simple poetical de~ices @:le~ as meLaphors, similes, alliteration and onomatopoei~; the insensitive teacl1er and "ar:;1:ressi ve" students cculd press on to the point of destroyinc class pa~ticipation earl7 in the semester. Such a situation occur& over and take for ~ranted that every student hn s been drilled in the u::;e of .f i p ,ra bi ·-: e la nr;u a ; .e. ically, many of the ::;tudents he.·Je 'been "dr:! l le c~" -i Tr on- r: the students, in the whir of words in t h e clR.8sroo ,n , w-tll not ..rt.A•le ,.;,:• :if they happen to be .. Blae"i.c,;n~r ,t ,, nxpects them to oe experts on the Blac~ ~xperioncc. On Lhe other hand, tbe intellect ual st: 01) 1, ery tlw. t o:' t e!1 a.ccon panies the development of student ''clj_cks '' m11.st nei~. ~)e allowed to prev2.il in a course ~. ::i Plack Poe tr•:·. and student, the c ur:es and crests Luc ;,_:: ly, f o r teacher /lnu r 08.ks 1 n the stud:; of Black Poetry keep brine; in t; all as~ecLs of full circle. >n nr; nature Experience shows that in a n inter r acial classroom, a frustratin r.:; '.rnt exci tin:·,; o:-1 e-11ps n ansh-!.p pattern prevails. 23 �7rom uhe1·e th o auth or sits, illustrate s01;~e i l'."'i. o i ."1 Lrocl 1-1c t j on brn l1een of the obsorn~tions and warn-t n c s nliiear3y voiced; the sect 4.o~s will also deal wit~ the full historical ranr;e and scope of Black Poctr:,-, -Lnclt,Ciri , · t.:-1e tilechanics readinr; ; t ( sile ntl:- a nd aloud). T11e relationship of for n and ('.ont e nt, dra :·:·i atizat.ion of the poetry, issues and questions for r e search a~J fis~ussions, ideal course titles and outlines, the tle~elopDe n t of sections or units--all uill ;.:ie e:xar::.in e 6. as t11e a ·n.:dla1··,le n!atc1: ·'..als nro 0 cy•oss-ref ere need and co~1n ented upon. 24 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_07_53 Title A name given to the resource Copy of Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, Introduction Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/28c28e356426f4836d7dee58048862ae.pdf 5e4c6424adbabbba6933a35b6477faca PDF Text Text Black publishing houses (Broadside Pr e ss, Third \JorlJ Press, The Third Press, etc.) and hundreds of new news or gans and literary journals. During the contemporary period a number of important an t l1ologies have also been published. Some of the more notable ones include Be yond The Blues, Pool, 1962; Sixes and Sevens, Breman, 1962; Ame rican Negro Poetry, Bont eu1ps , 1963; Soon One tforning: New Writinr; by American Ne r; r oe s, 191+0 - 1962, Hill, 1963; New Negro Poets, Hughes, 1964; Kale i doscope, Hayden, 1967; Black Voices, Abrahams, 1968; Black Fire, Jones and Neal, 1968; The New Bla ck Poetry, Hajor, 1969; Soulscript, Jordan, 1970; 3000 Years of Black Po e trv, Raoul and Lomax, 1970; New Black Voices, Abrahams, 1972; Tl1 e D] nck Poe t s , Ra nd a ll, 1971 ; Black Spirits, Kin g , 1972; and The Poetry of Black America, Adoff, 1973. In --- addition t o these and other nationally distributed antl1olo gi e s, ma ny collections of Black Literature were compiled and published in various re ~ion s : Watts~ Watts Poets and Writers (Troupe, 1966) and From the Ashes (Schulberg, 1?69); South, Fress Southern Theater by the Free Southern Theater (De nt, et al, 1969); A :·~ew Chica p, o Antltolo r> (Brooks, 1971); Eas t St. Lou i s-: St. Louis, Sides of th e Rive r (RedmonJ, 1970); New York, Thre e IlundreJ ,.md Sixty Def'. r ees of Blackn e ss Coming at You (Sanchez, 1971) and ll 2irlem .: Vo.i ces from th e Soul of Bla ck Am e rica (Clarke , 1970); PhiL1delphia , Bl ac k Poets lfr it e On (Black Hist ory lluseum Committ ee ); Newark, Soul Session (1972); Detroit, Te n: Anthol ogy of De troit Poe ts (South and We st, 1968). In many regions s eve ral components have me rged to form cultural and performing arts _ conglomerates. It is often at these centers tha t white movie and theater moguls find new t a l e nt for the current wa ve of Black movies. At this writing, the cont empor.:iry poetry scene is embroil ed in vi gorous debates a n<l confer e nce s dealin f, with "directions" for Black writers, consolidatin g publi s hin g houses, �I and r,ettinz published materials into schools (especially into BJcick schools). Caught (sometimes unknowingly) in tl1e miJst of these issues Dnd questions +k-- o{- are the older Black poets --some .I\ whom have remained silent in face of rhetorical provocation. Others, however, have been quite vocal as in the case of Gwendolyn Brooks and Dudley Randall. ~[iss Brooks gives active support to th e youn ger writers by way of financial and moral encouru~ement. She sup e rvises writers workshops, estnblishes poetry prizes with her own money and travels to read before conferences and classes. Recently she withdrew her affiliation with Harper and Row and began publishing thr ough Broadside Press. Randall estnblished Broadside Press in Detroit in 1966 .and also has set up poetry awards with his own funds. Hayden, who often shuns public displays of his allegiances, admonishes tl1e young poets to keep high writing standard s . Ile is recognized as a brilliant teacher as well as po..:!t, and is knO\,n to work quietl y with young writers and scholars. llayden played a mu jor rol~ in gainin~ recognition for Lucille Clifton (Good Times, 1969; Good Uci,, s Al.lout the Earth, 1972; and An Ordinary lfoman, 1974), one of the most splendid -of the ~ew poets. Some new and ol~er names closely linked to the curtent period are Pinkie Cordon Lane (Hind Thou phts), Nichael lbrper (Dear John, Dear v Coltrane, Hi s tory is Your Own lleartb e.-i t,° etc.), \faring Cuney (Pu z,z les), Troupe (Embryo) , Sterlinp; Plump (Half BL1ck ·llu] f Blacker), Jayne Cortez (Pisstained Stairs ancl the Hankey Nan's \fares;' J<es tivals und Funer;:ils, etc.) , Dumas (Poetry For My People and Piay Ebonv Plav Ivory), Rivers (The Still Voice of Harlem, etc .), Uikki Giovanni (Black. Jud~ement, Black Feelin g , Black Thought, Re: Creation), Reed (Catechism of A neoamerican hoodoo church , etc.), / David Henderson (De Mayor of Ha,rlem, etc.), Arthur Pfister (Bullets, Beer ./\ ) ·' I Cans & Things), Ilaraka (Black Na i~ i c ~ ) , John Echol s (llome is l·J here th e v' Soul Is), Arna Bontemps (Personals), Hayden (Selected Poems , \fords in the . .. ; �v Ho ur nlnf Time), Lee (Think Black, Illack Pride, etc.), Sonia San c he z I ) (Home coming , etc.), Randall (Citi e s Durning and Mo r e t o Remembe r), Stanl ey Crouch (Ain ' t No Amb ul a nc es for No Ni r, r,a hs Toni ght), Hughes (Th e Pa nther c1 nd th e Las h, et c .), At k ins (lleretofor e ), Hay Hill e r (Into th e Cl ea r in ° ), Austin Bla ck · (Th c Torna do in Hy Hauth), Tolson (llarl em Galle ry), Youn g (The Song Turning Back Unto Itself), J ames A. Emanuel (P a nthe r Ma n), Ves ey (I vo ry Tusk s ), Ma ri Eva ns (I Arn A Bl ack Woma n), Julia Fie ld s (Poems), Stepha ny (}~ving Deep), Etherid ge Kni ght (Poems fr om Prison), Gwe ndo l yn Bro oks ., ) / (In th e lle cc a ,v Riot, v Family Picture s, etc . ), Roy Hill (49 Po ems, etc.), Ray I Durem (Take No Prisoners). Far fro m be ing exhaq st i ve , thi s list i s me r e ly representative of the gr ea t poetic output during the curr e nt period . Many of th e s e poets--Reed, Troup e , Young , Crouch, Dumas,-- ar e a lso pros e writ e rs or antholo g is $. Certainly th e list grows and changes con- stantly, esp e cially in view of th e continual unfoldin g of surprises . Suffice it to say that the contemporary mood of Black poetry is multi- leve led a nd complex. There are generaliti e s; one is that most of th e poets unres ~rv edly saturat e their work with obvious Black references and cultural mot i fs. is also an anti-intell e ctual flavor as many po e t s turn th e ir backs o or Western forms . acndemic This has brought a general disre gard· for th e e sot e ric, . lit~rary and sometimes secret whit e poetry . The r e allusi.9 n✓."mployed in much of ~ _current ,l,\.uL There a re e xceptions , of course--notably in 1 special r _ s~nbolism ' rsi I o f Muslim poets (Marvin X, Askia Toure, Baraka, Sonia Sanche z, and others). Tl1e se excep tions c an al s o be seen in works of poe ts who exp lor e Afr ica n Ancestor Cults , Vood oo , mys ti c i sm a nd Afric a n l a nguages . Evid e nc e &±' t1ti s ca n be seen I in t he poetry o f I s hmael Re ed,. As k ia Toure, He nr y Dumas , }:or ma n J o r da n, Sun Rq , K. Curt is Lyle , Bob Ka u fma n anJ oth e rs, Gene r ally , tliough, Blac k poe ts are \ a. ~ ~;i #A(. . :. �framing ~ i r allusions, images and symbols in the more concrete cultural motifs, as indicated in a line from Eur.;ene nedmond's "Tune for a Teenage Neice" where he vie~,s the neice as being "spiced as pot-liquor." TIIE POETS i\1W TIIEIR TOTEMS: A. 'Soon, On e J[o rnin ,~ : Threshhold of the New Black Po ~try Hy Blackness is the beauty of this lam.I. ---- Lance Jeffers Richard \fright called the Blacks "Arnerica ' s metaphor" and Lance Jeffers referred to "the beauty of this land." AnJ both of these definite stances were taken well in advance of "Black Pride" poetry of the sixties and seventie c;. Margaret Walker's discussion of her playmates in the Alabama "dust " (1937) is II \ // not self-deprecating; and Gwendolyn nrooks's portrait Satin Legs Smith (1945) is far from being unhappy . These are only four randomly scl e cLeJ poetic affidavits of Blacks viewing themselves "ppsitively" before th e o.<lvent of the New Black Poetry. We could, of course , bring up hundreds of examples from the ,poetry of Phyllis Wheatley ~hrough that of Langston Hughes. But the point , already made, is simply that one is seriously remiss in loo~inz at recent Black poetry without considering its history. • The poets who wrote and published between 1945 and 1965, for example; did not work in sealed chambers of turincled vision, Each group, eacl1 cluster of concern, evolved from what had l> een written or said before. Some of these poets were heavily influenced by white writers, teachers, and critics. lloweve r, the best of them applied their knowledge and tools to the service of tl1e Black literary tradition . Others were under the direct tutelage of Blacks (Paul Vesey studied with J . H. Johnson, Joyce Yeldell with Hayden) and became part �- I I of a continuing line of Rlack-d~ped thour,ltt and writing (Ves ey in turn taught Arthur Pfister) . Whatever their make-up, or their mission, the poets as a group shm, great facility with language , depth of insi ght ancl passionate concern for their collective and individual hurts: ~s Blacks and as humans. The work of the se poets, .:rnd that of their older pen-fellows, can be found in several antholo e ies: Poetry of the Negro (1949, 1970); tl1e bilingual lk zag hoe Zwart Ik Was (I Saw How Black I Was , 1958); Beyond th e Blues (1962); American Negro Poetry (1963); Burning Spear (1963); Sixes and Sevens (1963); Negro Verse (1964); New Negro Poets : USA (1964 , 1966); Po e ts of Today (1964); th e bilin r', ual Ik Be n De ~liem~e Neger (I Am the New Negro , 1965); and Kaleidoscope (1967). Bontemps ancl llughes edited Poetry of th~ Neg ro in 1949. Tlic first major collection since Cullen ' s Carolin g Dusk, it was revised by Bontemps in 1970 after llu r;:.e s ' s death . Interestingly, some of th e 1949 er~tries are deleted while the table of contents has been doctored to make' nc.w ent,ries (like Dudley Randall, Mari Evans and nay Durem) coincide with their age-line. Bonte_n1ps, a Renaissance also edited American poet who did not publish a volume until 1963 (Personals), Negro Poetry, a task which gave him the opportunity_to pick th e best from the past as well as the present. The.two bi-lingual anthol- · ogies ' were published in llolland and Eng l anJ and edited by Rosey Fool, with · the assistance of Paul Bremen. Dr. Pool (1905-1973), a Hollander, came across Cullen when she was preparin~ a pa per on American poetr y in 19 25 . covery led to a life-long interest in Bl a ck culture and poetry. This disDuring 1959/60 she tour ed th e United States on a Fulbright travel gr an t, spending several months visiting and lecturing at 27 Black colleges and universities. Dr. Pool's work in BL1ck poetry has drawn mixed reQctions fro 1,1 ca utious Black writers and critics. But her importance in helping to bring a tt en tion to Black poet s , ) �d e spit e cr i es of " e xploit a tion," is undeniable. Even mor e contro versial is Bremen, who ap pears to fa ncy l1imself a s a n Eng lish J e an-P a ul Sarte; he originated the Heri t a ge Seri e s--"devotecl e ntirely to the works of Afro-Ame ric a n authors"--with Ila yd e n ' s A Bn ll a d of T'.('mcmhr n n ce in 1963 . Since. th a t time Dr emen, who edited Six es nnd Sevens and You De tt er Beli e v e I t: lll a ck Verse in Eng lish (1973), has rele a sed ~ e than 20 volu mes f'.1-f.··S o f ,\fr o-Americnn poetry. randall ' s Broadside Press servi c es as the American distributor of the slim books which have included t h e aesthetical and historical rang e of Jaack poe try : Frank llorne (llaverstraw , 1963), Bontemps, Rivers (The Still Voice of Harlem , 1968; Th e 11right Poems, 1972), M.: iri Ev ans (\ih c re is all the Music .? , 1968 but withdrawn "at the author ' s requ e st"), Ru s s e l l At kin s (Heretofore , 1968), Lloyd Addison (The Aura & the Umb rn, 1970), Aud r e Larde (Cables to Ra g e , 1970) , Dudley Randall , (Love You, 1970), Ishma e l Reed, whom Bremen calls "the best Black poet writing today" (C a techi s m of cl n e oa me ri c an hoodoo church, 1970), James W. Thompson (First Fire: Po ems 1 9 57-19 60 ·, .1970), Dodson, Harold Cnrrin z ton (Drive Suite, 1972), Clarence Major (Privat e Line , 197li, the "first non-American c~rntributor" Mukhtarr Nustapha (Thorns a nd Thistl e s, 1971), Dur c m (T ake No Prisoners, 1971), and Hay den (Th e Ni ght-Blooming Cereus, 1972). Bremen notes that both Mari Evans and Raymond Pat.terson ordered · their b o oks withdrmm b e cause they " we r e s uspicious of the contract terms." In addition to suc h "suspicion, 11 fel.t ·a lso by other Blnck poets, there is great resentme nt of Breme n ' ~ fast- d raw critical evaluntions of th e p oetry--which are oft e n cau s tic, ridiculous, and narrow, and r e flect a l a c k o f ge n e rnl knowled ge of Blac k poe try . poets. Il e c a lls Durem, for example, one of~ His stateme nt about Ree.cl, cominp, as it did in 1970, d~ first "Bla ck" vi o lence to both th e auth o r and the critical at~osph e re in which Black poets grapple e veryda y . Ile says Du ma s wa s born in th e "incredibly n~1me cl tmm" o f Swee t \ �Home , Ar ka nsas. Nev e rthe le s s (a l a s!), one wonders whe r e these Dl acl~ poe t s ,r / may huve go tt e n publi s hed if such "hea lthy d i s..:;ases " as Breme n did no t exist. Nep; r o Verse , edite d uy ,\nse l111 Hol l o, has nu introdu c ti on o r f on,ard, but does in cl ude a dozen blu e s a nd Go spe l song-poems. edit ed by llu ~hL:.s . wi th a Fo n ,a rd by Gwendolyn. New Ne~ro Poet s \las I:> 1 Use of the word " ne1/ exe1,1p l if i e::; the kind of spirit Lha t wai i n ascen s ion a t the time . Hi s s Brooks, t e rse as a l ways , is also he r usu a l definitive se l f : At the pres ent time , poets who hap pen also to be Ne groes ar e twci. ce-tri ed. They have to writ e po e try, a nd th ey have to remember that they ar e Nep,roes. Often they wish th a t th ey could solv e the Ne gro question once an<l for all, and go on fro m s uc h s ucces s to the composition of tex tur ed son ne ts or btuy.:rnt vill a nell e s a bout the tran s cienc e of a raindrop, or ,1 · t he go ld- s tu f f of th e sun. They are likely to find signi- ficanc e s in those s ubjects not instantly obvious to th e ir fairer fellows. The raindrop may seem to them to represent . r a cia l t ears-- a nd tho s e might seem, indeed, other than transient . The golden sun mi ght r emind them tht they ar e burning . There i s an att rej ec·t: "po e ts de in this statement that the Gwendolyn Brooks of 1968 will · ho ha ppen a lso to b e Neg roes . 11 But she refl e ct s Cullen in th e 11 da rk t owe r" and his ruminatin!: .on t he "curious t h ing" o f the !3 l a ck po et. She als o pr esage s the twistin ~s a nd t urnings in J ay ne Co rtez' s 11 Fe s ti va ls & Fun e r a ls . 11 Yet, in introducing the " New Neg ro Po e ts, 11 she infor ms the r ea de r t ha t 11 here a r e s ome of the prevailing st a r s of an ea rl y to mo r row. 11 \!al ter Lowe nf e ls ' s clecisio.n to include 11 20 Ne gr oe s" in Poe t s of Tod ay wa s s pu rred in pa rt by his reco i nition (a l ong with Shapiro) that "most gene ral �antho l or, i e s of Ameri can poe try e xclud e l/egroes." An authorit y on \vhitman, L01-1en fc ls sha red an awa rd with E. E. Cununings i n the thirti es , an J has helped a numb e r of Bla ck po e ts ma ke it into print: Dumas, Troup e , Pa tterson, Redmond, Ca rrin g t on, Ma jor, Reed, Harper, Hayden, and many others. Lowenfel s ' was th e f ir s t new whit e - edit ed a ntholo gy to includ e such a subst a ntia l number of Bla cks. There \ve r e - 85 poets in a ll. One of th e mo st i mpo rt a nt of th ese an t ho l o~ies is Burnin g Spear which contains the Hork of th e Howa rd Po e ts: Wa lt e r DeLegall (1936Govan ( ), Je f fer s ( ) , Al Fra se r ), Percy Johnston (1930- LeRoy Stone (1936- ( ), Os wa ld ), Nathan Ri c hards ( ) , and Joseph White. ), Hurnin r, Sp ea r, subtitl e An Antho lo 0y of Afro-Saxo n Poe t.ry, was a n out growth of t h e ll.:is ' i n Lit e ra r y So ciety, locat ed at ll owaru University , which a l s o pub l ished Da sein: Qua rterly J ourna l of tl1 e Arts (1961-1969). as publisher while DeLegall was editor . A Johnston, its founder, served Their connection with tli e older group of poets and scholars is evident in the advisory board list: _ Sterling A. Brown, Arthur P. Davi s , Owen Dodson and Eu!_jene C. Holmes. Jeff e rs, Stone and Wl1itc served as contributing editors . Fr.:is c r , Gov.:i n, Po e ts in the ina ugur a l i ss ue of Dasein, which doubled as a memorial to Richa rd \fr i ght, were De l o r es Kendrick, Cl~d e R. Taylor, _Jeffers, William J a c ks on , Ve r non A. Butl ~r , nobcr t Sl a ught er, Laura A. lk1 t kins, Govan, Fra se r, De l ores F. llenr:y, R. Orland o Ja ckson, DcLcga ll, J ohn stcin a nd Stone . The r e i s no s in r, le uni,fyin r, thr ead runnin g th r ou e, h either Dase• in o r Rurnln i'. Sp ear but Black influence s and subjects are cl earl y i mbcd cJ. Burning• Spe a r , fo r examp l e , is published by Ju pit e r Hammon Pr e ss, ,moth e r c onnection-in name--t o th e tradi.tion o f Black po e try. In a back-cov e r not e , th e e i ght contribut ors arc c a lled "a new bree d of youn g poets who ar e to AJnc ri can poetry wha t Cha rli e Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Theloniou s Monk a nd Hil e s Davis ----------- ------ - --- I �are to American jazz." After this important analogy, the statement continues: These eip;ht Afro-Saxon poets are not members of a literary movement in the traditional sense of the w0rd, because they do not have in c01runon any monist view about creativity or aesthetics.. Collectively, however, they are indifferent to most critics a!lJ r12vidkrs--since criticism in A1:1erica is controlled anJ written in the main by I:uro-Americans. There is no preface or introduction or statement about poetics; these poems th~nselves fill the pages. Poellls by DeLegull, Jeffers, Johnston and Stone also appe::i.r Ln Beyond the Blues and in nu)nerous "little" magazines. But all of the poets participateJ in reading-lecture prosrams leading up to the wider interests in poetry in the later sixties and seventies. DeLegall (Philadelphia) a mathematician and electronic data processing specialist, published in many antl10J ogies and . quarterlies, and had read his poetry and lectured at various eustern i1nd southern colleges. Fraser (Charleston) is a political scientist with a specialization in African Affairs. Alon8 witl1 DeLegall, Stone, Go~an, Johnston and Richards, he has been recorded reading his poetry at the Library of Congress. Fraser cultivated a coffee~shop audience for his readings and appedred before college groups. He ' is a philosopher-mathematician. One of tl1e older members of the troup , Jeffers (San Francisco) is credited with having "influence" on the Howard Poets. He has tnught English and writing at half a dozen American colleges and universities . Ills first volume of poetry was}~ Blackness is the Beauty of This Land (1970) and second, When I Know the Power of !-ly Black lland, \·Jill be out in 1975 . Broadside Press. Both are published by Jeffers l1as also written novels, short stories and criticism. / �Johnston (New York) currently ieaches at a college in New Jersey and with Stone ''co-authored the revolutionary verse pamphlet Continental Streamlets ( Also a playwright, Jolmst , n published a pamphlet of his poetry, Concerto for Girl and Convertible in 1960 and was considered the leader of the Iloward Poets. White is a native Phila<lelphian whose work appeared in Liberator, Poets of Tot.lay, and other places. He is a technician for FAA and has uritten short stories as well as successful prose-poems. As a group, the Howard Poets represent one of the toughest intellectual strains in contemporary Black poetry. Maybe the fact of their having such diverse interests, backgrounds, and training aided in their vitality, virtuosity and powe_r . To be sure , these are "conscious' ' poets; but--avoi<ling slogans and sentimental hero-worship--they present precise analyses and interpretations of their world. Most of them grew up in tl1e Be Bop era and so their subjects quite naturally include Hiles Davis , Lester Young , Charles "Yardbird" Parker, Clifford ·Brown, Sonny Rollins , Thelonious Honk , and other makers and· contributors to that period . And a preoccupation with Civil Rights and the Dlack stn,iggle is merged with their awareness of the " bomb," middle clas.s pretensions , history, mythology, religion, and the various trends in poetry: Be.:it poetry, jazz poetry • nd folk lyrics. modernity, DeLesall cel~brates the Blaclt · presence ("lly Brownskin Business") · and satirizes a pretentious lloward coed ("Requiem for A Iloward Lady") who is .i'cultured" and performs every social amenity perfectly. She wectrs "Jiir, h-heeled tennis shoes'; but he hopes, near the poem's end, that the president of The Universal Institute of Eu~enics will send a NeH species of female who will be robed in clothes of "sincerity" and who can be called "A Woman . " - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - ). �In "Ps.:ilm for Sonn)'.,Rollins" he announced that he is AbsorbeJ into the womb of the sound . I am i n the sound The sound is in me. I ·am t he sound . Ro llins, the Hnrlo.31,1 pied plpo.3r , will lead li i. s listeners to "truth," "Zen , " "Poetry," and "Cod . 11 1/- .\fter "The BL.1st" (nuclear bombing ) there wlll be . . . no I , no 1Jorld , no you. Govan also writes convincinr;ly as in 11 Tl1e Lynchin~" : He was soaked in oll and Lhe nwtch thro1m. Ile scrernncd, lie crlecl , he moaned, he crackled ln his fiery inhuman dcrnce . Govan ' s interests span the turbulence in "llun~ary , " spnce exploration (-"The Ang .r y Skies Arc Calling"), and "Prayer " wherein he asks "Chr ls_t" for a new dawn's light ! Jeffers ls a living example of the 1,1 0re helpless pl igh t o f many a Black writer . Although he ha<l been writi1g for several dcca<les , his wor.k was white-listed by anthologists and his poetry did not appear in book form until the seventies. "My Blackness is the Deauty of tlu.s Lan<l" st.:in<ls as a rebuff to those who say " Bl ack" poetry was "invented " recently . Jeffers ' s poem, written in the fif t ies , is at once defiant and proud: Hy blackness is the beauty of this land , my hL1ckILess , tender and strong, wounded and wlse, The narrator , after tlw fashion of t-largar ,· L \folk.er, chronicles the hu r t s , the happinesses , and the hungers of !,lacks . These he st.:inds against his �"whiten es s" and th e perversions of laq• r America. mines tl1e same vein: past . " nlack Soul o f the Land" rich reliance on Lh c. u ell-c.l e cp s tr e n g th o f the Black The "olc.l black man" in r.eoq;ia i s "leathereJ, lean, anJ strong . " And thc.se arc s e crets that "crackers c o1 1lc.l n o t kill" : a secret s pine unbent within a spine, a secret source of steel, a secret sturdy rugged lov e , a secret crouchin3 hate, a ;ecret knife uithin hi s lwnJ, a .c.cret bullet in hi s eye . The poet ·asks L 1e olll man to pass on his sou i :e of strength so that he, ;incl h is fellows , will bt: anc.l kne1 hle ro " t urn black" Lhe soul of the nation ~a shall cease to be its name . Jeffers f athers up a fury of love, an:-;uish and commitment in other of his poems : "lier !Hack nnd African Face I Love , " "The M:111 with A Furna ce _in His Hanc.l," "U0g ro Freedo111 Rider , 11 " Her D~irk Body l Clus t er , 11 11 Black Nan in A New Day," und "Prophecy. " Johnston echoes Jeffe.rs , t hou r, h in a different voice and style, in many of his po e ms . But Johnston ' s concern is wit ! Black music anc.l mµsicians . "To Paul 1~obe s,in, Opus l\ o. 3" cele!J r.:.1 tes the 11Ulti-f.:1ceted talents of the· mnn whos, son i "stood Brooklyn on iLs f eet." nw ;~nifi c e n t ti ibute to the President of jazz : tinues t:o "i; lite the h e trt." wonders \lhy L Prez" is a Lester Young whose music con- In "Fitchett's Basement !Hues, Opus 13" Johnston •e rytime I want Coltrane or· Sonny nll ! "In Mc1,1 0riarn : r,ct is l~rul>eck, . • • �"De11e y Square," with its "Beat" repertoi. rLi a n d interests in contemporary everyman , is a poetic summary of the c o llective history of Johnston's genera t ion. \fords for "unkinking 1,ai r , " recol] ec tions o [ r a dio shows , reminders cf Relief and HPA , and IJ uk e Ellington, n ll leave Johnslon with the knm-,1l cJgc tk1t notld~ Has chan, ;c:d l>• :: my p( s tal z , :1e . In other pieces he surveys the cur i" l.!nt an ! past Blac k musi cal scene: '"Round ' Dout Midnight , Opus 17 ," "Varia t i on on ,; Theme l>y Johnston,'' and " To Bobb y Timmons ." "Bl ack is Hy Re\vard " Ril hard :-, s ays, notin g that Sorrow came, and I l t f t the world ... And e : perimen talist, hi , "Do and a n "inLerlud e . 11 lot rorget to Remember" · includes a t1pr e Jude 11 - Li zc the oth e r poets , he writes primarily in free verse ( almost no rhyme) and i I the fore p oin 0 poem h e repeats "A petal falls . 11 _The J lloward Poets all touch ;;rief and ,mr,uish , as does Richards in "Cod IHess This Child and Other Cl il<lren ... r e qu.i l!m. 11 In syntax and voc.::ibulary, 2:,S f_avv ~ II 1,1-tit c. / 4, bears resemblence esp c · ially t o t ! e beats and to Bou Ka ufma n and Russell Atkins. Words anJ phr.ises li l. e t1 r1at ronymic diva ," "s epiacenic mA.rtyr,t1 t1 albumcnic hawk, t1 "womb - priz e , ti a nd "b lack ae : is " convey. the mystical and eerie· sense impl:iecl i n the r e petition · of t1sl( ·p " and the innovative t ypo 0 graphy of the poem. 11 Miles Davi s ' s c ,1 n11ons, l /1 lso e x ., rim e ntal · and u i.ginal is Stone . Fl :.1111e nco Siu c ·10 s" i :, sep a r a t e d into five parts: 1a rt an I bi 11. Ne ouvcrt, selim, York .is "r(' Ll in we eping" and Chicago is "13lack- drapcd" a :; Hiles 11tL e rs .in " 11tes. 11 Dis :.;u nnnL nosL llis study of The music captun:s the , i ~1 o f on e k .i s s of a Sp a 11i. s h lacly .:is it He, ; in and Lu t o f Lr.:i nscontin~nt a l experienc e s .:ind loca l ions . ,I k no1vl e, :, ~ of ,,o rlcl 1,1usir is r c verell. Dnvis ' s u s" Finally , ' · .· �t hL.: 1t1usic is askec.l t o Com.incnt 0 11 a cl o u c.l of o rient a l n i n t h:-; comment ! In " No t es fro•ri t he Cu bicle o[ A di sg r u ntl e d J nzzman " S ton e b e c o me s a v e rl,a J maestro ri.p p in['., i n " chanf:L!.; ; " r attl ine, up " thirte en t hs , " stor111in2; the " mino r mode , 11 a nc.l \, hippin ~ up " p as s ing ton '"s "--all " with i 111punit y ." Wltite ' :; ".Bl ac k i s A So11l 11 r e p0-1 t s ''tl01m 11 ..1 s t l1 e: p~ r so n i.l c.lrop s int o " depth s ," "th e aby ss ," a nd th e " inf in ite " \ /h e r e bl ack- eye d pe n s [ g r e en ::; .:i re s tor e <l ... . This p o i :, nau t rev c l.'.l ti on i.s i:1a de i n Lh c e nd : I r a i s e my d 01m bent L i nky h e;i c.l t o clwrl i c. & sh o i _ I ' m b ln c k . 1 ' m b lack _ 1~· & I ' m fro m L lz back. He t hink i rnme Ji a t e l y of t i L 1 c s li ke Thin k Blad~ (Lee) a nd " S.:iy It Lo ud-- . I ' m n ta c k a nd I ' m Proud " (J:J 1 1e s l3r mm) e v e n th o u c h t hi s po e m preced ed th e m by sever a l yea rs--to sa y no t l,ing o( Jo s' ph Co tt e r , Jr. ' s " Is it Because 1 1 111 Bla ck. 11 Bu t \lhit e c a n ;1 " Day is Done " Hhich pl ac ls o 1' 0 lig ht and touchin ~ th in gs i:1s in " Picnic " and !S " r us ic in th e a lr " a s he p r e pa r e s for be d and h is '\ wm;i n" se t s h e r lw i · . I. i s i ro ni c ; -sa tiri c .1 1 " Inquisi t ive " d isp l ays the r an~<.! 01 t he s e po et c, . Th e n arca Lor wa nd e r s 11he r e " God s " .:i nd " bud d h a s " hid e i f th e 1:a rth and sk , ar e both visihl l' t o ma n. - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - �LiLtl e critical attention has b c~1, i ven the Howard Poet s or an y of the other poets who are appearing iluri.n '~ this time. includin g old as well a s unfamiliar names: Johnson Ackerson, Charles ), Cu g enc Redmond (1937- Anderson (1.93 B- John Henrik Clarke (191 ) , Le slie c_ But they are le g ion, ), Julian Bond (1940- ·r . Collins (19] 11- ) ' ), Knth e rin e ) , Mnq• .:iret Danner, Gloria Dnvis, Dulh is, Durem, Mari Evans , Micki Crnnt, Julia Fields (1938Joans (1928- ), Naomi Had ;·,~tt . Jmn,• s C. Hor r is, O'lli ~g ins, Patter s on, James Randall (1938- ), Pe ter T . Ro~ ers, Jolm Sherma.1 Scott, Carmell Simmons, J a1,1es W. Thompson (1935- ), Vesey, Sarah Wright (1929- ) , Ro bert Ear l. Fitz g er a ld (1935- Joyce Yeldell (1 944- ) , Lula Low e \Je edcn (191 0- il ern t:u n ( L'J .12 Carl llolr.w n (1919 Lerorie I!e1 1ne tt, Jr. Fuller (1 ~:.'. 7- ), Co rdon lle 1th, Horne, Ted ), Alfr e d Duc k ~ _t (192 8- Zack CilL1 r t (1925- ), (1919- 111 rbcr t CL1rt Johnso 1 (1911- ), frank Yer by (191. b- ) , Ernest .J. 1-li. l s on, Jr. J a mes P. Vau g hn (1929 - (1 930- (] 94 2- ) ), lloy t n2- . ) , ), Bette Darcie ), Rivers, McM. Wrt Bht, ), nnia Alba (1915-:1968), F r.i.lnk Lond1H1 ) , CaLherine C:1r ter (1917- (1 92 0- ), Mary Cilrter Smith (1 924- ) ', Rober t J. Abrams (1924- ), William t ro w c (1930- I s hmael Re cd (193 8- ) ) , Roy llill, Sam Cornish (193 8- Brow!I' (19 l 7-J 'J 62), l:;,u e l li.l !li1r L .1 llro,m (1917- ), Jam e s Ema nuel (l 'J21- ) , , 't;slc Davis (l ) , Oliver La Crone (1915Pauli Murray 1910- ' ), C;1 lvin ) , Sarah l~el>ster F, b.io (192 J - - ) ) , Clu r ia C. O<l e n, Ho se . (1 910- ), Carl Gardener (l 'JJl- · ) , !Jun Jolt11 .on (] 1 ) /12 - ), Roscoe Lee Brown e ) , Oliv e r Pit c her (1923- ) , ,\d. 1m Da vid Miller (1922- ) ' ), Dav.id Henderson ), Thur mond SnyJcr, A.ll. Spellman (1935- Mance \/illiw i1., , Torn 1Je11L, Lc;J: u i .Jo11ei, (]9]4- ), ), Vi.vi.an Ayers, llel c n ) ' �l-1or;;:1n n rnoks, Solomon Edwards (1932Polite (1932- ) , Vihia lloll< rd, George Love, Allen ), Lloyd Addison (1 9J l- ), Durwood Collins (1937- Bobb Hamilt o n, ~lay Hiller, Stanle :i .';ur r is, Jr. This non-exhaustive list \,J.1S (1944 ) , ),. oft e n intermingled with earl y pllC ts (as far back a s Phyllis Hh ca t:l·e y) and olJ cr ones (Johnson, McKay , Dunbar, etc.), and spiced with a g ood o ff ~ring of pos t-Renaissance poets (Walker , Drooks, Tolson, llayden). Hames like Fulh · , DenneLL, Jr . , Holman, Yerby , Davis, and Clarke , fall in the category of " , c c :s ional " poets--most of whom undertook full-time duties as novelists , editors , ] . .~ers or teachers . Other important movements paralles to this phase were the emergence of literur y. rna g a~ines ( Free Lance, Phylon , Ee t •) , especL1l ly on Black colle~e campuses; Black newspapers I renewed int l'r est in ve sc establishment ·of poets-in residences for thL~ poets at southe i n Black c , Ue g es; the flowering of regional "movements" or writing collectives--.3uch as L o sc in New York's Greenwich Village (Yu µ, en , ? I Umbra , etc . ), Clevr •lands s Kara mu House 1 an I are, (Free Lance with Casp·er Leroy J ordan, and Atkin s ), IJowarJ ' s ~ n Croup, the Detroit poets , and Geor [j ia Dougiass Johnson I s home-chased workshops at her home in Washington, .D. C . Not all of thes e developme nt s ~ccurre<l only among Black poets, however, titer~ also were r , c ially mixc, writing communes and eJitorial .staffs • for exampl e, was in r e s ' ence at the ·llre ::1 d Loa[ llriters Conferen c e in Engl. a nd and studi ed [or a while ~n Scotla1 J. .Julia Fields ·, ·Redmond, who won writing awards and published in little magn : ines bet 1c; cn 1960 :rncl 1965, worked with the staffs of the Three Penny Broad lde (SOL thern Illinois University) and Fr e e Lance (Washin g ton Univer s ity). Other Antholo!~ ist), Pattt:rson, Jones ~ts and their outlets were Dumas (Trace, (.!:l'. .1 tim1 Dear,Yimsen), Gloria C. Oden (Urbanit e , Tbe Pol t ry Digest, The 11. lf Hoon), .avers (Kenyon Review, Antioch Review , �Ohio PuL•Lry nevie1✓), Spell man (Kul ·J1U r, l·Ietronon1e, Umbr;i), Ho.ne e \-lilliarns ( Blue a nd Gold), and Audn~ Lord e :c 1ture) . Marguret Dan.wr published ..1 in 195 2 .nd in 1956 b ecame an assistant series of poems in Po e try ~1gazi1 editor. Of th C'S( ' par,.1llc.>l movements an d c.lev ' loprnents , one oLher deserved specia] not i ce. Though not on p, r with th(: lloward Poets, the Umbra Work shop parti- cipanls aided in the productioi sixties . and distribution of Black poetry in the e a rly Ce11 t c red in New York ' s Gree nwich Villa ge , t he Umbra poets were founded by Tom Dent t'New Orlean s ) , Calvin Hernton (Chattanoo ga) and David Hend erson (New York) Th e wor ksh op , whfrh also involved artists and ficLiun wri t ers, pub] i:.; he<l th L fj rst i : sue o f it ; Umbra quarterly in 196] . Ot her issues came out in 19611, 1967- iS (an etnt lwlogy) , 1970-71 (tabloid .'.lntholo~y) and 197 L1-75 (Latin Sou who now e c.lit r, the pub issue). Dent f'irn t served as editor nnd llenderson , cn tion f ro m Lc: rL , ley, took over i n 1907. OLl1ers Isl1.we l need, Rolland Sn elUn:,s (nO\•! attracLL·tl to Llie Urnl i~1 .or kshop wer ' , Uorm.:.111 Pritcl1ard , sin . -.: r 1.l! n Chanc.ller , dancer Asetman Byron-, Aski;.1 Tu1 , re) the Pet tl < 1·s on brothers (Charles and \/ ill i.am), painters Gerald Jetckso n etnd I Joe Ovc r :;t rcet, Lenn ox l~ap hael , Du111. s , J:1111cs Thomps n, Julian Bon<l , ·sun-R:._1 , Durem, S e v e Cannon, anc.l .Jr-e Johns o damag·cd ,y two ev ents . t. The promise of the Umbra g-ro up was One was a f..jl u re to µ ri ng a interview · (co nd u c t ed by R:1phaeJ ,lild others) with J~alph El l b.on . · The sc con <l, re s ultin13 in a sl'l·io us spl it a1,on1: m<.:mb er s , was :t co nt rover 1;ia l anti- '. c nnedy po em by Dure111. P r es i<l e1lt K,2 nncc.l y had just be en as: ,.tss in atc<l when the ). rcr,1 piec e was approved by the edi tor s . Las te. 11 kidna1 Hernton, Dent ind Hend e rson decide ,! t !1e: poem (letter) was in bad Ot h er :, , etccorclin . to llenderson , wanLec.l the poern printcc.l and subHeq uently l C<l Pri r ha rd, wl <> was t n •asurer , threatening ltim \Jith bodily h arm ," ~ - - - -- -- -- - -- - - - - - r/ \I l �Th e in c i dent is vie\1c d a s one of tile n c a r -- fa uil 1.Jl o1vs to th e Umh ra f rour. Later Sncllinr, s, the l'attersons, unJ ot l t·s 1w11t Uptown to 11ork with ke Jones' s nc11ly formed Black Arts ltepertor : u n<l Sch o ol. The \/orl ~ of Uml~ c ontributors ran ~,· from thl' occa s ional J.l\ d l1umorous verse of Juli n i.1 13ond Lo · th e serious cor.11 , ntaries Henderson, Hernton, Dent, and Thompson, alon ~ 1,ith work of oth r "Village" poeL (Newark), and Joans (Cairo, IJ 1inois). ,f Durem. Poems by Du rem, 1lso app e .irs in the early :mthologie s such as G.C. Oden, Spellman, Jones Some are also represented in two later anthol og ies: !~lack Though racia l cons c iusness is not b 1 n tantly evid e nt in the s e poets, th e protest ts t Le re, l Fj c ciall re (1968) ,lll d The Poetry o f Black America (1973). th e wor k s by Durem, llenJerson, and Hernton. Umbra r,w<le clear i ts t wofol d aim in an inaup,ural issue: Umbra e xists to p rovi<l 1.2 a vehicle for those outspoken and youthful writer ! who pr e s e nt aspects of social and racial realit y which m, y be called ' uncommercial' but cannot witli any honesty be ,· onsidered n on-essential to a whole and healthy socL e ty We will not print trash, no matter how relevantly it d ea ls with r tee, social issues, or anything els e . Dent viev1:., "Love" a s a "blue t um" lurking "icily" in the darkness. Henderson sees a "Downtown-no , Uptown" and a s k s : Am I i1 llis 11 Sketches th e wrong s lum.? of Ila 1 lcm" in'c lude the "GREAT WHITE HAY" .:incl a small Illack boy c o nfusing the m,J on a 1 \ the sun. 14, wa s horn j_n Seattle. Durem, who ran ,may from home at age lfuile still in his mid-teens he joined the Navy and b e came a member of t 11C International . Brigades clurin r, the Sµanish Civil Har. Hu ghes tried to fi1 I a publi . 1H~r for his hims c, l f Ourem saiJ: "1-n1 c•11 I was t , \✓ Orks ar, early as 19511. ye ars olJ I u s ed my fists. Of When I was �thirt y-five , I u sed the pen. I hope to liv e t o use th e rnncltine gun .... The white North-American has been drunk for four hundrC'd years." His work does not have th e finish of a Hayden , r Drook.s , but he provides an exciting shot in the arm for this period of Black poetry (thou nh Bremen's reference to him as th e ·11 first bla ck poet" is unwnrranted). (1971) contains many of Dl• Take No Prisone rs ·cm ' s me1.1orabl1• poems and a "Posthumous preface," . sir,ned in 1962 althou z h he died in 1963. "Hhite People got Trouble, Too" surveys the plight of whites following t 1c Depression, recession and war, and notes t], t such an intrusion i.n the dI"fai rs of whites does not equal slavery . A te r all, life (or history) calls for One tooth for one to Most of Dur rm 's poems ,re short, h. atirical, ironical and musical as in "Broadmindc~ d" : Some of 1y best friends are white boys . \lhen I i.eet 'em I treat 'em just tlt same as if they was people. lie writ es of Illuck h s tory , slavery, social inequities, prison life ·, and ·••pale poets " to 1!1om 11e co . r esi; ·s 1lis i ,· no t critica l sta nd ards . S tra1 0 ely, T. , "A Gold \foLch to tho FH I l· ,m .L! 11 · · 1 y o 11s.cure " to -lilce t vJ 111.te ·· su r E1.c1.ent :lo Priso n e rs does not include "Award"·- - ,, (who .1as followed me) for 25 years--w!tich traces the agent's surveiJJ rnce or• the narrator t:hrough the "blind alleys" o[ Hexico, the hi f~ h Sierras, t lr violen ce and mayhem. ~ Philharmonic , L . A., Mississippi, anJ other places of nut it is not ...ill over, th e ;:q~ent is told, for in the end I may be fo 1 LmJing y1,u ! �Tiw work o[ Village poets \·JaS hir~h.Li~hted by the versc1t .Lle .ind prolific Jones (l.:1ter Immnu Amiri Baraka) , Spcl.lm:rn, anJ Teu Joans . Before his new " Black " stance of the mid and late sixties, Jones published in little avant garde ma;;:.iz i nes (editing several hi1.iself) and was iuentif ied as the 1:1ost talentcu l.\lr1ct . a1,1onr, the Deats . Suicide Note (19ol) anJ · T]1i.; liis two volumes , Preface to a THenty Volume D~ad Lecturer (1964) , show him as a hip , ar r ogant, mu sically-involved cat \ti t h a toup,h in t elligence . llis influences at the time, as h e noted , were Lorca , l.Jill i am C..irlus Wil l iams , l'ound, and Charles Olson . He is an auventurer in style with ,in el l iptical and sometimes sacrilig i ous pos tu re . poets : Such an aesthetical phi1 ;ophy was shared by - the lllack !!ountc1iri George Oppen , Robert Cree l , Uobert Duncan , Denise Levertov , Paul Blackburn , fal\1:1rd Dorn , Ginzbcrr,, Corso , G.:1ry Snyder and t\ichael i'lcClure . · A music critic for such magazines as D01mbeat , Jazz anu Metronome, with an interisc interest in Black music, Jones nurtured a careful ear for music in his ver~;e . fe nsible . Hence , the belief that Jones "sudden l y became Black" is · i nJe.,.. In "Lines to Carcia Lorca " --the g r ea t Spanish poet-- he uses a sect:{.on of a " Negro Sp i ritual " as an inscription . The poem is typical of Jones I s ability to 111erge nume r ous ideas , symbols and images in one poem. Lorca • ~ Jeatl 1 is lamen t ed as J ones u ses ~xcerp ts fr om t he Ca t ho l ic mass , r ef l <dcts on his childhood , explo res . mythology , gathers bits of poetic confctti frori1 nature and hears Lorca " lnu.r,hin~ , laughing"--maybe mocking his killers-Like a Spanish ~uitar . In "Epi s trophe" he finds peering out the window "such a static- reference . " So he wj i,hes "some weird lookinµ animal " woudl come by . In the ti.tle poeu1 from hi ., firsL volume--Preface--he ai.ljusts to the wa 21 " r,round opens up" �anJ takes him in whenever he g·oes out to "walk the Jo~ ." Life is as monotonous as the "static reference" of \1inc.l t)\v watching : Nobody si.ngs anymore. Joans, another Villa~e poet closely identified with the 13eats, published Beat, All of Ted Joans (19G1), and The llipsters (1 961 ). poem fror:1 this peci.ocl i s "The . 38 " with its ledgcd), Whitman and the Beats . His most widely known ebts to Hughes (whom he acknO\v- llc:!g innin 6 every line with the phrase "I hear , " Joans nar r:i tes the murder of an 11 11 faithful wife and lover by her husband: I h ear i t comin;-~ f:isLer tlrnn sound the . 38 I hear it cumin :~ cl nser LO my sweaty forehead the . JB I hear its \ c.!itc.l whistle the . 38 I hear it ~lve off a stc;1mlike noise \.'.hc~n it cuts throu r;h my swea t the . 38 I hear it P lnge my skin :is it enters my head t he . 38 I hear cleat 1 saying , l.'_· llo, I ' m here ! As a group, Joans , Jone~: and Spe 1 l man can be ..: .1refully compared to the llow:inl Poets. They are in the s.:ime age ranze and the:lr themes and interests are ~ < similar. y tJ) o-r.lu.J. Spellman, like Jones stuc.l-Led at Howard University and lrns a~cd as (f'vV disc jo ,·key ~ Fl r.:1dio stati o ns. have ap ·, c.!ared in .!S_ iJ chur, The l His hook reviews articles on jazz which_ e pubi i c ;rnd The Nation . I n ] 96(1 his fi r st volume of poems, T 11e Beautiful lays, was published . a book-lenr:th stu t y of Black ;ic (Four L tves in the Be Bop euslness , 1966) l !H lie has also published In " Zapata & the l.nndlord 11 tlw "Lllief," th ,· spe:iker, is running in "circles:•·• The poem js a country. ln humorous Lreatm e1 ': of revo]u i on.:.iry stru;:gle in u Latin American 11 \/l1aL j i; IV Spel inn applies a similar Lechnique . This time a cat "Ii .id es in your f .:t CL! , " in _J ,e corners of the mouth and in " tl1.:.it :.;tr.:.inge canyoll" uellind the eye :, . 11 /\ T: • [L of \!islics" is expccimental Ln its use �of ja:3;,, e J lines nnd shifts between the tan~ible and surreal 110rlds . In Lhe end we are tolJ that home is where 11e make our noise. Another po e t who j o li'ts this "irrevent ' 1 generation is the BL!at inno v,tt:or Bob Kaufman of the San Francisco nay area. sid L!;~ f rom ferlinr,het:ti ' s City Li 2, hts nooks: Hi s first 1.;orks came out as broaJ"The abominist Vianifcsto, " "Second April " ancl " Docs the Secret Hind Whisper . " Knufman ' s poetry , con- veyinE'., protest throur,:h understat .:;m ent a 11d iron y , is marked by unusual and surreal i 1;1ag c:;. His books arc So] itu ,vs Cro\!(l e J 1v i.th Lm1 0 .l i1w:,s (1965) and Golden SnrJine ( 1967). Solitudes \·!il S publislll'J in Fr e nch, "i.111111eJL1t e l y " achicvinr, " a notoriety rare amonr, hooks of poetry hy fo r eign pot·t s . " Sardine) . (j 1 ck c t, Leading French magazines r e viewed tl1e book, publishers noteJ, aJ<ling that "Today in Frar:e Kaufman is considered amon13 the greatest · Negro-Americo.n poets alive in spite of his continuing exclusion from.American anthologi t•,,, both hip & a cademic." l:aufotan ' s themes are racial memory . ("African Ur e am") , jazz ("Walking Parker Home, " " West Coast Sounds--1956 . ") other poets and writers ("Hart . .. Crane, " "Ginsberg , " "Camus: I wa·nt to· Knm./'), incarceration (a series of 34 in .J.:lil Poems), history, rnytholo~y- an<l religion. In "The Eye :.; too" he says Hy eyes too h~vc souls tha t r ag e .. .. A "Cincophrenicpoet" meets \vith "a.l 1 five" of himself where a vote is taken to "expel" the "weakest" o ne who resents it and soars over all limits to cross, spiral, and whirl . Some\1lwt typical of Ko.ufman ' s elliptical constructions and wacky imaGery is / "Beavy \later lllues": _______________________- -- .__ - �The r.:idio ls te .:i chin g r,1y g oldfi s h Jujitsu I am in love with a sk inJlver \Jh o sJ C'e ps undenn.1ter, l ly nei g hbors are drunl:en linguists, & I speak butt 0 rfly, Consol i d:ited Edison is ti n e atening to cut off my brain, The postman keeps puttlnF s ex in my mailbox, I put my eyes on a diet, tears are gaining 1 too 111uch wei .1t. In this [orm nnd sl ·le, Kau , cm is not nly rel n t c> J to the Jl e :1t s but to Jones, Joans, Spellman, At dns, and the {!J'V: ec young Los An g eles poet I~. Curtis Lyl e . Among the old , · poets wh 1 did not ..: ome into prominence until the 196Os were Ve sey (Columbus, Ohio), llolman (I-linter City, Mississippi), Mc!!. \fri ght (Princeton, new Jersey), O'Hi g gins (Chicngo), Duckett (Brooklyn), Atkins (CleveJ.:ind), Emanuel (Nebrask.J.), l{and a ll (Washin g ton, D.C.). The s e po e ts, . and others of their generation, are no 1 similar enough to be labeled a "school" or ' 1movement" but they came of .:ige dud ng the integration push when words Black "identj ty" m l "humanity" e n gendered more philosophical discussion . tlrnn they do toda , . Th es e nre the men who went to Worl<l War·II, oppo_s ed lynching; attende <l nor .l1ern white g rndu.:ite sch ~ols. academic or [>rofessional careers. Most were occasional poets pursuin ~ Ve s ey ns a poet and professional, bridges middle passa : e bet ween African and Afro-America. At Fisk Univ e rsity he studied creal ive writin g under James lfol<lon Johnson, then went on to law scho ol at Ilarvnrd. I Thi le studying at the Sarbonne in Paris some of his poems were publi f· hed, through the inLercession of Richard \ 'ri ght, in the Fr e nch ma gazine . Pr~ser. ce Africaine. Vesey has h , lpetl :;reatly i 11 the interpretntion and �and di ssemination of Ne c ritude. Paul Vesey (birth n a me Samuel All e n) is the name un cl 0 r which h e published hi s bilin ~ual volume of poems: Zahne (Ivor__: Tusks, 195G, Germany). "The Stairc , :l.! 11 is a poe1,1 on whic h Elfenbein Ves e y wor k s with s k i ll an d precision. Ve s ey s ays, "I 1-lOul<l rest my c a se, I think, nn<l l ha t_ o f t;lw :re ~c o in t l i.s l a nd ." (Blues) th e poem studies th e Black pr e di cnment t hrnu.: h Ll1e pl i h t of n man for whom the "st .:i irs mount to hi s eternity." Perh a ps since the rotten floor, remain. Th e 1;1~111 like : isyphus, the :, tnir is , purpos e fully "unending " the "<lrip 1 i. ng fau c et" :111<l th e " c racked ceiling " also is .ioi.n e d by a" 1vin" who lnt r·r goe s " e x.:ilte<l to his worms." Vesey al s o wri : e s an e l eg y for Dyl:rn Thomas (" .l ylan, l-Jh o i:3 Dea J"), i1 pr a i se for Black bas e h..111 1 eg en<l Satchel P<1i g e ("Ame r i. c<1n r.othic"), :mJ a p0\·1c rful piece intcn,ea vin g two differ e nt d eas and tl1e.,1es: one viewin g Lli e univ e rs e anti tl1e mort a lity of man; the oth e r knowing the reality of being Black and called "nigg er" by t\JO adolsecent 1: irls. tribute to Louis An1 s trong . "To Sa tch" is reminisc e nt of To lson' s Speaking in the po l!ln , Sntchel Pni g e s<1ys o ne / morning he is g oinr, to brab a "hand f ulla stnrs, ' throw three strikes to b urn <lown the " he nvens," And look ov er at God <1n<l say li ow about th a t! llolma n's \vork is amo n ;; the f e w entri e s for poetry in Soon, One Morning. But lt e i s .:il so found in other a ntholo ::; i ..:: s. Ile .ias leJ an .:ictive life as a Civil Rights fi g hter (Inf o rn~tio n Of ficer of the Unit e d S t a t es Con~ission on 1 Civil P.i ~hts) editor (AtL n ta Inrp 1irer), writer, nnd teacher. at Chic a g o Univ e r s ity h e I o n sev e ·<11 awards for writing. subject s r a n1;e from compl e x psych c ind e ed hut much ov e rlook eJ . mcdit □ tions \Jhile a stud e nt llolm,111, whose poetic to racial pride, is very good The l e i s ure cl n ss finds clocks "intrude too �early" in "And on This Shore." ·The gene ral indiffer ence .Ls also captured : Across the cups we yawn " Picnic: .:it prival e murders. The Liber a t ed " examines the s hifting unc e rtain.Lti es with leisured southerners must liv e:! . The tensi o n or e veryday southern life lie . underneath the merriment . o f th e picnic grounds wh ·r e me1 rotate the liquor in "dlxle cups" an<l "absently" discuss 1 'civil rights , money and r, oods ." Yet as the "country dark" comes in and they return to sprin'(ered y.'.lrds and " mo rq.\ age<l houses " they do not know they are Privileecd prisoners in a haunted land. Yet this same poet c;in !w ar "Three Brm-m Girls Sin r, inr, " thr oui..;l1 th e "rib s of an u~l y s c hool building ." Celebrating the Black musical past, 1Iol1nan sees them Fuse on pur so und in a shaf t of April light: . . . McM . Wright, now a Federal Di.strict Jud ge in New York , was a Lincoln University poet anJ with Hughes and Cuney edited Lincoln Univ ersity Poets (1954). Il e served overseas in World \for II , later receivinz. law tr a ining at Fprdham. \n1lle h e wa s in th e Arm ; in Wales , he publish ed a v olume of hi s poetr y , From the Shaken Tm-1er (1 '144 ). Ur L13ht on a in the 11 "Th e African Affair " finJs HcH. ;a fari to find out what "Black is . " lie disc.overs it in "prisons,-" devi. 1 s dance ," where " de sc r·t s burn," the Middle Passage, and areas to which "co nsc i e nce cannot 20 . " llis · searc h carries hir.1 deep into Africa where " trad t!rs shaped my father r; pain . " In "Four Odd Dodk.ins for My An 1lyst" one finds that ''o utra r:~d flesh of secret i:;uilt " h:-is come from th e pr ess ures o( " cj rcurns t on,: e " and "n eed . " C Finally, "Wh en You hnve go ne from ✓ rJ Frooms" th e re arc "n e v er blooi:1i ng petals" and "n eve r burnin ~ suns ." Bontemps cnlls O ' lli ~ins a member of the " tribe of wa n<l e rinr, poets ." �J\fter i,t udying with Sterling Brmm at Ilo1vanl, O' Higgins won Lucy Hoten and Julius l~osenwald Fellowships in wriL n .:. Ile l .:ite r served in Hor ld War II, af t er which he co-authored, with llay ,len, Tho Lion nncl The Arch e r 0 ' llicp,ins ' s style is less formal th:1 i e j ( 1 943 ). ther ll olm.:in ' s or Met! . \/right ' s . Ile is closer to Ve.soy, vspecially in poems li ke " Young Poet " ~nd " Two Le :111 Cats " in which ti 10 r :1 -Ln fe l l l ike " rag ~cJ je t s" and made a " grave aloni.;" tho street . The l ean ca t s , runnin~ in "checkered terror " in t o a pool r:- oom , f ln J that a " pu r ple ]Ji lliarcl 1 a ll " 111aLes t ho color scheme explode . Tho much antltolo s i ze cl "V ~.Li.c id e ( 'For l lol :1nc.L.; Glwndhi" ) sees Gandhi. " murdered uprli:;ht in tlte day" and left 11ith h j ,; flesh "openeJ ,mJ d.isplayeJ . 11 llut , li kening CandltL ' s deatl. to J _c-.; us CL i:; t ' s , th ,· n.:cr~1Lor says ~,uch ,1 pcr~;on wh o cr(~atcd tlw " act ul love " knOI ✓: , Lhc Gt 1il.Ly c.: a rry _ his Gandhi ' s "111,1rveluus 11o u11d i; 11 cunta.iu tl1 e s un nnd the seas . 11 d o:1 tlt tn 1: l!oi r r urn.1:; ," Jliff l·LL: 11t , yd: similar , t hese poets sr ,u:~ ht through tl1 c. ir individual voices to Je.11 with man ' s c urrent nnd past hurts . rise Ii i ghcr as he 11 At kins, for example , sm, the " ~; oollcn deep" \J eni 1.;,alkinr, 11 in St!Ction two of " Fan t asie . " A "re s tless exper i 1,L~ntallst wi th a ve ry hi ~h r cr;a rcl for craftEianship , 11 At kins 1✓.'.1S .:i found<-: · of F1·ee l ,nnq:. (1950 ) which !Zivers called the " oldes t bL.1ck-bossetl magazi .1 c around. " 13etween 194 7 and 1962 , Atkins ' s poetry appeared i.n n uniero u s journa l ., a nd other outlets . A few arc Vlc.·w, noloit Poetry .Journal, Minnesota Quarterly, 1/aLed Ear, Calley Sall l'evic.:11 . Hi:.; volu111cs of poetry ..ire Phcn6menr1 ( 1961 ), Psychuvisual Pe rspe~tive for i;usical Composition ( 195 8 ), 'l\10 by Atkins (The Abortionist <1 ,J Tl,c Corpse : Object s (1963 ), and lleret:ofore ( 1968) . as complex as tl 1c poetry itsel f . Two Po e tic Drarnas set to t!usic , 196 3) , ,\tLins ' s ncsthctical ideas nre often An e , r ly trainin r; in music and li t e r a t ure , he s.:iicl in Sixes an, \ Seven:;, tl1 :1 t · he wa s Lrying for " egocentrical phenomenali s m: an ol>jL: c tiv c con ~,t ruct ()f prop c·r:- tic~. to· subs t antia t e effect as object. " He �se.:irchL!S after the "Jesigncd imul1i11i.ll J ll. 11 In " Ni gh t and a Distant Church " he moves " Forwarc.1 abrupt" then "up" L, ro ui~h a se ries of interminiling "mmm" and " ells" with worJs like "wind" anLI "rain." of Tolson' s ability t u mennder amonr, in Atkin s ' s poe:try. 1 There is more tli a n ~e ¥ r,:wco-n.omanf .Jnd Afro-Amer i. ca n traditions l\ut lie is u11iqu c . "AL War" inform s the re.:iJcr tiwt l,eyond the " turninG sea's far foam " th e "epltemera" of a "momen t's dawn" sudden ' d its appe a r . ... 'y' Later , in the same poem , aft " r allusions to lle 1ingway, the silence sp lits: Listen a moment--!Sh! Listen--! that hurry as of a s hore of fugitives. Once A.tki11s's teclmique i. s un dL: rstooc.l , lto1-1ever , his · poetry can be enjoye:J for its witty, wacky, off-be .tt, philosophical musings . In " Irritable Sonr," he inverts , r e verses and c o _volutes regular s y ntnx: Or sa y upo1 1 return Coron.:iry f a c!well Leav c!S me J e . Dare, sir? Ugh! Ile nay'd Tomorrm,, t )lito rrow in tod ay? Atkins writes of the fi 1. e arts, Jolin Brown's raid on Harper ' s Ferry, Black heroes ("Christophe"), - ------- he "Trainyard at Nir,ht," the Cleveland lake front , and otlter subjects wli i. t , fit his style and int '-' rests. At another e,1d of the stylistic nnJ thein, tic pole is Randall, a libraria11 b y trainin g and tn.1 tlc who, as we shall sec in our discussion of poets of the late sixties , fip,ures proi..inently in the c.lcvclopment of an audience for the �Hew BL.1ck Poetry . RanJall also serveJ in \fo r] d War II a n<l wr lt es pucms about the war, love, violence, nrt and th~ Dlack presence. liis \✓ ell known " llooker T. and W. E.B.,'' digesting the Washing-DuLois controversy, was seen by DuBois The poem fir st appeared in Midwes t Journnl, 1952. and this pleased Randall . Randall h as also 1-. .rit: t en about and t ra nslated Hussian poetry . With Hargar e t Danner he co-authored Poem Counter plic•m (19Gfi) and his Citi e s Burnin g appeared in 196 8 . (19 71) pulls together Ra ndall ' s poems from " four More to Rem emhc· decades. " llis work has been pubJished in Llmura , lleloit Poetry Journal , and oth er places . Ile initiated the BroadsiJe Series (posters) ln 1965 with h i s own "Dall a d of Ilirmingh ..im , " !'he series p, rew qt1icklv, l nying t:hc fau n - dation for his Broadside Press, t ,1e most sig nifi can t Black press in Amc.ri cn . Randall ' s work of this period h a: . the st:,:unp of formality . lle 1vr ites in ballads and fr ee vers e form:. bul he has n tightness that will be relaxeJ in the late sixties anJ seventies. mental, of a land " Lit by ;:i "Lega c y " chronicles the hurt, physical and bloody moon . " Bu t the on e who is " mo ul<l.e<l .fro1i1 this clay" vows that My tears redeem my'tears . "Persp ect iv es " r e casts the t ime- immemorial th Pme of "we only p:1ss t his uay once . " There is no need t o complain a b ou t discomfort, the poem s:i ys, becDus e even th o mountains--in their hughe ne ss --nre dissolved " away" by the seas. Ra ndall ,~ Pacific Ep Ltaphs a re r ecollec tions of the wa r. are epi.:\rammatic and haiku-like. The shor t pieces t,ere is a poignant one ( " Iwo Jima" ): I Like oil of ~exas My hlood [_;ushe<l here . Prominen t in a gro up of Detroit poe t s (tta r ga ret Danner, Oliver La Crone, Naomi Lonr. Nadgett, James Thomp son anJ o thers), l~an<l a ll often e urnesh es himself �in .::i sem;e of personal injury ov er his peo pl e ' s history. This t e nd e n cy , and a debt to the Black poetic traditi. 011 (especially S t erU.n:; l\rOl-111) , can be seen in "Th e Southern Road " 1vl1erp tlt~ "L L1cL river' ' serv,'. ;:; <1s a " bo undar y to hell." The country is "l1a ug ht y as , star" i\,1_J I set fur lh upon the southern ro ..id . Tbt2 vai:ie t y of sLy l es i.!nd th emes found in these poets i s found also in yo un g~i: po et s of th e i r- ze n0r a tion : Patterson , Addison , Browne , Re Jmo 11<l, Of these Jay \fright, Anderson , Hernton, and Poli t e co1ae readily to rninJ . poets, Pat t e rson is particularly int eres tin g . !!is " Black all Day " yielded from it s second line tile title for T Sau How Bl ack 1 lbs. Patt e rson , a n oti1er· Lincoln University poet, 110n an award for his poetry whil12 still eraduate. ,ll1 under- A na tive New Yorker , h e studied political sc i ~nc e and Englislr, and has \-/Orked as a counse lor for delinquent boys and an English Instructor . Patterson sa id in Six es and Sevens that his first poem was written during World War II as the "o u t- growth of a Cain-and-Abel conflict without .the. dire consequ e nc<:! s ." "Thr ee Vi ews of D,l\,JI " includes the " silken shawl of ni gli.t ," t he qisappearance of "cor ner specters " and the " splittin~" of " stillness ." The musical " Tla Tla" presents free verse spiced with alliterative l a n gua i~e of landscape , season and na ture. Sit tin g " Alone •' ' the protagonist of the poem "" keeps poems warm" as he watch es over the sleeping lovers as well as t he "numb " 1-1ho wake and 11eep . Patters o n did not publi sh ,. lJOok until 1969; and its titl e , 26 Hays of Lookin p_ .:i t A LL.1ck Man, shO\·JS th e influence of inwg ist s and modernists (see \./all.ace Stevens' s J J lh1ys of Lookin13 a t A Black llird) . It also r eveals much abo ut th e Black po e t ' s ability to for ge and merge his academic tr a ining �\•lith his O\m in<ligenism . The sp eaker in "Bl ac.k a ll Day " i s " luoke<l " into "rage and sh.:ime " by a wh it e passerby; but he VO\lS th a t "tomorrow " I'll do as muc h for hi m. Patterson constructs a solid poetic foundation, " s tone on stone," as he pa ints preci.sc portra.i,ts of "the brave who do not br eak" when provoked ( "You Are the Drave"), or the "lost, the "tireles s and r.:i~ing soul, " ("Envoi"), In the Hork of Patterson, and the younger group of th e period, one finds anger 'l? or protest, though the genera l tendence is toward experimental verse Hhich pinpoints th e surest and richest human feelings . jects more of ten than not r ~f l ec t thi s fact. As Bl a ck poets, their sub- BuL v:1riety is certainly not shunn ed by them. Neither is variety avoided by th e ir sisters of the pen and im.:ige : Black wo1nen who have been an identifi ab le aspect of the long tradition of Afro-American Poetry . Phyllis Wheatley was th e most well kno\m female poet until the mid-ninet eenth century when Fr.:inces Harper took up th e· bonncr of fame though not of skill . A later new mood was evidenced in th e work of An ge lina Grimke, Georgia Douglais Johnson (the most famous poet after Frances Harper), Gwendolyn Bennett , Ann Spencer, Alice Nelson Dunbar, Helene Johi1son (a young spark in th e Renaissance), .Marg-a ret Walker , nm! Gwend ol yn Brooks, -<"'" Between th e forties and sixties, the n4ber of publi s hin s women poets incr~ase<l. Poetry in America has remain ed unde>r the domai n of whites (men); and since women in general have no t had th e ran ge of opportunities open to 1,1en , certainly· th e Hlack woman went the worse way of that flesh! poets of the period still remains impressive: But th e li s t of Black women Gloria C. Oden (Y onkers, New York) , Nanina Alba (}~nt z omery), Margaret Danner (Pryorsburg, Ken tucky), Mari Ev,rns (Tol edo) , Julia Field s (Uniontm-m, Alabama), Vivian Ayers ,'J) \ \' �(Chester, South Carolina), Audr~ Larde (New York) , Naon1i Lon~ Mad gett (No rfolk), Pauli Murray (Baltimore), Sarah Wright (l!itipquin, Har yland ), Nay Hill er (\-Jashint;ton , D. C. ), and Yvonne Grc;io ry ( Nashvill e ), amon;:; the dozens of occasional -1n<l re8ional names. In 1952--two years .1[ l e r llr-0-oks won the Pulit ze r Prize--G . C. O<len, who uses her initiuls " as C:,1en<lolyn .1 Hay of beins anonymous," n :: c<Jivcd a John Hay Whitney Opportunity Fellm,sh ip for The Naked frame: A Love Poem and Sonnets . She lws worked as a senior editor of a major publ i shing house and currently teaches Engli sh in Baltimore . In the fifties, she joined the Village poets in llew York where she r ead her poetry in coffee shops, reviewed books and wor ked on a novel. Iler poetry has also appea red in The Saturdav Rev i e1, and The Poetry Diges t. tlo tin g that she appeals "primarily to the intellect," Hayden (l:-1lei.doscope) compared lier to Cullen, adding that she "is concerned with poetry as an ar t expressing what is meaningful t o everyone, not just a vehicle for protest a11d special · pleading." Although G. C. Oden uses a variety of forms, her poems are usually crisp and intellectually tart . "The Carousel" in an empty park rides me rou1,d and roun l, and the <lark drops for her as she gleans her surroundings with explicit word-choices: "sight focusses shadow." In "Review front Staten Island " a n ti it em ·. in the view is "spewed up froni wa t er. Luter we are tol<l th at "One ge·. ts us ed to dying living" and "even the . rose disposes of summe r." He hear the dislocated woman in " ... As ,~hen emotion too far exceeds its cause " (phrase from Elizebeth Bishop). Re tr ea ting from hvartbreak, she a <l mits th a t she to o knew "love's celestial venturing . ": I, t oo , once trusted nir thnt plunged me down. Yes, I! �J·!anina Alba is simil.:1rly t erse and poir,nant . The Parchments (1963) and The Parchments II were published before her death in 1968 . She taught English, Husic and French in puulic schools and was for a l ong time a member of the Eng,lish Department at Tuskegee L,stitute. "Be Daed~1lus 11 makes use of r.r eek Hy.thol ogy to draw a subtle and analogy between Black and Icarus's "unwise" actions. Death ·cor,1es as a II t ax " for "parching" the sun: Suns can be hrutal thinr~s. "For Malcolm X' ' recalls "History's stoning." Mar ga ret Danner is similarly sensitive. 13orn in Detroi t, she has spent the greater part of her life in Chicago where she was one t.i111e edit o r of Poetry. )!er poems in that publication in 1952 prompted th e J oh n llay \,/h itney Fellowships Committee to offer her a trip to Africa. And in 1962 · th e literary group with which she identified in Detroit was the subject of a special issue of the Ilulletin of Nep,ro History. She has published four volumes : Impressions ~f African Art Forms in Poetry (1962), To Flower (1962), Poem Counter~oem (with Dudley Randall, 1966) and Iron Lace (196 8). A former poet-in-residence at Wayne State University, she f_o unJ ed Boone House, a lively center for the arts in Detroit, and a similar cultural program in Chica go: Nologoriya 's. She employs African t enninology and theme; but she can also writ e deli ghtfully in other veins as in "The Elevator M:.rn Adheres to Form." wings" the elevator reminds her of "l~cicQ co art ." The "tan ma n who · Struck by his ele ~a nce--and "Godspeedings"--the~he wonders wh y so intelligent and artful a "tan" man ha s to run elevators . It is a meticulous poem, subtlety exposing th e li e that education gualifies you. She finally wishes the elev~tor man '.s services cound be employed - -- - - - -- - - - toward liftin n them above their crippling storm. - - �Far From Africa: Four Poens is .::i sheet of sir,hts , sounds and suggestions car r ying the reader across "mo ult ing days " l n "t h eir twilig h t ," ( " G:1rnishinr; the Aviary"), "lines " of " classic tutu ," ( " Dance oE the Ab.:ikweta"), "eyes lowered" from " c.!espair, " (''The Visit of the Professor of .t\cstl c tics") and a bee.I of ;: rL'.cn moss , spurklini:; as a beetle, tfori 1wans ls an o ti1 <: r kind of transitionalist--shiftinr, from Civil !Ugh Ls poetry of the enrly phase to, finnlly, a more obv i.ous " Bluel:" stance of the lnter period . lier I Am A Clack \Joman Has not publis h ed until 1970 . She has worked as a civil service en ployee, tv sh01v hostess .'.lnd producer , nn<l instructor of v1rltin13 . Sometimes referred to as a spiritual, if 110L · t echnical, heir to Gwenc.loly1i' Brooks , M.'.lr i Evnns employs irony , suspension, a n <l rich folk idioms in a free verse s t yle . " Th e lZebel , " pondering liis death and funeral, wonders i f ,.rt~/ / Curiosity seekers want to know uhether she has really clie<l or just uants to cnuse " Trouble: . . . . " Tiler~ ir; humor and satire in ' \nicn in r,ome " as t he poe t i n t er] aces .(in the manner of Vesey ' s "A Homent , Please " ) t wo <liffcrent conversations . · The ti 13lack ma i d " Hnrrie cl cur ," is allo~1ecl to ·cat "whatever " she l:Lkes .. Alterna tin£; the 1Haid ' s silen t response , with t:lie •reci t:.::ition of a me nu of the 111idJle class environment ( " Rome " ), the poem incid,•ntally records th e traditional soul food items which the uaicl craves. "The Emancipntion of Gcorge-llcctor" ( " the colo r ed turtle" ) shmvs a growing impatience with one-step-at-a-time social chanr,e policy . The t urtle used to stay in his " shell" but n oH he pecks out, extends his arms and legs , and talks . an<l senti1ncntal. Bu t this s;:ime poet can wnx phLlosophical " If there be Sorro1/ ' it should be for the Lhin ;:s not yet dreamed , re:alized or done . Ad<l to these the 1Jithholding of love, love �"restrained." In "Shrine to wh.:it should De" an audience is asked to "sing" songs to "nobility," .:ind "Rightousness." The children should bring "Trust," the women "Dreams," tlt e old men "c onstancy ." Ironic.:illy the: a udience i s tolJ to i gnore tears that fall like a "crescendo," and constantly as "a · so ft black rain." Iler tribute to Gospel singers is telling in " ... And the Ole! Women Gathered." One cannot - (despite "Rome") escape one's self, the poet says, as s he notices that the "fierce" and "not melodic " music lin ge r ed on · ven as "we ran. 11 Julia FielJs, truly sensitive spirits , studied at Knox Colle ge in Tennessee, in En~lanJ and Scotland, and has to.ught in hi gh school and . c olle ge . Her work appeareJ in Umbra, }Gssachusetts Review and other journals. Alon g with M:ir ga ret Halk.er, Tom Dent, Alice Walker, Pinkie Gord on Lane, and Spcillmm1 she is among the few good Black poets who now voluntarily live in tl1e South. Her first book, Poems, was brou~ht out by Poets Press in 1968, tl1e same year · she received a National Council on the Arts grant . She is substm1tially represented in R. Baird Shurnan's Nine Black Poets (196 8) and her East of Moonlight was published in 1973. . She also writes short stories and plays. Iler main poetic subjects are racism, death, love, violence and history . "The Generations" come and zo and in bet1vcen there are "The wars. 11 · i\nd in bet~,een them are the seasons, flowers, "lavender skies, 11 dawns, " Sombre seas, 11 and the "embryonic calm. 11 "Arrdv a rk" has achieved 11 fame " since "Malcolm died and the po e t muses: Looks like Malcolm helped Bring attention to a lot of thin gs We never thou ght about before. She a Gain salutes this martyr in our ar;ony. 11 11 for Malcolm X11 whose 1 ' eyes we re mirrors of In "No Time for Poetry 11 the reader is advised that midni ght is �not time to bes e0ch on e 's muse: t oo much " calm." th e "spirit" is "too l agr, inz. " a nd there is But the morning is id eal sinc e it carrie s "vibra tions of laughter" and ha s no "oranr,e -white mists." As a "woman," l .i. st e nin g near the "broken-hin ged door" at a man talk o f wa r ("I Heard A Young Nan Snyi ng"), the narrator " somehow pl a nn ed on living ." And th e "bright ~l a r e of th e 11 eon world" s e nds " t.•;;1s - words burs tin g fr e e" in "Madness One Monda y Ev enin f~ •" Pa uli Murr ay and Sa rah Wright are sometimes poets who also write other things. Pa uli Murr ay pur s ued tra ining fo r law \,Jhi J e s ite \va n academic awards and fell011 s hip s f or h e r wr ·_tin g . A Civil IU:,:hts pi oneer , she publi s hed one volu me of v erse (Da r k Tes til:1ent, 1969 ) a nd a f am il y hi story (P r oud ~,hoes ; 195G ). In "Without Narne," she i s rev ealed a s a fo rma l but exc e ll ent cr af t sma n. Ther2 are no names f or tru e feeling; but let the "flesh s i ng nn th ems t o .i t s ::i r r i val. " Sarah \lrl ght, known as a novelist (This ChilJ 1 s Go nn a Li ve ), co- a ut hored Gi ve Me A chllJ in 1955 with Lucy Smith. Ab out P,l ac k writ e r s s he said , ln 19 .(1 1, ·"Ny mott o i s tell it like it damn sure is. 11 "black outlines in living flesh." and ~raffle l i ghts. In 11 \./indow Pictu res " s h e s ees "Urgency" views relationship between .driv e r s " God " is "thanked" th a t th e c a r s tops so th e pa s senge r can " g lory " a whil e in th e "time-bitt e n pun c tu a ti on." Of th e " pa usi.:! ." Vivi a n Ayers, th e <l aught e r of a blricksmitl1, attend ed Bar ber~ Scotia Coll ~ge (Concord) a nd Bennett Coll ege (Green sboro) ,,here he r maj o r int e rest s wer e dr ama , music a nd da nce. She pu bl is hed a volume o f poems ( Spi ce o[ Dawns ) and an allegorical drama of'f r ee<l on a nd the s pace ai;e (ll awk), pe rf o r med a t th e Univ e rsity of llouston' s Educationa l Te l ev ision St a tion . Curren Ll y , s he live s ln llous ton where s he ecl-Lt s . " I nsum ta neous " .::i quarterly j ourn a l, ,\de pt . feature s a man being " s tt1r ried" by the bolt of "cr os s -firing ene r gies " an d g r a bbed up jn a blaze r eso na nt as a million ha ll e lujas-- ... ,.· �A r.1an inhabits another nwn who , <lyin z , r,as ps f a intl y : " Ny god - -this is God ... 11 Similar and differ en t is N.:10mi Lon;~ l-!a d13e Lt , who mo v eJ to Detroit f ro1.1 Vir g inia in 19!16 to teach at a hi gh school. from Wayne St~ te Universi t y . She holds a Master's Jegree Associa ted with th e Detroit e roup of poets, she h as published four volumes : Son~2s to a Phantom Nir,htin 0alc (1941), On e in th e ttany (1956) , Sta r by Star (1965 , 1970), and Pink Ladi es in the Af t ernoon (1972) . Currently she teoches English at !:astern Nichigan Un i versity and runs the newly established Lotus Press. projects 1•1 as Deep ltivers: A Portfolio : One of its first 20 Conter•lJh)L1i:-v 13lnck America n Poet~; (19 7L1), Hhich includes a te.ichcrs ' guide prepared by the poet . Ed itor s for Deep lUv ers include Leonard P . Andrews , Eunice L . Howard, and Gladys l-1. Rogers . The 20 poster poets are Paulette Childress White, Jill \iitherspoon , William Shelley , G. C . Oden , Naomi Nadgett , P.itter son , La Crone, Pamela Cobb , Pinkie Gordon Lane , Etheridg e !~nig ht, R,rnd a ll , Hayden , Thomps on, 11a·r;pr_ct Walk.er , June Jordan , Gera l d W. Barrax, Audre Larde , Redmond, Michaels . · Harper and l~aufman . .. Naom i Hadgett 1 s " Simple" ("For Langs t on l!Lq~h c~ ) is reali s tic a lly humorous. ~imp le sits in a bar, \vi!n tin g to tal k t o someone, when h e is approached by a hand - out scqker who n eeJs to·change his c loth es " but my l a n ' lady ' bolted the door . " Joyce will tap "impa tientl y " o.nJ leave th e bat· and Simple woncler~ng 1Jhat " he \lante d to say. learn tlwt o[ 11 " a ll the de.iths " thi s one is th e "sur es t. In "Mortality " ue 11 Some deaths .1re merely " pc.ice " but vultur es " re cor, niz e " th e "sini: l e mo rt.:il thin g " that hold s on to lif e nnd th ey wai t huu ga ril y for the time ~1en hope s tarts staggering . Han must come to gri ps with th e thln zs of this wo rld, we arc told in �" The r.ccl :oning ": And why and how and wh at, and som('timcs even i.f . Poems f r ont Trinity : women and humans . 11 ( On e cha r ac t e r has been bese i ged by " d r eam and · dream ni:;ai n" 4 11 ) a nd a n:1ked day "cor~o d es th e silv e r dream " bu t the mu si c will not "c ease to shiver . 11 1 A Dream Sequence convey uncertainties and fears of ( 11 18 11 ) . "Af t er " is a lamentntion for " mortals " \-Jitltout \1iu g s 11 to fly awny f r o1,t th e " p u rp l e sadness " of night . is 11 ,\nd " Poor lzcnaldo 1 1 deaJ and gone 1-1\terever people go 1 ' wit en they "never loved a song . 11 e v en " hell " 1,1ust !tave " music of u sort . 11 But Finally sculpted , like the otltcrs , the poet,1 turns to more sorrmv near the end . Ren;iJdo, t ·h o.u r,h de ad, is "still unrest in:: ." AuJrc Lorde ' s vt0rk reflects skill and control. ln the early ~.ixtics she wrote : I am a Negro 1·Jo1aan and a p oe t- -a l l my realm of choice . t hree things stand uuLsiJe Hy eyes have a part in my seein~ , my breath in by breathing , al l that 1 am i n Hho I am . -love are of my people . All who 1 w,:is not born on a farm or in a forest , but in the cen t re of the largest city in the world-a me111ber of tlte ltuman race he1.trnecl in by stone , m-1ay ·from earth ~md sunlight . l~ut what is in my ·_ blood and sldn of richness , comes the roundabout jo u rney fr on i\ frica throurh sun islands to a stony co;:ist , and these ar c the gifts through \lhich I sing, t hrough which I see . This is the kno1,1 ledgc of the sun , and of hm1 to love even where there is no sunlight . This is the knowle<li;c and the richness 1 shal.L r; ivc my children proudly , as a strenr; th a g ainst the less ol.lv:i,ous forms of narrmmess �, ~ // Audr e Ln r cl c thus 2, ivcs a balnn,ceJ account of hcr" self as a ,mm:in, Black a,·. anJ poet. '--"' '{-<-'. ,' i. And all these tb,;i,ngs she hanc.lles quite \lell in her poc•try-- on page anJ in the air. She has published thr.:.>. c volumes: The First Cities (1968), Cal>lcs to Rn ge (1970) and From a Land where other Peopk tivc (1973), which was nominated for a :fational Book Award. reflects Oi1 In her early poetry she "Oaxaca" (in Hex ico) where the "land moves slow ly" under the ''carvint drag of wood." The drudging fielc.l work goes on while the hills .:ire "l>rcwing thunder" and one can observe All a man's strength in his sons.' young arms .... "To a Girl who knew what side Iler Brend \vas Buttered on" dcs c r il>es the girl as a "catch of bright thunc.ler" apparently guarded l>y (and guardian of) bones. Ordered to leave the bones, she watches as they ris e like "an ocea n of straH"an<l trample the one who orders her "into the earth." "forth in the moonpit of a virgin . " The "N,;1mph 11 is brought In "How can I Love You" the unwanted lover "comes like a thin binl"--unlike th e magnificent Phoenix bir,l of mytholo~y--later to become "great ash." No wonder, the speaker confirms.; that your sun went dO\vn. The "Ho on-ninded the Sun ... " decrees that The light that makes us fertile shall make us sane. And we hear that the "year has fnllen"in 11 Fathcr 1 the Year •.. " Audre Lorde's . work cuts sharp paths of in~ight and light across the stealtl1ing ignorance and diffusion around her. "AnJ Fall shall sit in Judgment" examines love, concluding that "in all seasons" it is false, but the same. A much-ncr,lectcd poet is May Hiller, of \fashin ~ton, D.C., ay-d \,horn Cwcnclolyn Brooks ackno\1 lc<l r,cs as " excellent and long-cclcbratc<l" (Introduction, ----- - - - - -- - - - -- -- - - - -- �Th e Po Ltry of Dl acl ~ America ). Jliss Brooks al s o l.:rn1ents llay Miller ' s a bsence amo n ~ t hose an t ho l ogized . Her work c a n be fo und in t hree volume s : I nt o t he Clear in g (1 959 ), Poems (] 962) , a n d she ls on e o( tl1rC' c roe t s r ep r esen t e d i n Lyri cs o f Th ree Women (1964). Curr ently a memb er of t l1c Comm i ssion on the Arts of th e Di s trict o f Columbia , s h e h as b ee n a t ea cher , l e c t u r e r , dramatist and h a s publishe tl he r poe t ry in a number of ma r.; azines : Co1:1c1o n r. r o un<l , The Ant i o ch Revi ew , Th e Cri s i s , Ph y l on, a nd Th e Nation . "Ca lv a r y \.-lay " s h ows a Ch ri s ti a n in f lu e nce Hith a t wi s t of irony and gor e·. Ha r y i s asked hO\v she fe lt, " womb -he avy with Chri st Ch i l d , 11 n s she tasted t he 11 du st 11 of a n 11 uncer t a in _journey . 11 f ina ll y asks Ma r y : 11 \-Je r e yo u a f r a i d? " Recalling th e c ru c ifi):io n , the po e m The " roaches are winni nf, 11 i n 11 Th e l as t Wareh ouse " wh e r e huma ns s ee k to " a bneg at e survival l aws 11 anJ kill roa ches until they are "saturated with th e i r decr ease . 11 11 Th e l'.hil r ac t ers in · The wron r, side of Mo r n i ng " we r e shaken from a " n i [;ht1nare of ,,in g s " and . " mushrooms o f hu ge d ea t h " as t he po ~t powerfully coll e ct s imu g c; s and Li yer,, tl me a ning s . . 11 Pi:-ocession 11 e r.1p l oy s th e dr a matic techniqu e (made famou·s b y _l:lr m-,.n and o t h e rs) of in t crlacin~ t he forma l r:ng li s h of th e poem \Jit h itallciu,d ,, Bl ack reiterativ e exp l e t i v es and ref r ai n s such as " l{ ing , h amme r , r ii~g ! 11 I t is the procession of Ch ri s t b ut t hC! reader eas i ly unJerst a nd s , noting t he Black idioms , t hat i t is a l.llack · p ro cession throu gh t he l a byri n th s of sl a very a nd racism . There is a seric ~ of j ux t aposed con t radic t i o ns like " Time is today , yes t ercl.:i y , and t i1•1c t o come , " " movin g and motionless , " and " infinite take s f nmiliar fo r m," as all while " we se e k conviction . " Ch r is t ian mytholo gy pervaJes Hay Hiller ' s wo r k ( thou g h s he Bl a ck-ba ses i t). I n " Tnlly" the s ubjects "la y t here drained of time" and e mp ty like th e "bulge of hou r glass " while " Lucifer streaked to re a lity ." ( �The d<.;.'.lt hs of Dumas anJ Rivers Loft vuiJs ariJ crea t eJ still more anx ieties, comin~ as they JiJ (19G J) in th e nid st of racial turbul ence . However , by the miJ-sixti es both po e ts had writt e n a gr ea t J e;-11 of poetry and a great deal about themselves . Rivers died an unnecessary deulh in \·l hat has been called an " impulsive" act. white polic~nari in a Ne w York subway. o tl1er . Dumas was shot to death by a lloth deaths occureJ~,10nths of eac h Rivers was born in Atlantic City , New Jersey , and atten<leJ public s chools in Pennsylvania, Georgia and Ohio . His college days were spent at Wilberforce Univers .i ty , Chicago State Teachers Colle le and lndiau u University. In high school (1951) he won th e Savunnah State poetry pci~e . Rivers was s reatly influenced ·b y Hughes , \fri r; ht a nJ his uncle Ray lklvcr . llis five books , t,-10 of them published posthumously, are : Pe rchanc e· to Dr eam , Othello (1959) , Th e se Black IloJies and This Sunburnt Face (1962) , Dusk at Selma (1%5), Tlie Still Voice of llarlem ( 1963) , and The Wright Poems (197 2 , with an Introductio n by friend-nove l ist Ronald Fair ). Ohio Poetry RevieH , Kenyon Review , and Antioch Review were only a few magazines in which his work appeared. ,, Responding to a request (1962) to comment on hims e lf a s Black man and poet , lUvers said , among other things : I write about the Negro because I am a Negro,. and I am not at peace wit h myse lf or the world . I cannot divorce my thou &h t s from the absolute injustice of hate. I cannot recl~on witl1 my color . I am obsesseJ by the ludicrous and psychologic a l behavior of hated men. And I shall continue to write about race--in spite of many warnings-- �unb 1 I discover myself, 111y futur e , · my real race. I do not wish to capitali :~e on r~1ce, nor do l wish to begin a Crimean War: I am only interested in recording the truth s queezed froni my observations and experiences . 1 am tired o f bcin~ misrepresented . AdJin:~ to the statement, Rivers said "beauty and joy , which \,as in th e \·m rld before and has been buried so long, has got to come back." But Rivers saw little " beauty and joy " in his own mind ' s eye . His poetic landscape is often bleak and fiJle<l \·l ith deep psychic yenrnin;;s and wan<l er ings throu g h the ambivalences of Black-white relations . is also torment .:incl brooding . There In this way he bears sor:,' kinship "to Dum~1s. For both delve deeply into psycholo gy , but are at the same tinw ac cessil,le . Rivers spent much t.Lme researching his past and readin)~ from the g reat volumes of world literntu12 . Durin g the mid-sixties in Chica ~o he pirti- c ipated in discussion r,roups--invo1ving Fair, David Llor e ns and r.cralJ \ McWorter--out which this r,rew the now well-known Or ~anization of lllack ., American Culture (OBAC) which figures prominently im[lortantly in tlt e Black ar t s programs of that city . poems . ? Itivers talks about his own .death in . several "Postscript " is a poem v1hicl1 · "sli u uld not have beC:!n published . " The narrntor says lie \le.ls " livini; ,md dyin t•, ·,rnd dreaminr, " all at the sarne time in llarlem. And, toyin~ with his 01m fate in wake of \,Jright ' s " s udd e n Jl:!ath," he r ecal l s the elder 1Jriter ' s " prophecy" \,as that hL! too "soon would he dC:!ad." The tlieml.! of denth--often mo r:.il, spiritual or pltysica.l as in llayden-- can be (ound in pieces Jil:c "The Deuth of a l~e;:; ro Poet," "Prelud e for Di_xie," "Four ShcL!ts to the \/ind," "Thr ee Sons," 11 /\sylurn," an d ull of Tl1e \Jri g lit Poems. \ �In 11 \fotL s , 11 he capsules ge nerations of fear, horror, history anJ an guish into ep i gra1,11;1c1 tic fury--with a deceptively apparent ease : Nust I shoot tli e white man de11<l tu rr.__.c the nigger in his he.:t<l? In an in~ibly u ea k asses.sment of Riv e rs ' s poetry , llaki Ha<lhubuti (Lee) said this poem '' asks a rev olut ionary question~ (Dynamite Voices , Vol . I). Such a ( " question ," ) of co rse , continually t u rns or revolves . 1 nut , s man tics aside , the corunent is blinc.J to Rivers ' s 1:restl i.11:~ \tLth the deep fears and sores enienc!erec.J by America ' s ni fj htma r c . ]Jc> knew no simp l i:;tic answers or verbal jousting would make these hurts disappear . Anyway , su c h critici sm viol ates the poem , robbinr; the poet of his many-layered concerns anJ analytical powers . IUver i s not all somber ang Lleak, hov,e ver; in " The Still Voice of Harlem " h e announces : I am the hope and t on1orr0\·1 of your unborn . Even aQi<lst tl1e contradictions anJ un cer tainties of racial / politi c al ping-pong ( " In Defense of Black Poets " ) A black poet must remember the horrors . Especially since Some black kid is bound to read you . The "Note on Bl ac IC \V'o me Tl 11 <asks 1~tie I y tea C I1 tl1 e poet " l1onor ," " huiuor ," a11d "hm, to <l i e ," presumably t 11e reborning death . sheet . The \fri ght Poem s is an e l cga ic " To l~ichard \hight " exclaims alnost wit h defeat, that �To be born unnoti~ed is to be born black, an<l left out of the grand adventure . Ano ther "To Richard Wright" piece refers to the novelist ::is .youn~ J esus hf the black noun and verb. Other poen1s find the poet Hander in~ or searching throu i~h the f \/right . 11 spirits" or "b ones" In "A Mournint, Letter from Paris" Rivers recalls knowinp, and feelin g "Harlem ' s honeyed voice." Somc('times similar in feeling and theme, but almost never in voice and form, is the work of Dumas who " Ne 0 ritude ran ges acro ss time <:md space~ ." Dumas was born in Sweet llome, Arkansas, moved to New York Hhen he was 10 years old and completed public schools in that city . He attended City · college of · New York and Rutgers betHeen stints in the Air Force and other activities. Active on the little magazine circuit, he won a number of a1.rards and helped establish several publications. At the time of his death, he Wa'., tei1chin~j at Southern Illinois University ' s Experiment in Higher Education in E.::ist St. Louis. In 1970, SIU Press published two posthumously collect ed volumes: Poetry for My People and Chatfield and Redmond. aud-:.a-t:t,,:--i-e-s-fsame- it:1,.e-)- in 197-4- with Redmond as editor . Thou ~h there have been no full-len g th critical studie s of Dumas's poetry, Jay Wrigl1t and Baraka assessed him in the SIU editions nnd Wri zht's Introduction is retained in the ne11 releases. I Ark of Bone I and Other Stories' edised by llale ,I . bO .ti IN l <;. \It\ 1't / ;, '-- C ti J Random House re-issue~~he poetry (Play Ebony Play Tv6ry+ I Wright, himself a major poet of the e ra, r, leanecl the linguistic skill and the musical range of Dumas: None of this is perverse, intellectual play. of llumc1s' sense of history. It is indicative In "Emoyeni , Place of the Hinds," ------------------- -- -~-- - �he \·! rites II I sec ..iith my skin and henr with my tonr, uc . II • •• The line , I su:-;r;est, asserts some elementary truth about /' "-)_ Duma ', a nd not alone Dumas ', poe _tic techniq ues . is gro unded in that l i ne . This book ... What Dumas means in that there .'.lre racial and social de t erminants of per ception, i deas t ha t he was just beginning to develop . The mi nd a r ticulates wl1at the senses h:wc s c lecteJ fro m the field , and t h is articuL1tion is, in part, determined by what the perceiv er hns learned to select and articulate . There is certainly no consensus a111on~.; thinkers th..1t tl1i.s is wliat happens, but there is so me evidence for believing , as Dumas did, th.J.t it does h:tppen. In 'lI] h ear witli my t ongue , 11 Dumas asserts thctt Lhe langu.J. ge you speak is a way of def ining yo urself within a group . The language of the Black conununity , as Hith tlwt of any group , takes i t s f orm , i t s i mage r y , i t s v ocab ulary , because Black people want t], _m tb .'.lt way . Lang uage can protect , exclude , express value , as we l l as assert identity. is 1vhy DumD.s ' lan~uage is t he way it is. That In the rhytl1111 of jt , is the act , the unique manner . of pe r cep t ion of a Black . man . \Jritin~ with the removed passion o_f the friend that he 11as, Wright makes viti..ll statements not only about Dumas I.Jut abou t the whole area of Bla ck creativity , perception and stance in tl1e worlJ . Inclee<l Dumas jutted all these antennae f from his poetry 1vhich he wrote to nwintain 11 ou precious traµition . 11 Lin- guistically , ll umas 1 s base is formal English , a blend of Black African lan[;uagcs , Arabic, and r.ullah from the islands off the Carolinas and Georgia. His cosmos �is r;!t:1p1.;J by the rich t ext ures of lllack religjo us and spiri tu al life, expecially olc.l time church se rvic es and Voodoo. I/right notes: and gospel mus ic, particularly, were his life breath . "The blues Only Langston Hughes knev more , ar at l east as 11uch , . about gospel anc.l ;;ospcl singers .... Hu s ic seemed to Dwuas t o Le ~ble to carr y the burden of d irect participation ln the act of living , as no poem, thnL was not music,i ll y structu red, could .... " "Duma s Has searching for an analagous structure for poetry." As a poet , Durnas combines th e past, present and future , often insllparubly, as in "Play Ebony PL1y Ivory": for the so n~le~s , th e Jcac.l who rot th e earth all th ese <leaJ whose sour muted ton;;ues spea k broken chords, all the:;e ag ine; people poison the hl:Urt of earth . Curses and curdles , mysticism , blessings and warnings abound: ,, Vodu green clinching his waist, obi purple ringing his neck , Shan ~;o , God 0f the ~;piriLs, whispering in his ear, thunderli ght st a bbint~ th e island of bloo<l rising from his skull. Later, in this snme poem ("Rite"), the Hord tatcs precedent over all; \vliat must come , must come : �No power can stay the mojo when the obi ·.s purple an d the vodu is green and Sh.:rn go is whisp e rin g , ~athe me in blood . I mn not clean. ~ ' { 1V ... c:: • \ q, O r,. His intercontinental, intergalaxian soars employ nny and all devices at his conun.1nd. Dumns exp lor es the <lcn se rhythms ( " of pcrceirt'ion") as in "Ngoma" where he compares the belly of a pregn:m t woman to the drum hca <l. / The <loctor list e ns to the baby's heart; _ the dru1:u-:ie r listen s to rho voicei, c.>f Lil, ,incesLoc:, : alwa ;1 i.wa it is the chest-soun<l same that booms my chest a i.wa ai\.1a a strong sound runnine like feet of gazelle aiwa ai.wa The cresc cn<lo , with its b1 1l lt-in cnll-and-response pattern, merge s Goa t skin an<l woman ' s belly in the deathenin g r ear : the 80.'.lt -sk.in sings th e bo o1:1-sound louder lou<l e r sings the go:tt - skin loude r th e go:.i t-skin sings th e hoom-souncl louder sings the goa t - skin loud er louder loud e r boom th e 3oa t- s kin goom-sound louder louder louder Th e ri ch, experimen t ..il lan i3ua ge , couched in sever:11 "traditions," i s seen �everywh c 1 e in thi i; majo r voice ("fr om J.:icklwmmer "): The j a ckj a ck b::ickin~ b;1ck ::iml s t ack in g stone city-stone into cracl: ," d hydraulic echoes of <lust Or ("J!oot Sonrt ): Onct' 11h0n I w.:is tr ee flesh came nn<l wo rshi pp~d at my roots. Or (",\ f3on~ of flesh") love and ma c! lcned soar and n eec.l : l.fhen I awoke I took the sleepin8 ~o untains of you r breasts tenderly tenderly hC'tween my '1uivPri.ng l ips anJ I ~uillotine<l the stallions, drownec.l the eagles, a n d drove the tiger fish back into tl1 c~ s e a of y our hea rt. There a re aJ so " many" poets in Dumas. llere is a combination of Dunbar, .Hughes, \falkc r, coupl e d with the be st of the riminl_j poets of t he sixtie s t o. prod\lc:e . th e sanguin1 · and h umor o u s Black truth (" I Laur,h Talk Joke"): i lau~h t alk J oke smoke> dope sk i p rope, rnay t oke a coke j urnp up and dm-m, wa lk ,n'ound cir lnk mash :, nd · tciJ k L r. i sh bea t a blind b o y ovL, r the heod with a bricl: knoc k a no- L !g~ed m:rn t o his bended knee s �ca u s e I ' rn a muvL1~ fou l nev er been t o sc h oo l t;oJ r n i seJ iW a nJ t he devil pra i sed 1i1c> a nJ s lit h is thr oa t pn s s n c hurch , I mi ght: p ray but: Jo n ' t f u ck wi th me C:l U SC I UOI\ 1 t pl:1 y Th ere :ir e e pi c pCH!ms Ii. kc 11 Jfo s aic ll..ir l cm " ;:i nd " Ge n es i s ,rn a n En<l 1 ess Mo::;a{c, 11 a blues se r ies , ex perimen ts in African for ms (usin e spont a n e it y and ri t ua l ) , a n d mysti cal / e xpl o ratory poems li ke Th o u)>,l1ts /J mage s , Ke f , I ke f s und ~; ;1b.1, 'In on e " Saba " Duma s use s i.J i z a rre i1i1&ge ry to render t h e hard Lu d L'S(: ribe : sL reams s trikin g a oc ta " v · u rnphon es SX veinill f\S 11 o [ flage l l. r.i n <ls flucksin ~ r ite Dumns po ss esse d u s o u n d] ,ss lov e for t he a cou s t i c a l l en p n nd the J rama tic " implosion " ( as h e put l ) o f id ea s i n poe t ry . h a ve on Pi ]a c k poe t ry rc111~, i ns to h e see n . Wha t influ e nc e h i s i<leas will It 1Jould h;:iv e b ee n in dee d i1 1t e re s ting i f his o ork , mu c h o f it \•.tr ilt c n in t he c-1 rly nnd mi d - s i x ti e s , h a d b ee n �availabl e in r, ll cc t c <l (orm wh e n the first ri~oro u s ba tt le of the New Black Poetry was b e11g fou~ht . Th e Ame r ica n temperament (d i sfavorinc Black wr i te r s tellin g th eir tru ths ) kep t Dumas and Rivers running . Dwnas sought l1is peace in the <le ep \vell of his O\, n folk culture and in occasjonal exl'. ur ~i.0 11 s Lnto mystlcis1'1, Afri ·.:i , and \',rndo o . Riv,~rs buri e,I hius e lf in the "i<lentit y " issues ,111<l l>roo<led ovi:~1· Li~ plight as ci bri 1 iant Blacl~ in a country where the t1;0 adjec t ives to~e t her are neithc:r beli "'vable or lc~;itimnte. Yet th ey both left legacies . n. Griefs of Joy : The Poet r y of lhn :\s & Tile CL1ck Ar t s ifovernent No nuthin r, rema i ns the sa me . ,\ncl my spirit reaches out t o. yo tJ my love witho ut apolo g ies witlwu t emliarrassrnent \Jith only t 1e tliour,ht tha t t his is ri r;ht for us th a t moving towar<ls you is like . touch·ing leaves in autumn our minds and spirits interlocLe<l li b! eath . · ---- Pink i e Cordon Lane , "r;riefs of joy " O tt,! major diff erence bet1,een the cultural/political upsur ges of the t wenti es :incl the sixt.Les/seventies wns loc.:itiun : the ltennissancc wns centen,d literari Ly , if not ah1ays ?,eo~raphically , in llarlelll; but its �recent succ e ssors can be found in ev e r ;• ;:" r l1 Ame ric a n community Hith a substantial lllack popul.:1tio11. political interaction. Anoth e r differen c e was .in de g ree of ..irtist .i.c- To be sure, the culture and political <1 rms of the H.enaissance were, on occasions, interlocked . llut such 1-;,e<ldings never reached their curr e nt state of "wholc..'.ness" and "continuity." In the early <Ll y s o f this period there were C:ire) "su1rs" of the Ne11 Black Poetry; but the fitter often attended the a ...: tivitie s of poets "outside" their poetry. Or , put differently, the stars sometimes put "outside" topical and emotional stimuli "i n side" what was indefensible as "poetry . " This meant the star poets ha<l no connection whatc,v er with a BL:1ck liter..H )' or f olk poetic trc1dition as such. Tnstec1d theirs was a "tra<litiou" -of immediacy, political urgency, and newspaper headlines, coml.Jined with high-school type punch-lining. This ls not to s ,1y good "poetry" (of whatever definition) was (ls) not being written or that charlat.::ins 1vere always on "take." There is much evidence . to support the belief that Jozens of these soothsayers were sincere a11d honest--.::ind had cl 1osen what appeared to be the "simplest" and "fastest" vehicle for exp re : ~;inL; thoughts .:;bout "Revolution," and " or raising the 11 11 Bl:1ck Togetller" Collective·Consciousness 11 of their people. Such a situation was not helped by the learned p,iets-activists who sometimes advised youn Black writers to Jve up "weste ,· n" influe nces in a white lnnr,nage. advice (in J\.meric .. ! ) usual~y implied two things: This that an African lan~uage 1was e:asier to master and that !:iincere expression, no matter hO\v poorly arrange~ could carry the day fo . Black poetry. However, tl.e insincere versifiers more often than not fell by the wayside in a short time, pavinc the way, like the Phoenix bird, for still more soap box mounters. - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- AL the same time, a numbe·r of poets--\vhose wits and crafts were �no t abo u t them i n th e e a rly phas e --t oo k t o th e woo ,!s h e d to b e c om<c! mu c h be t ter h ,mdlers of th e word . a " pa n orama of vio l en c e ." All t i1is o c curreJ, Larry tr c al note s , a ;-;a i ns t Int.Ice d by t h 2 l.'.lt c s i x ties Bl a ck conununit i es a l l o ver Am eric a had b een tu r ned up side J n1-.'ll b y poli ce and sp okc s m.... n/s u p po rters Ptl-'\J 7 of t h e JH a c L RL'.-v o J uti on . Young shoe! ~ troopers li te Car micha e l , Bro \m, Charl es Koen , Ron l~a n ~n :.'.l , lluey Nc 1;ton, an d Eldrid g e Cleaver h ad al r ea d y for ccc d t h e " old time " Blac k l eader s hi p to t ake a s e a t. ll ow, wi th fa t he r l1av l ng d e stroyed so n (Williams , Ba l <lwi n ) , the poe t s wer e free to d eclaim , pro c l a ir.1 an d e xhor t. This tr e n d a l one w;i s a shock to t he poe ti c tradition-- s in ce i t cr e a t e<l a f l ood of po l emicis t s a nd pamp hl ;i t ee rs 11ho could/wo uld · not di. scqss poetry in histodc a l cont ex ts . It cn u s ed furth e r s ho ck b y ] a b elin ~ "i tse l f " Black " ,md r e n e ~;o t i..it Ln p, i ts own " root s . 11 (t h e 1Jo rd 11 BL1cl: 11 h a s appea r e d tl1r o u ~h o ut th e hi s t o r y o f Black p oe tr y , but b efore th e s i x ti es it wa s not used a s a ca t eg orical term for the po e try written b y Afro-Amer i c~ n s .) Henc e mu ch of t h e Hew BlaL.( Poetry l1as been v iewe<l as non- poetr y or . a·nti - poct ry ( i n a t r ad it ional l iterar y co nt e x t) !Jccau s c .:imo n g o th er t h in gs , it d i d no t dep en d priw 1r Uy on subtlety a nd r e condite r efe r e n ces . s e en wha t i.111p ~1 ct t his st ~111c e i n Black poetry wi l l have on t he l i.t e r ic y tren ds in Afro- Amc.:r .i.ca . b eg .Li1s hi s Ye t i t remains to be_ 01.n Blyd e u .Ta c kson ( l.l l n ck Poetry in Amc.: rica ) , for e x map]e , discussi o1 1 of t he Ue\o/ · BL 1ck Po e t ry by Luildin i.: a co nvin c in g_ an a l o gy bet\Je e n th e ri se i. n Bl ack ljtt.'r,1cy a nd the pop ul a rit y o f po e tr y . St e ph en He nder so n (Und e r .-. _al1Jin", Lh v i·Jew Dla cl~ Poetrv) as s ures h i s re a ders th a t Black re:id c rs o r li s e ner s cle:i r l y " unders t an<l " wha t t heir po e ts a r e sayin)j a nd are par t icip a L t n :_; mo re a n J mor,~ as jutl<; es qua l iti l!S i,, t l1L! poe tr y ;111d th e poe ti ; ' J c~li v ~ ri es . o ( .L;lack . ae sthct i.c a l llu t 11\iile t ii i s c h a p Ler 1, ill c o nc J.udc.: with a fe11 broad critical ob ~,e: r v at i ons , th e i 11u11e cliat e ::i i m i s to �conL i.n u,., the sketch of the poetry ' s dc Vl!lop ne nL, interpolat i.n ~ from t i.mc to time pertinent critical. and illu r.d nati n ~; JaL.1 . Th e re are Jozens of ways to .. ppro.:ic h the :ie\•I Hl.:1ck Puet r y . One could, for example , examine .i.t s th eme , sLructure a nJ sat ur.:i ti. on (llendcr s nn ), o r its several t ypLcS (C.:iroly1i Rodgers, see bibliogr.:iphy). Starti.ni_; 1-,i th i111portc1nt nan1es i s ano · 11 ~r 11ay ; th e Blnck Aesthetic (C. cty l e , Full e r) approach is a11otlier uay . Neal , Dum.:.is) . I Then there is the rn.:1 ;1; i c of Black poetry (Rar,1ke , Tou r e , The music i.s also a favorite path (Stanley Crouch , H.i. chae l Harper, J nyne Cortez) . One could go o n and on: but the poetry has been written a nd one pl.ice to start is w.i.tl. its emer gence . New _York c er t ainly played a key i· ole in the new 111o ve1 n<.:n t; but .i.L did not , we said earlier , play the key or only role . J\reas of the Ea s t delphia , nosto 1~B.1 ltimore, Washington, D. C.) e nhanced in the boon . (Phila- cen t ers were Clev eland, Chicago , Detroit , East St . Louis - St . Lquis , and Ka n sas City , ti n.:ime some . _? / Mid1-1est / :✓ Re l nt e J even t s al Fo t ook place in the So~th wh ere there w.:i ., another " rising " in Atlanta , Nashvil le , J ackson , Baton · Rou g~ , Tuskc gc· , llouston, and Too t~a loo . The Hest added richly f ro m Los Angeles, San F ·ancisco Bay area , Sacramento, and Seattle. Int crweav i.ng d c velop1nents r , lated to poetry were num~rous Black J\rts activities ( connected to CL1ltural or nationnlist programs) · lo ca t e d at settlement house s , conununi _ty c enters , mu seu, s, centers for th e d .j ssr>m inution of ideolo g ies, rmti-poverty c/ projects , n n d lJucational insti t uU o ns . The hip,h Enthusiasm and vi gorous { · spirit \Jere al.~o evident in t he plethora of tabloids/·.-../ !Hack-oriented , journal , flyers, poster ; , bo ok s, p amphlet s , and record s . And of g reat . importance were the new Black .i ookstores , Africa n curio shops, \1alls of " respec t" (Cleveland, J\kron, Chicago, St . Louis , New Yc1 rk, Newark , etc . ) , a r t exhibits, we ek l y festivals and jubilees, writers ' c o nferences , writin g workshops, th e flood �of li bt2r:1t ion f1 c1gs (bL1c k- :3 re e n-red), l lacl~- or ient cd tv t.-il k anJ variet shows, and other physical (pm,er si;>,ns dnd handshakes ) or cultur.:il (Afri can clothes, hairdos and j e welry) . new consciou s ness . New York was ,111 importclnt s hmv-pl ncc It had the resi due of the post-Renaissance VL':l rs (th e Shon1bur~ Lihrary and ~li.c:!tcaux ' s Bc-o kstore) in Harlem as well as numerou s s u rrounJin ~ communlt[c,i, \lhich p]u zg eJ into its sockets . such .:is New o r p,a nizations \ v...c. Jtfc Barbara Ann Teer ' s National Blnck Theater, New L1fa ye tte Theater, and the llnrlem Cu l t ural CounciJ flow e red in the amaz ed li ght of older instjt u t ions li.ke Pr eedomways r1a p,az i.ne ( Clarke nnd Earnest Knise r ) which has p ublished many of the new po r ts : Tour~ , (Snel1 ing s) lfadhubuU (l. ct2 ), ll e nd e r son, Clarenc e RccJ, \Jelton Smi t h; 1.19 yd T . Delaney, W. D. Wri r; ht, .Joann e r.onzalcs, Nari Evans and o th e rs . Preed omwa vs a l so offers lively• rev iews and commentaries on poetry, litera t ure and t h e lHack Ar ts scene . From the var l ega ted at1,10sp her e of llew Yori · p,ushed forth a tide of Black poets, some Hho h:.id made t he ir mar l. earlit2r: ( 1937- ), Reed, Pa tterson , Sun-Ra, Dumas , June .lore.Jan (1936- So ni.'.1 Sanchez (19 3'.i - . ( 1936- llenderson, Larry ·Ne..i l ) , S . E . Ander ~on (194 3- ,. ), Albert Haynes ), ) , Jloua rd Jones (19 1¼1 - ) , Hernto n , ()u .:,n tin Hill (1950- r~nraka , Aud re Lorde, John Major (194 8 - ) ), t! . H . Pritc_h.'.lrJ (1939- ) , Jolin /\ . . \Ji ll.lams , Levert Bethune (1 937- ) , ), Letlwni a Gee, Bobb Ham ilton , Q. R . Hand, Yu sef h1an , Ray Johnson , Odaro ( Barba r a Jones , 194 6- ) , Cla r enc e Reed, Yusef ltnhman (Ronal d Stone, Barb.'.lra Simmons , Lef t y Sims, \/elt on S111 itl1 (19l10CL:lrence ilaj or (19J 6(1 939- ) , Spellnan, Edwar d Spr i i:3s (1 9J4 - ) , Lorenzo Thomas (1 944- ) , Jay lfrig ltt: (1935- 19313- ' ) , Rlcl1arJ Thomas ) , Ted Wilson, Lloyd Addison (1931- J~uttie ll. Cu mbo , Janes Arlin~ton Jones (1936- ) ), ) , Jayne Cortez (via \!alts , ), [manuel , Calvin Forbes , Alexis De veau x (1950- ), Nikk i Giovanni �), Tom \l e atl1 e rl y (19 42), Ma c J ackson (1 94 6- Djangatolum (Lloyd N. Corbin, 19L•9- ), Eloui se Lofton (1 950- ), Julius Lester (19J9Simmons, Fe li pe Lucio.no (19 !17- (1947- ) ), Ch a rles Lynch (1943- ), J oe John s on ) , Judy ) , L. V . Na ck ) , i:l H)nd a tli ] Js , (~uuncJr a l' r e t tym.:m, La rr y Thom ps on (1950- and K,\l, Prestwiclge. ' ' ) Th e: Neu York r.lack Arts sc0 ne (po e try speci.fically) ~a s a ll-a-whir with the excitement of publishing and reading poetry alo ud at the infinite number of ~athering s. older, often revived one s . his death in 19G7. JoininE these y ounge r \lrit e r s we re llu ~hes ov e rsaw much of the pro c eedings until And there were old, as well a s ne 1v, out le t s fo r th u poetry \•1!iic h \, as b e in g rea r[ at the Apollo, Carne13ie Hall, Nc1-1 L1 L . 1 y ett e Theater, Sl ugs Eu st, /\a unt l bris Pu rk, anJ in c o unt les::; communit y cen l ers and churches. l!ost of these poeLs were not native New Yorkers; and a g reat number. · were not perpetual 1.y there dU' Lng the hei ght of the 1.11.uc:k Art s nov ,~1J1ent:-but often in outl y in g a rea s . i ke Brid ge port, (Youth Brid~e) Yale, Fcedonia, Broc~port, Rutgers, Br o oklyn, Boston (El.ma Lewis's Center for Afro~~nerican Culture), and Bedfo rd Stuyve f;a nt. But, while th e y lwd separate Blutk Arts " pro grams, most lo ok.e el to the mo vement iii New York. Wor ks l1op there v1e re: Umb r u In 3.<ld it i o n t o th e -- Harlen, \/riters Cuj 1J (Clarke, Killens), Fr e derick Dou g lass Creative Ar ts Center, Poetr y ·\Jo rkshop, the Afro-Hispanic 1/orkshop, Workshop for Young l. r iters, · th e Col umbia Writin3 pro~ram (Killcns), BJ ac k Arts Re pertory .:1 ncl 'lli eatre/Scho o l (Barak.1., Sn e llings ). Among the new journal s were Urnlna (19 (i'l ), :,o ulb o ok (1. 9 ( 4 ), J;Lick Di .:1 ]0 1•ue (19G5), .J o urna l of Bl a ck Poetry (19GG) (lr o ni c a lly, the Ja~;t tlir e 0 were be g un o n th e! west co:1s t), Pri de , Bl. 1c k Th ra tr l'. (1969), Cricket (1 96 9), Bla ck Cr e alion (1969), Af'ro i\r.1 e ri c an: �~ A Th i r d \.'orlcl LiLerary Journal (1973, Brown University, 1964), ContinuiU <.! S : .• r..1cuse), l,OP (Blacks on Papl~r, IJorJs f rom the Co111111unitle [; of Pan-Africa, Clty Colleg e New York, 1974), Imprcssi.ons (1974), Cosmic CoJors, (Fredonia, 1975). Durin e a speech at Howard University's First 1,.iti o n a l Conference o f Afr o - ,\1~ r rican Hritcrs (November, 1974) I Toure, rccountin p, th,, tumultuous years anJ c.J c vt·lopmcnts, ~;a id those responsible for t he "lllack arts and aesthetic movement" were "activists as wclJ as artists." Tt seemed so, for this particular pattern was most obvious as Baraka returnec.J to Newark (renaminr, it "New ." .rk") nnJ chang,cd his name (Imamu Amiri Ri"lraka), refleclin g the great influence of the Nation of lslam and hi s interests in African "----k I culture . . llavin g/\ BART/S "Lo re-educate the nearly lwlf a million llarl .:>111 tfo g roes to fiuJ a new pric.Je in the color, 11 he moved to cs tablisl1 ~pi.rit !louse (Nt!Wilrk), ,111d such spin-outs as SpirlL llouse Players anc.1 t-loveL· s , ti 1c> Afr.ica ,1 Free Scl w u1 (1-1 lth .its 1:m,alJa doctrin 0 ), Jihad Publications, Co1,ualttcc f o r a Unlfh:J l' e1va ck, and to he lp launch s everal national Black po l.Ltlc a l _ convention: , . l!c was a (ounc.ler (1970) uf the currently stri.fe-ri.dde11 Cu ll,\ l"l''.,~; o[ i\[ric ct u l' l! oples. Du 1 i11:~ tl1,~ L9 G7 riots (insurr e ctl ns) ln ll c\J:1rl, , Baraka w<1 s :.irr C!s tcJ with sevc.: r a l c o111pa 11iun :-i anc.l chaq~e<l 1, it ii po s se s sion of two hanc.l1~1111 s ,in,! anununitin11. lh.'. l\1ecn hi s arrest an J tl~c trial "Black Poeple!" was publ.islieJ · !'he poem openl y ccn courar,eu loot in,~, theft, murdeL· of whites, and i;eneral in:.; urr e ction: 11 \J hat about that hau short you s..iw last \le e k"; " You knoH how t u get it, y ou can get it, no money down, no money never"; "li e m-1cs , ou a n ythln:_; you \1.1nt, even his life"; "Up a g ainst the wall mothcrfucLer thi s is a s tick up!."; together nntl kill him my man": "Sn.1s h the winJm1 .:1t ni,>; ht"; "Let's r;et �... let I s r,e t t o~e t he r th e fr ui.t of the sun, let ' s make n wor l d we wa nt bl ack c hildr en t o r, r ow ,'.llld l ~.:--.r n in d o not l e t your ch l l l:re n HlH~n th e y gr m,1 l o ok v ,... t \).t tV q~ V i n y o ur rare and curse you b y pit y in c.: y our t o ,nl s h wa ys . It wu s th e kind of nuJ BC a n<l ra ge th a t c ha r a ct e r i z e d Bu r a k~ 1 s (and otl1er Bl a c k poets ') out p ut b e twe e n 1965-1969 , t s l gnific a nt d e ve lopme nt s occurred . Durin 6 this pe r ioJ , l1 owe vl!r , cl numb e r of Impr e ss e d uy th e US ~~rcH1p of !to n Kar e u ga (wh i le t eac h Ln g briefly at San Francisc o S t a te Col l er, c in 19 67) , J,:,r.·1 k a r c t urnec.l .t o !J ewa rk and or ga nized th e Dl ac k Cor,nnunity Developmen t un<l D.:ef ' ll SL'. L, Or g a n ization ( BCll). llis efforts e v entually aided in th e e l e ctio n of &e<J-<-'.«t Black mayor (Ke nn e th (;ib son) . iJ ,:_..,.:f'!: Thes e t ~ s were havin g i r eo. t i 1,1 pact on region.Jl a n ,1 nationa l l\ l ac lc polit i cal/poetry s c e n e s . Baraka I s p ictur e s · (with b anc.l .1g es fr om th e 196 7 scuff l e with l~ ewark po l ice ) b egan appea ri n g on wal l s of cu ltural cen t er s , Jormitories and home s, Ha ny oLse r v e rs , howeve r, wer e , so111e \1hat wa r y of Ba rake , h a_vin r, seen him go thr o ugh th e " chang e s " from Bea t poe t with a wh i te wife , t o Har l em and !Hack Arts, into Newa rk anJ roli t ica l 1Jo rk (f o r g reat ins i ght into all this , see The0 Jore Hu ds on ' s From 'LeRo.L J o ne s to Am iri ~aral~a , 197 3) . Ye t Barab1 ' s influenc es were felt i n mo ~t c e n te rs o f th e t~ew Black Poetry-- and e v e n in places wh ere !tis poe try h ad no t ac t ually Le en r e a d; 'or , if r e ad , not fully understood and di g ~s teJ . I t was no t unusua l to h e ar a Black yo u th quote a few lines from a poster-poem o r fro m a live r eadin g , but wl10 , \/h e n questioned a bou t Bar nka ' s wo r k s, did not know th e n am e o f n s in g le one . Aft e r Th e Dea d Lect ur e r , Ba r a ka (also pla ywri );ht ) published Bl n ck Hag i e : ' I �Poetry ]% 1.-1 % 7 (1 %9 ), I n Ou r Terr i. hloncss (19 70) , Spjri t , i~i2acl.:i_ (l'J7'2) , as wl.! 11 as 11ume rou s es~ a ys an<l stories. \J itli ,lea l li e co --'2 <lit cJ EL .icl, f in~ (1 9Ci 3 ) 1vhich, a] on~ with Ha j o r ' s Th e }f~w fi l ac! Poe try (1 9(1'.j, s l oH-c a sed the 111 th e Fon1anl to Blu et Fir e , Baraka call eJ Bla ck ~1n i. s t ~ "the new poetr y[ . foundin p, Fc1thc_rs and >kiti1ers, of our na tion . He ri s e , as we ris e (a gin; . Gy the pow ~r of our L>eli. efs , by th e purity and streng th of our actions ." The L>l.:ick r,1an . hol y ri1an. Tile black artist . The man you s ee k . make r of peace. you se e k . speu l:er. The lov e r. Look in. The climber the striv e r. \✓ e The wa rior . Fi nJ yr self . Is you . o r minus, you vehicle ! Go on . The The are tlw y whom Find th e b eing , Ll k Til e vo i c e , th l.! b ad~ Ju s t hover in your soft eyeclosin g s . s e lves . Th e black man . [ s t h e crea tor . Is not h inr; . i/e are pre :,cnting . Plu s Your various We ar e pr e s e nting , from God , a ton e , your own . Now . He thu s sets the " t one " for poets/philo s ophers , reiteratin r, at the sm,1e· ti me mucl) of 1~hat hucl b el' n exclaimed in other wri t i n gs. !Je al , a perce p tive critic .:rnd balanc e d theoret ici.:111 , has publ.i s lwJ two volum es : Bl a ck Bo o).; .Jloo: !otes on !,la ck I. Lbl!ra t ion (J 9 G~, Journal o f llL.~c k · PoeL'ry Pres s , Forwa n l by Jon e s) d lld l1uod0 0 Holler in ' BeJ;op Gho sts (1. 9 / 5 ) . II.L s Aft e rword to n1n ck Fire is t.:rnt µrnu 1111t to flu ghes ' famous decl a ration of the tHcnties. Prc :,c11tin;_~ "'arti s ti c n nd pol itical wo r k " t k 1t 111 u s t b e "c a lled · a radi ca l perspectiv e " Bl a ck Fire should b e re a d " a s if lt were a critic a l re-ex::imination of li es tern politic::il, s o ci a l and c1rtisti c v alu es . " Chall e n g in g an<l exhorting other writers , N~a l continued: We have been, for the most part , talkin g about cont e mporar y 'l' IC \ . ;, V_J ' , �re :1 l iti e s. Ho h a ve not been talki ng abo u t a r e turn t o some g lorious Af rican past. tot a l pa s t . But \,c rec ogniz e t lit:: pas t -- th e l:lany of u s refuse t o accept a trunc a t ed llc',; r o histor y which cuts us off co mpl e t e ly from our Afric a n anc es t ory . To d o so is to accept the very racist assumptions whh:h we abhor . l<.:ither , we wa nt to c ompreh e nd hi s tory totally , and umlerstand the ma ni f old 1,1a ys in \,1hi c h c o nt emp o r a ry problems ar e a ff e ct e d by it. Spe.:ikin g a g ainst th e hind s i ght of ps yc holo gy and turbul e n ce , Neal adJ e d : There is a tension within Bl ack Ameri ca . its .r o ots in the g en e ral hi s to ry of race. And i t h...ts The mann e r in w11ich we see this histo r y dct erm i.nes how we act . should \, e s ee this history? it? How \ /k1 t s h o uld \Je feel about This is import a nt to knm, , because the sense of hO\., that hist o ry sho uld be felt is what either unites or sep: trates u:-; . Finally , h e sums u p what ca n be .c a lled th e cr ed o or mo du s op e r a n d j o f th e Ne1J Black Poe try and tl ,e Black Arts Movement: Th e a rtist a nd the political activist ar e on e . both shaper s of t h e future reali .t y. They a r e Both unde rstand and ma ni pulate th e co llectiv e myth s of the r ace . war rior s , p ri ests , lover s and des troy e rs . Both ar c For th e first v io len c e will be int c rnal--th e de struction of a weak s p iritual s e lf fo r a more perf e ct self . h~ a n ec ess a r y v iole n ce . nut it 1-1ill .It is the only thi n f'. that will d e stroy th e douh l e-consciou s ness--th e t ens i on tl1 n t i s in the souls of b l a ck f o lk . �It was t he kind of c hallenr.;e t h a t sent nw n y n new l y Dl ac k e n ed po e t o r a ctiv ist in t o th e lon ~ ni r,h t of t he so u l to pur r, c hims elf o f re a 1 or irrm g jnC',I e nemies of hi s people . Poetically speaking , howev e r, it wci. s Ba r a k.a ' s " Bla c k Ar t" that se t much of th e pace, form and v iole nt t o n e i n t he Ne w ll l ack Poetry . Poems arc bullshi t unle s s they ar e t eet h or trees or l e mon s pil e d on a step . Or black l a dies dyinr.; of me n l e avin g nickel hearts !;ea tin g th em do1m . Fuck poems and th e y .:ire useful , wd th ey sho o t com e at yuu, l ove what you ~ ru , breathe like wrestlers , or sh udd e r stran:_;cl y aft e r pi :.; sin r, . '..' e want l ive \vonl s of tl1e !tip \ ·o rld l ive f l esh & cour s in r, h l ol>d . ;1c:,.1 rts Bra i ns Sou l s splint e rin i; f ire . Ile \Jane poems like fi s ts h ea tinG ni gt; er s out o f j oc k s or da gg er p oe:.ts in th e s ] i11y b e ] lies o f ow11e r-j c 1v::-, . .CL1c k po,·111s Lo s me ar on girdlrnnanmm mu luLtn bitche s \Jho se brains are red j e lly stuck betwc e11 ' li zah eth t ny l o r ' s to e s . I/hare s ! \:e \ 1, nt 11 S ti_n k in g p,>vms tl1a t kill. 11 Ass as sin poc1;1s , Poen1s tli a t shoot 1_; uns. Poems t l1at 1-.i: e stlc c_ops into .:, ll e ys �and take t he l r t,,ieapo n s l eavin,: thc·rn d eci J with t ont.;cs p- l l cd o uL Qnd s en t to Ir l and . ::nockof f poems f or dop e sc l l i n ~ ,10 ps o r sllck l1.1 l f1 1h ite po l i ti c i .:1 11 s Al rpla ne poems rrrrrrrrr r rrrrrr r r LTrrrrrrrrr rr ... tu ht uhtuhtuhtuhtuh tuhtuh tuh . . . r rr r rrrrrrrrr rr .. . Se tti ne fir es and dea t h t o whiti es .:is ~; . Ile w<1 nt a black poem . And Let the wo r l d be a Bl acl: Poem And l e t All Ulack Peo p l e Sp eak Thi s Po~n Sil e ntl y o r LOUD " Bl a c k Art " was often cit e d a s Lh c sa n ~ uine e1nbo dl1,1en t of the T\ ] ack Aes t h etic am.I a rej e ction of ,Jhite culture and life s t y l e . Po e ms , lln r aka st a t e; s , mu s t n o t o nly have r, u ts a nd e a rt h in e ss (like ll l a c ks ) but tl i'cy mu s t al s o be weap on s and shi e ld ' at;a ins t racism, polic e , merchants , hu s tl er s , " croo k ed po ] i t i ci.a ns and s tatus- c limb i ni: Ill a ck bour g eosie . Abov e a ll , they sh o ul°d exa lt Bl a cb1ess ( " sons ," " lovers ," · " wa rr i ors ," " poets ,' ' :i nd " a ll th e l ove lin e s s h ere in t h i s wor l d ." ) Th ese the n a r e th e domin a nt th emes i n much of the tlew Poetry and the philoso ph ie s stated (with radical div e r g enci es ) fr om co a st t o c oas t . l\araka ' s pur g e ext e nd s thr o u gh po e ms like "P oem fo r lla l f ln1i te Co ll ege Stu den t s ," "Th e R:1c .i. s t," "Lit tle nrow n Ju r, " ("Wr: ARE GODS "), 11 \-l . H . 11 ( a t ta ck on wig - 1-1ea rin [_\ wome n) , " CIVIL RIG!IT S POEI I" ( " lloywill:in s is an et er n a l far,eo t"), " Ka ' l:l n ," a nd f in a ll y , _ in "l e r oy ," h is la s t w.Lll <1 nd t e st amen t: �When I die, the consciousness I ca rry I 11ill to black people. Hay they pick me np art and take the useful parts, the sweet meat of my feelin c; s . And leave the bitter bullshit rotten white p.::irts o. .1,onc. Hu t there are also sensitive love poems in the l.::iter perioJ, poems caught up in the stressed life of EL1ckness (" Sterlin3 Street September" ): "the beautiful black m.::in , and you, girl , child ni ghtlovc, . . . : We are s t range in a way beca 1se we know who we are . Bl ack beings p::issing throu,;:1 a tortured pnssage of flesh . In his Foruard to Black Boogaloo, Bar::ika s::iys of the world : poe t s will change i t." "the sold ; What Nea l' s volume changed has not yet been ascertaine but i t certainly contnins amb i tious anJ successful poetry . His deb t to the older gencrntion of poets, a rt ists and thinkers, can be seen in poems like " Queen !!other ' s Sermon ," "The Hiddle Passar,e and J\fter, " " Love Son~ . in the Hiddl,e Passage, " "Garvey ' s Ghos t," " Lady Day, " "llarlcm Gallery : Inside, " " Malcolm X--An Autobiography ." musicoBraphic interpolations . Neal (re : Frcim the Mal~in~ use of mysticism, clwnt and Dumas) is effe~tive--movinB,scnsin g , and f~eling : Olorum Olorum Olorum ... The horror o[ " The Middle Passage After " is seen i n the "Decked, stacked , pillaged" slaves . "Long Sonr3 i~ Middle Passa ge " vic1;s thl:' RcJ ::; low of sea-death r.1orninr,s . �Other r oems ("Song," "Jihad," "Kuntu," "Orishas") rovenl Neal ' s inter e sts in supernaturalism, African pl1ilosophy an<l th e nlluslve, mysticnl powe rs inherent in the "word." Ile seeks poetically to impl e ment the idens h e stated in Black Fire and a special Black issue of TnR (The Drama Review) in summe r of 1968. The jssue, e d it e d L y Trn~ •s .:ontributin ~ editor Bullins, c ompil~d ideas and plays rooted in \vhaL ,,,as then · called the "new" cons ciou snes s also featured work by Sonia Sanchez and Adam David Hill.er . of the c ll uc e rns of tite New lHack Poetr y . The special issue projecL e J mnny 1!enl' s "The Glack /.rts ifoveme nt" uns a blue-print for i: 1.:-;c k. Art s nnd politicnl chan ~e . l~cltoing state1.tents in fro1c1 l1i s comii1unity," c1nJ noted: Glack Art is tl1e aesthetic and spjrltual sister . of t!ie Black Power con c ept. As such, it envisions nn art tliat speaks directly to the lieeds and /unericn. s pirations of Bl a ck In order to per form this t;isk, tl1e Black Arts Hov e111ent proposes .:i radical reorderin'.~ of the western cultural aesthetic. lt propose s a separate symbolism , mythology, cril iqul.'!, and iconology. The 13lack Arts :m<l JHack Power con c ept both relate broadly to the AfroAmerican ' s desire for self-Jctert!iin,1tion and nationhood. T\oth concepts arc nat_onalistic. (me is concerned with the relation bet ween art and pt1 Li tics; th e other with th e art of politics . But his idea of a "separate" aesthetic 1Jas not e mbraced by all · Illack poets, artist s , or intellectuals . i'eit:her \las there a co1i1plet e H[; reemcnt (or unJerstandin'.~) a mon~ jt::; own proponents. For ex am p le, Spri r;r, s, a v e rs n tlle �.1rtist iind thinke r, led a boycott of l !ajor's Tlic :iew Cl.ack Poetry on th e grounds that j_t was being brought out l, y n 1vhite pub li :; hcr (International Publish e rs) . Dut Spriggs had not objected enrlier to use of liis work in !Hack Fi r e , a lso publishcJ by ,1liltc s (Mor row). J:is pos ition st..1tv1ncn l appeared in TI1~ Journal u( Hlack Poetry (Fall, 196 3): how in the hell ,He tl1e black publishers ever goin~ to ge t o(f into it if not by the assistance of the \-Jriters . how arc distributor s liips ever i;oing tu m.::iture wi.th th e publishers if the hi ghly marketable \10rk s of wrn kelly, j. killens, j c1 wms , 1 neal, e bullins, leroi j, or the like never conics the;ir 11ay? doe s the concept of bl ac k power and bl ack arts extend that far? i say yen, i sily yeil, yea. Spri~gs joined a l a i-ge numb 2r of cd tics and practiuncrs of the BL.1ck Arts--Tour~, 1leal, Crouch , Bullins , Cioncal ves--in the cont rov·ersy over µlack writers ' roles _and respon~ibilitics . Despite the controversy, however., Major ' s .:rntl10logy appeared as a kaleidoscopic offerinr, o[ the New lllack- PoLe t ry . Majer incJ.udeJ a perceptive and fittin ~ Introduction: 'l'llC nNJ:I{ crisis of Llack r ea lity is often studded in th ese poems by the swift, vividly c rucial facts of social realit y ; 1vliich consists in part, any1,ay, · of :1 11 the implications ariJ forces of 111ass me di a , the socia 1 pat terns, the bur ea ucratic ant.! medwnical mediums· of hu 1.1n n perceptions, even of the quickly evolving nature of the huraan psyche in this hi r,hly homo g eniz e d culture, ln all of its electric processes ant.! specia li st fragmentation. IH.::ic.:k reality, in other words, is like any other re ci l Jty profoundly effected by technolo[',y , The �eris Ls and drama of the late 1960s overwlwlms JnJ threiltens eve r y crevice o f human life on earth . Thc.se poems are bor11 ou t of this tension . I n his own poetry , Hajor ensconces Vie t nam , a l ien .:i ti on , impendi1 0 1-1orld destruction, Black l1istory , music , myt h ology, anJ pe r sonal excursions i~to d r eams . lle publis heJ The: Dictionary of Af ro-American Slang (1970) , Sw,i]Jow the Lake ( 1 97 0 ), Symp t oms and Madness (1 97 1), Private Linc ( 1971), The Cotton r.l ub ( 1972) and Th e Syncopated Cnkewa l l~ (l 9 7L1), as \Jell ns novels ~rnd e s says . lie has nlso directed t he ll a rl em Write r s ivorkshor . In the acknow- l ed~ements to Poe t ry , Tbjo r ind e bt s t he antholory to P1<1ny influences : Lowe n fels, Ishmael RecJ, Raph ae l , Art Berger , We lt o n Smi t h , l~yt Fuller , Nat llencltoff , Duclley Randa l l , P..u ssell At ki n s , Bremen, /\1 Young , nml David He n de r son. Major 's " Down Wind Aga i ns t t he Highest Peaks" i s typ ica l o f his st y l e : s h a rp and a n g l e d t wi sted l angu age , spac in gs t l1at ~cplace punctu~tion , tidbits of wor l d knowle<li~ app l ied to tl1e racial s t a t eMe n t (satlr~ or exhort a t ion) , and experilllental typoE;raphy . Reca ll ing hi s " passaee " he :,ces · " Tonto SumlJo l'illic"--notinE th.it even llexico - - " an asskissin!1 nation " --now has the "super-blunde " units 11 hillboarJs. 11 ln the 111idst of nll these cvcnts , the poets vii;oroui,ly pro111ot:ed pro;_;ram:.;' whlclt extended their concept::; anJ vli;iow, . currL!spo11di11;_; edlturs u[ ~,prif~l'.ti ~rnd J\l1111c•d All1rnuli;i \,ere: the Journ~1J; · nariJka , J;iJjor , Nuzzam Al Sudan (now El Huliaj ir) anJ t!eal ueciJ11e contrll ,utin~ editors . was later joined by Tour~ . EJitor-at-large BullLns In the s~vent:iei, ErnLe l!kalimoto was .:1cldeJ as a contributini editor witl1 Ma j or ' s name disappear ing . lfajor , lt,md:111 , Neal , Spri::ms , Bullins , Bar aka , and ,\lhiJmisi have all served .is g ues t ::;peclal eJltors . An lii1portant influence on (and outlet f.or) the ncH poetry , t he Journal \✓iJS �" in 1nw1v ed it or) . 1-n.1y s born o[ Sou l book anJ Di :.1 l op ue 11 ( Co ncalv c s , n o\/ Din gan e , Journal Th e ma gazi n e con tin ues to pr i nt the ne\✓ e s t po e tr y , 7.ercl i n~ in o n oth e r ilr ea s like th e West In d i es ( Sumlil e r, 19 7]) , p l."i ntin 1~ U v L~ l y ne\JS anJ anno un c ements , as we ll as rev i ews ilnd cri ti cism . It s Spr i ng , 19GG , isst1e , f or examr l e , \,,:is d c J i ca t L:cl t o J osep h T . Jo h nso n, Los An ge l es po e t wh o h a.d re centl y bee n k ill e d . ALJt1l l~a rim eJ it eJ Dlac l: Di o. l oi; u e with Spd r; ~s, Tour~, · a n d Go nc a l ve s se rving a s asso ci a t e eu itors . Re l oca tin ~ i.n ~1 e\1 Yo rk in t he late six ti es , l) i n l u3 u e ' s n ew edi t or i a l boa r d wa s r epr~s c n t ed b y Spr igg s, Nikk i Giovanni, Ja ci Ea r] y , El a in e Jon es , S. E . And e rson :m d J ames Hint on. Alham i s i and Ca rol y n Ro dg er s h e c ame Nidwest editors; Spell1:ia n, J11 li a Fi e ld s ;111J Akinsh i ju b e c ame e dit o r s for the So ut h; nn<l Jo a ns an d Kgos it s il e t oot ov e r as Afric a a nd a t-la r ge ed it o r s . So11lhook ' s e ditori a l board nm, inc lud e s : Hamilto n, Alh::uni s i, Car ol Homes , Baba Lamumb a , Zolili, Ng qon d i Mas i iui n i a nd Sh a ni; o Umo j a . Arno n g the a dministrativ e s taff is Don a ld Sterne (Ra hma n) Hhose work app ea r s in Bla c k Fi re a nd ull t he J o urnal s . I Al o ng \~i th Spri ;~:;s , To u re , and L,wry Hil ler (Knt il>u), Rahuan a i de d Bara lrn at Spirit !lo use . Hi s "Tr a ns c:.e nd n l Blue~ ," full of ch a nt/son g a nd line - e xp e riment a tion, fu s e s the worl d o f Bl a ck mu s ic ( a n<l musi cia ns) with the '' strif e riddl e d c onc r ete bo tt oms of sk y scrape r s eas . " Rahma n's influence s, obviou s in his name , ar e seen in h is · stat e ment tha t a "ri ff " so hi gh and g rand "Coul l] b e Allah ." Finall y wi nd i n p, th e poems into a tribut e to th e Bl uc k woman (" flii: t e r bit her bittern e ss humming "), he rej e cts Christians and whit e's and wo.r ns th a t My spea r s s h a l l r a in .... Th e I sla1~ in flu e n ce i s a l so see n in o th e r po e ts o f t he p eriod: · :ip ri ggs , Tour~, na rak a , Ima n, Ne a l, Alha rni s i, Dumas , Ha r v in ~~ . Son i a Sa n c h ez , wh o alon g with ll i kk i f:i ov a nni e me q ~e d a s on e of th e most we ll-known poets of th e �era. These \/01,1en poets nn<l others--.'\udn! Lord o, June Jordan, Mac Jackson, Kattie M. Cumbo, Jayn2 Cor ez , Alexis Deveaux, £olise Loftin, Odaro llarbara Jones in the 8eneral area of Hew York--have cr1.:a tecl n new wave of excitement about th e possib ilities and potentials of Black woman poetry . J\ddin Lj t o thi s flurry of active and int~rest are tl1e new Blnck wom en ' s ma~azines like [ncorc and Essence . The mo s t f rn :10.us of th ese poets is Nikki Giovanni, who is a profound thinke r and provoca tive speaker, but th ese skills and insi 3hts do not come thr ou~l1 to her poetry. Her route to New York was by way of Te nn es s ee and Fisk University where she was a member of Killens ' Writers Workshop . Fame came in the late sixties aft e r she penned a series of vol ,1 t ·ile p r ose- lib~ statement s which were startling : a nd e ven more so, cornin g from a woman. In the sixties she privately published her poetry and wi1s later brou i',ht out b y Broadside Press anct lnr :::,e> r puhlishers . lier volumes includ e Black Feel in ,'. , Black Tnlk, Blacl: Jud 0 e ment (1970), Re-Creation appeared (1 970), My House (1972 and a b ook of poems for childr en , Spin a Sof t Black Sonp (1971). lier antho]of~Y of !Hack women poe t s , fli Pht Comes Softlv , w.1s publisltL·J in · 1970 _and s he has r econlcd albums, written an autobrography , and pub°J.i ::;hed a series of 11 conversations 1 · with tfar 3a ret \Jalker. th e new poets, she h as b een accordeJ acco l ades : Hi~hly controversial aii~ong recipient of Wo11an of the Year J\1-Jard ; featured in ma,;az ines li k.'.! J:l)C)ny, anJ Essence; appear12d on th e . Johnn y Carson Sliow; constantly sou r,ht-nfte r as a speaker o n th e college Y circuit; awarde d an honor;.iry doctorate dczree by 1-/"Llh erforcc University and lab e l e d the "Prince ss of Black Poetr y " by p{e' Itl.> LeHls, l' ncure editor DenounceJ as an "individua list" by MaJ hubuti (Lee) and pr,li.sed by tfa r garc t \Jalker ;ind Addison Gayle, , 1ikki . Giovanni deni ed (Car son show hosted by Flip \Jilson) \Jc.,ing a "ltevo lutionary . 11 lier sinr,in~ of "God llless J\merica" on �naLional television, after receiving tho 11 \lorn:rn o[ the Yc.1r A1-1arJ, 11 prompted letters to lllack publications questionin c her sincerity . Durine the sixties she wrote "Of Liheratlon": Dykes of th e 1mrld are united Fuggots not ~h~ir thine together (Everyone is oigan ized) Black peopl12 these are facts lfuere's your power .... Honkies rule the world ... The most vital commodity in America Is 13lnck people Ask any circurncized ltonkie ... The fin.:il stanza of this poem warns: Our choice noH ls war or death Our option is survival Listen to your own Black hearts "Conc c rnin~ one Res pons-Lb] e Negr~ \•lith too much Power" echoes other · .thclfles in th e Hev, ~Jack Poetry. The 11 r12sponsiblc negros" arc "scareJ" and on tlil! ruu. Site tells them that your ton g ue must be rrnno~ed since you have no brain to keep it in check In "RefJections on April 4, 1968," she calls Dr. Jan~'s assassin;ition "an ncl of war." In "The Great Pax l-n1ite" she paraphrases a section fro:11 Genesis in the IlibJ.e , noting that the word_ ~,ns "Dea th"; "d ea th to all niggers." Occc.1sionally a line of inte1·est jutted throu~h th e otherwise pole1:1ical concerns. The punts �of 11 1.l~autiful 131.ick Men" "hur,~ H \at i like to huz ." There is tl1e charc1cteristic repelition anJ e1.1otion-freiglite.J languar,e as in "The True lmport of the Present Dia lo Gue, !;lack vs Negro ": c~in you Lill Can you kiJ l Can a nir, gc r ki ll Can a nig,_:er kill a honkie C,:lll n niG~er kill the flan . .. Can you stah-a-jew ... Can you run a protestant down wi t h your ' 68 El dorado ... Ca n yo u piss o n a blo nd head .... The poem continues , reciting names of t he " enemy " anJ catalo e ing crimes .-ind · wro n g-doincs visi t ed on Blacks , finally askinB : Learn t o kill ni eg ers Learn to be Black men Mu c h of what Nikk j_ Giov anni was sayinr, in the sixties moved BJ;ick youtll--_il was not always safe or chic to disa g r0e even if you wan t ed t o - -and so1ne of it· was ~Jmirc1ble. But these things do rio t 11ake her wo r k defensible ns poe t ry . " 11y Poem" ,::rnd " Poem for Ar tha" are .certa inly worthy , even noble, subjects but they fall lei c; urely down t h e page , -anglinB here anJ t here but revealin3 notlt :in :~ of the in s i r, ht into hunnn beini:;s or poetic power thnt one finds in a poem by llelene Johnson , tbrr,aret Halker , C\/1:~nc.lolyn nrooks, or Ja yne Cortez . 11 Nikki-Rosc1," her most often quotecl poem from_ the early period , is a hi gh point in her work. It ll.:1s a believable flow in the conversation-like lan ?, u age> (chnract'2ristic of �hc'r poclry) nnd th ~ details pull on the inner reachL'S of th.:: collective Black experience as she unfolds the story of [nmily fun nnd misfortune: your bio ;; raphers never understand your father ' s p.Jin ns he sells his stock anJ nnothcr dream goes And though you ' re poor it isn ' t poverty that concerns you Hy House is n n e Her Nil:ld l,iovanni. The venom h.Js lessene<l, thoup;h some of the ranipa ~e is evident in a poem like " On Seeing Black Journal and Hatchinr, Nine Negro Leaders r.ive Aid and Comfort to the Enemy to n uot e l{ich a rd Nixon." Again theie appears to be no viflorous interest in stylistic or lin B11i st ic develop men t. The poems deal with love, the city, childhood (nhmy s her rites of woman-passa r,c ), Africa and Afro-American culture . can be glimpsed in 11 Iler promise· ontl potcnt.ial .\fr i.ca I" : on the bite of a kola nut i was so high the clouds blanketin~ africa in the mid uorning fJ i3l1t were pushed away in an angry flick e r. of the sun's tongue . . .. N Lkk i Giovanni's irnportance lies 1.10rv i :1 her personal influence (especially her ~reat Jrama on albums u.nJ in pul ili.c) wh.Lch has inspi.rcd many young Black wo1 ncn to 1-trite auout the1:1selves ancl their world . But some of tliem, like Hae Jackson who won Blacl : llorL, ' s Conrad Kent Rivers Award, h~1v e yet to show the "r;tuff" of r,oetry in their Hritings. 1969 by ll la ck Dialo i; u12 Publishers. Can I poet uith You 0,1s publi.sl1~d in r: iJ,_ki Giov;:rnni \/rot0 tl1e I n trotluction and �H:h' .Ltcl . .:; ,m, in turn, cleclicated tl e book to her. Po<2t ls full of th<.! "com plaints " that quickly became monotonous in the poetry of the sixties. ln themes ancl usages, tl1e poems resemble tlikki C:iovnnni I s \.'urk . Reactionary," "To the ile~ro Intellectunl , 11 and " Note from .i " To u F iL,lcl lHgi.;er," are familiar to the confus.ed and disturbeu ann:11s of the new poetry . Sonic1 Sanchez , clo ::, (;ly iJentified uith the ne\1 poetry and the new consciousness, alternat~s between terse, explici t verse, and the sprawling , prosaic meanderings tl1at often serves the auuitory der.1.:incls of the ne\, auJienc:es . Formerly 1narriccl to the poet EtheriJ!;C. Knight, she lws actively worked as a playwright, po2t and teacher. People (J.970), It's a Neu Day: Iler books are Homc.cominr (1969), hll! a eridddcld · Poems for Youn~ Drotlias and Sistus (1971), Love Poems (1973) an<l an anthology from her youni \frit ers \Jorkshop :it the Countee Cullen Library in New York, Three llundred and Sixty De,recs of Iaackness Comin r, at You (1972). "Malcolm" is a la111ent and a nlght-fillc,d memory for her: Yet this man • thi s dreamer, tliick-lippec.l with words will never speak again and in each winter when the colc.l air cracks uith frost, I'll breD.the his breath D.n<l mourn my g un-fill ed nights. Her "for unborn nwlcolms ," however is another approach. Constrictin)j \1ords, v' structure, anJ sttemptin g to achieve a Black street speech, she tells Blacks �to 11 ;•.iL the 1mrk out " to the "man/boy " mur der e r who is tnl:in1>; a 11 l10lida y . " Jaacks are " hip to his sh it " ancl \·1hen " blk/princes ' die ap;ain white '' fa ggots " "will <lie t oo. " An experimentalist, Sonia Sanchez added her voice to the flood of angry , cynical ancl clcrisi.ve lnnt ua ge in the new verst ("denition for blk/childr cn"); a polic emnn is a pig ancl shd be in a zoo with the other piggy an .rna l s . and until he s t ops ki l ling bl k / people crackin8 open their heads reme1:1ber . the policeman is a pig . (oink / oink .) She a lso joined the poetry of Black love .:ind man- woman unity , seeking throu gh her particular style and voice to heal 1munJs of doubt , mi s t rus t and lonel iness . . In " to all sisters " she says " hurt" is not the " bar," women " shd be in ." are advised to love the Bl ack man who makes them " turn in/side out ." They Her journey has carried lier from th e fire of the blatant revolutionary to the quieten ed turbulence of Love Poems--being , maybe, amon g the first of th e new poets to fullfill Randall ' s prediction that Black poetry would "move from the �dc:!c l ,tma t o r y to the subj e ctive mod e ." Jun e J o re.Ian published \n10 Look at Me (196 9), Some Chan '.; es (1971), an antl1olo gy, Soulscript (1970), and a volume of po e try by stuc.l ~nt s in h e r Brooklyn creative writin g work s h o p, The Voic es of th e Chil<lrnn (1970). li e r last v o lume of poe Lry is This is R New DRy (1974). Co ncise, anal y tical, nnd h oo l:- folk based, h e r poetry is also a free verse style characteristic of pr a ctically all the recent ·B lack peotr y . "Un c le Uull-b oy " r e l a t es t h<2 J ca th of a man Hhose ey e s "1•1 cre pink with alcohol." Th e liroth e r (un c l e ) r ,~1 1l 11 j s e es , in the 1nan n c, r o f Bl ack me n, a bout th0j r si1a ri11 ~ o f s tr ee t-talk, e xp e nsiv e sho es , a nd alc: oh o l. i\n,I f .i_n;,1lly: ll i s brothe r d ea J fro m drin Li n,~ Bullu oy dr an k to cle a r hi s thinkins s av1 the roach inside the riddle. Soon the bubbles from his glass were the only bits of charm which overcame his fold ed an1s. Audre Lo re.l e ' s "Rit e s of Pa ssa g e"· (for J!LK Jr) eulo g iz e s Dr. tang : Now rock th e boat to fare-the-w e ll. and r eme mbers hirn this 11C1.y Quick c h ilc.lre n kiss u s we u r c ~~ rowin/j throui_', h <lre an. L! ucli o f Au d r e Lorc.l e 's r e cent work conc e rn s y oun g peo ple; eve n th e titl e o f ,, h e r late s t book, From a La11 \Jhere other People Live (1973), carrie s the a1-1e and dr eam of the child's wor] d. She \ffites now al.Jou t t eac h e r s , rncn-1vo111e n relutio n ~, , s e a sons , dr eums , " As I Groll up Again," and " Bl..ict !!oth e r \fomun " �u h o t l1i 11 1-. s of li er 01m 1,10 th e r I s s·t reni_; th 1-.rhen 11 !3 t:rnn2, ers coue t o coup li111cn t" he r : I l e arne<l from you -to den y 1:1y., cl f t hrou;il! yo ur d cni.::il s . Am on~ th e yo unzer :1e11 1.rrn:1e n poe t s , Ju<ly Simm on s , Al exis Devt.:a ux a nd Yt) t'I'. El o u is , Lof tin s in[; o ut . Jud ith ' s Blu es ( l.\ ro.::i<lside) 1,as pu b lish ed in 197J . The po e ms s ubme q ;e thems elves in the tr o ub l e <l huma n ps ych e (" Sch izo ph r e n i a) , :.i nd ex plore th e " Youth Cult," "llom en , " a nd " Daf fodils " --altho u ,•, li th e title s <lo not reveul th e poe t ' s pithy s c ~1rch ini.;s . ltef l ec tin r; J lllly S L1111'1ons ' St)S t:1 i nc<l study of psyc h oloi;y , th e po e try yi e l<l s its me.::min ~ as the multipl e l .::iyers of t e n s ion s a nd in s i [;h t s a r e ,n c overcd . In "Schi2op hre 11.i.a " th e " anil!1al sq uats " nex t t o th e " piano" in a "c o rn e r" wit h a n ab no r ma l number of l eGs , .::inns , · a nd a mouth th a t s tr e tche s fr om "forehea <l to :1b d omen ." nut th e poe t ass ur es h e rs e lf tl1 a t if sh e do e s not lose control it 1mn ' t come back insid e of me Elouise Lo f tin ' s po e try (Ju1,1 bish, 1 9 72 , Eme rson ll a ll) has y outl1ful , · z esty irn.:i i:;e ry, indicativ e p e rha ps of tl1 e s e n e w· t e chnician s ' e .:i :, e . " Ra i n Sp r e a d 11 inf orms t ha t L.:i s t ni Eht threw her l e e s o pe n to me .. • . Sh e has th e new woma n s e n s ibility , a Go od know l edge of soc i a l la nJsca p e , a nd the c y nici sm often found a mong tod a y ' s youn g , Eifted a nd !H ac k . c a ug ht" di sp la ys h e r l1u mor and \.Jit: i f th ey c a t c h you "eettin �\Jit h your pan ts down Offin G your ~ua rJ or pee ing f o r f ree if the y catch you Jo i ng suuc Lhing crazy with qu otes a r ound it and try t o 1m1!-e you feel lite you been catched you must be doing so~e thin g ok . / Spirits in tl1e Str e ets (1973) is Alexis Deve aux ' s s trane e but f as cina tin g pro se-p oe tr y account o f Growing up in Harlem . ~- .t/ : A Hest InJian mo ther, d J.spa1.rs c.., over a hu s band ' s misuse o f his wife and children , complains : lord why he beat tha t woman so? ..md them children god only know wha t ' s gonna h;ippen to them. eatin po ison. jesus have mercy . children. has lye . eat you up insid e you can ' t be too careful \•J ith you got to w~ t ch them ev e ry s cconJ . The Horl<l is so evil honey you know what i 1Hean? merciful j e su s s hame th em with th e l as t word. Thes e exampl e s r e pre s e nt onl y a fr ,1c tion o f the new po e try be ing \ffitt en by youn ~e r (a nd older) New Yor~ ar e a poets . Sooc o thers arc Catl1c rin c Cuesta s , Phillip So l o1,10n, Gay l e Jone s , St ep he n Kwa rtlcr , Va nessa llown rd, Rh ond:.i Hill s , �£1nd Clen Tho1:1pso1,, to n: 1.1c just a hnncl[ul. the carli.er period also ruhlishe<l n12w ite1:1s . Forest (1967) \v;is i.ntroducc ,l by Jon's. br.ars no do.te. Po e ts who ;~ot their starts in llenJe r son ' s Fe] Lx of the Silent The mcn eogrnph,~J TliL: PL1 e lry of Soul Il e also publis h e<l De trayor of 1-Lirlcm in 1970, tli L' s ,, me year h e re - locatctl . to Berkeley . Essentio.lly a Har l em poet, llcnclerson survey~ everythin ~ from the "ll,frl et;1 r~ehellion, Summer 1964 " to " Har l em Anthropology." The tr::insitions and outreaciiin~s of these poets are also evident in a poet I like Toure who in 1968 wen t to teach lllack Stullies nt S::in l'ranc.isco SL1te Colle;:;e . liis \vorks are J~(l97 0, Third \forlJ Press) and Sonr,hai ! (1972 ), the latter publ.isheJ by Sone;h;ii Press and introduced by Kille.ns . 'l'ot1r; ' s · "Soul-;:;if ts" ;ire amply spic eel 11itli philosophy, ~lo.ck history , iHack mu s ic:, IsL:un.ic .influ e 11Cl:!S , nnd " Juju" which s oys Coltri1nc ' s lw l" n j s "c:1 ~;c,1,l in~'. fount.:1.ins u[ blooJ nncl Lones ." Son;;hai ran~es fro n1 satire~, of Di:rna noss unJ Dionn e 1/arwLck to insincere activ Lsts; tl1C:! magicnl power t)f 1vords to . 0 the structure fideal Rlack society. Tour~ ' s list of influence s (s cc· Forward) expl.:iins much about some c,.: the Dl.:ick poetry eman.:iting from t he Ne1·1 York are.:i; t!e.:il, Dum.::is, Dar aka , Goncalves , Coltrane , Pharoah Snnders , C·ecil HcBce--all called " Poets o[ a lfation-in-Format.ion. " Relutec.l develop1:ll.!nts of th e New York movement c,rn Ii<.: seen ill such projecls as the Gh e tto ' GS ( Sol BotLJ ~ ) ~rntholor,y or Lhe lforksl10i' for Youn;; \fritc.rs in !Iarlem; \lakr.:1, o. neu llo s to 11-l,ased journal devoted to the examination " of events , the arts~ iJeas"; I\etch Ain ' t (1974) , Celes Tlsdale ' s antliolu;:y (llroac.l s iJe) of "Poems from Attic a " ; a new nntho]o~y of youn ~: poets, \l e Be Pocti.11 1 (1974), Tisd:ile; anJ llriters \!orkslwp .\nthu l o ~•.v . t:o unifying threaJ runs through the work of. New York area poets, except that of a relentless acceptance anJ pursuit of thei r Blackness . One n o t es , however , -;: �t hat 1,1y:-;L i.clsm , e: ..:11n l 11.:1t i on of t he occult , cos1aic-1.,uslc.:1 l fon1s ~mJ sub j ec t s , . .rn J the l n fl u e n ce of I s l am a r e 1,1or e ev lcl en t th ere t h.:in in t he poe try o f o th e r re g ions . Du t th es e arc , o f cours e , gen e r a l i t ies .1hi ch a \1a i t 1:1ore h-Ln d s i ~~ ht 1 anJ r e s ea r ch b efo r e the y can fe fii.1 .:1 li zeJ a nd pr ese nt e d as s i gn i f ic . mt p h e - nomena in the l µr:;cr l,'.[ll'S tr y of th e poe try . Fin.::ill y , f or th e ilcw York .'.1r('~l, the fir e o f th e or a l t radl ti o11 wa s i e nit e d b y th e dr.:1matic inca ntor y (Jrum:1ccomp:111i ed) J e clamat:lo ns of "the La s t Poets" and "the Orig inal La st Poets." i\l o n g with Gil Scott-Ileron, th e lr i r:ip ::ict on the Gl a d '- mn s ses have b ee n obvious, if temporary. Th e re were boome r a n g i.n g eve n t s wh i c h provid ed ::e1, YorL 111 tli ,1 cont i 1\u;, ] flow o f li fe blood whil e it r ep a i d o th e r ar e a s throuz h e xch a n ge pro gr .::ims ;:imon g poets and teach e rs. Ne a l, for e xample, is a Phil aJe l r hl a n 1v h o a tt e n ded Lin c oln, but has end ed uµ in Harl em , with occasional short s t ays a l Ya l e , lI01-1 ard, So uthern Univ e r s it y , and l~e nt St a te Univer s it y . Simil ar pn ttern s can be s eQ n in dozens of other poets wh o cri s s-cross th e c o untr y anJ tl1 '. u o rld, some time s y e a rly , t e aching and writin ~ . Duri ng th e N2w York r e surgence a nu mber of things wer e go in g Hell for Black Poetry in Penns y lvsni.:1: Lin_c oln (? ... Univ e r s i ty --which produc ed To lson, Hu gh e s, e t a l-...:delive red :m othe r d iver se of p o e ts d urin g this pe riod: Carl Gre e n e , Mary-Louis e llo"rt o n, Ev e r ~tt Hoa g land, S.E. An de rs on, Ke lly Benjamin, Gil Sc ci t-ll c ron, ll e rnadine Tinner, l'"!. it a Wh i teh ead, and othe rs. Hoa g land is a Broadsid e-poe t (Black Velv e t, 1970) a nd Sc o tt-H ero n (Fr ee Will, Pi ece s of a l ~ n, etc.) ts a recording po e t-sin ge r. Co nv e r g ing a t point s like the Muntu Bl .::i ck a rti s t r, roup-- f ounded b y Nea l, C.11. f ull e r, th eo r e tician Jimmy Steua rt, and Mar yb e ll e lfo or e --Phih1d e l phia poe t s fo und variou s kinds of ass i s tance. Ot he r Phila d e l phia poe t s are Gre e n e (19 45- Smlth fr om the old e r sch oo l, F. J. Br ya nt . (194 3- ), Lu c y ), Cla r e n ce Ma l o n ey (1940- )' �Pat rord, Joseph Bevans Bush, J.:m12t M. llrooks, Doughtry Lon g (19 42Caro] Jenif e r, Don Ni3zcll. Black Poets \/rite On: Hor ks by some of .these you thful poets nre in An Antholo ~y of Bl~ck Philado l n hi a Poe ts (1970), published by the lllack History Huseum Conunittce . duction s ta tcs: ), Harold Franklin's Intro- " A BL\CI~. POET IS A KIND OF HARIOR" --thus link in ~ Phila~cl1 1 hia s e ntim c-n ts to those in !:cw York and Boston . The Rlack Butterfly, Inc . , Has one o f the sev e r al cross-road s f o r vario u s cultural/political activities in "\ P!1iladelpliia . Its founder was lio.loncy (noH Clwb:i T:1) wl10se Di.1.1e11sio11 '., of Horninu Hi.lS pul>lisliecl in 1 964 ill Puplona, Sp.:iin. " CooJ Fri d:.iy : celebrntes a " sultry brO\vn iji rl ' h'lio " seems a supe ri o r aniu:11 ." "s e pia siren " also holds the "s emell" of a "viviJ passion ." poets exp lor e city life, Africn, and exalt Blackness. 2 i'L!l ." 'l'hi.s Ph.iL1Jcl ;, h.i ~: 'there .is, ton, tl1e ro. ge and vehemence often f ound in New· York anJ Chic a :~o poetry. A sense of \~ha t hapj1ens on "Cool Blac.k Ni z hts" (Traylor) a lso c ap tures drivin g strGet · rhythms anc.l thyme s : th em hord-loving ha rel-talking harc.l-lovin"., Cool black eludes and th em fine-looking finC- WiJllc in i.; fine-talking fine-loving them fin e soul sisters .. . . '7 In P.itt s l>urgh th e rel\ born the s ho rt-lived Black Lines : StuJies (1970). /\ Journal o[ TI La ck It puLllsheJ Pittsburgh 3rea poets like EJ Eolie r son , Au gu s t �\i.Ll~;o,1, .Joanne Drax ton, as well as poets from Lhe !-!id1.;est like .\1 Crover An1stron,; and H.e<lmond . The university of Pitt:~burgh Press openeJ up to Black poets that saae year , publishin:_; Hichael llarpcr (Dl:';_ir John, Dl'.!nr Coltrane , 1970; Song : C:rn I ?,et n h'itne:ss , 1973), ftoberson (I/hen Thy J:ing is a Boy, 1970), ,md C:cralcl Barr ax (Another kinJ of Rain , 1970). ltoberspn ' s poetry runs the gamut of ·u;emes ,:1nd styles--from neat dr:1111:1 to slan t ed spncings and slashes. In "mayday " there is an "und erside of hcnven" anJ the warnini?; from one misunderstood that he is "armeJ" to fingt the fin::il kinJling of your <lrearning. " Othello Jones Dresses for Dinner " ls a satirical look corning to . Dinner " theme. :1 t the "Cue,,s \!hu ' s After <l::itin~-; a white wom::in , the narrator assures her par en ts that he is ' \.;ell 1:1annerc<l. " Roberson a<lds his voice group of Pittsburg poets which includes Kirk Hall (194!f- Lo a 8 rowin g ) . Poetic talent was being sired southward in Washing t on, D.C . 11here Sterling Brown continued to teach into tlie late sixties. II01:ard, by 110\, l ea<ling all lilack universities in tl1e new conscio usn ess , was the scene of a number of significant disturba~ces . toward th e new trends. The <listurbances nudged the scl1ool While Howard's poetic history can be traced throu:3h the early days of S tcrling Bro1.;rn (and into tlie 1-loward Poets) , the· school l1as ~ro<luccd a number of youn~er wril~rs: Clay Goss, Richnrd Wesley , E . Ethelbert Miller (Andromeda, 1974), .'.ln·d . Paula Giddings. The school ' s new image atmosphere was deepened anJ broa<lened by the appointments o f the Guianese poet D.:J.111~s an<l Stephen llen<lerson ( En~lish Chairman at rlorchouse ) who heads the Institute for the Arts an,l Humanities. However, Howard <lrama was played out against a series. of <levelopnents in tl1e surrounding communities~ Federal City College (Scott-l!eron), Center for Black E<luc::ition (Garrett), �llcw Thini; in Art :rnd /\rchitectur e (Top p.)e r Care-!\·/ , Caston N12al) , The Nc\7 School of Afro-,\.merican Tlwught (G :isto n Heal ), · a nJ Dru111 & Spea r Books core (and Pre ss ), the D.C. Black Repertory (Hooks ). In addi tion t o Da:nas anJ llend12rson, the Institut e k,s aJJL!J ~Ltdhub uti (L ee) , Kill 0n:-, , Goss, trm-in , Arthur P. D.::ivis and J\ hr,1os ZuDolton . the pro 1•,ra1a ' s servic e t ,, poe ts has he e n inv.:1luable. Alre.1dy Selec tcd for honoring so far , have b een Baral~J , Gwendoly n Brooks, Joans, .:1nJ Dodson . poets were nlso featured in the First .\nnunl Synposiurn: A nu~bcr of Lucille Cli[t o n, Coss, Scot t-llcron, Adesnnya Alnkoye, Hiller , and Mari Ew1ns . I Toure, Johnston a nd Kgo si t si le were gu ests for a pror,rar.1 ex:i!:i inin :'. th e :\friciln Cultur ul Presence in the Americas. Several poets have been invited to read and be recorded for tl1e permanent audio/video library: Jayn e Cortez, Crouch, Davis, Sarah Webster Fabio, Harper, Jeffers, Joans, Redmond , Sonia Sanchez, Scott-Heron, Bruce St . Jolm , Margaret \·l.'.llker, and Jay Hr i ght. In 196 8 G.:iston Neal said iis "philosophy" \vas "to purg e myse l f- of · the whiteness within 1:1e am! link cor:1p letely \.'ith my Black brothers in the struz 0 le to destroy t:12 enemy and rebuild a DLtck :,:.;1 tion. 11 Ile ap p2ar ctl t u at that task for a while before the Afro-American school close ~l . te wor k in i;. li1 "Tuc.i_ay " he so.id the tone of his life resc1:tbled a " g rowled minr,le<l" the g roan of the po.st .. :. and he lamented the j un ;;les \•J!lich ha.I ii ..2 en -- def l0\1ereJ by napal:n ... ) Lul Carter , another D. C. poet , nppears in llndcrst,mdin~. the Ne\1 BL1ck Poetry. lie evokes tlie spirits of the "Hero es" of Orangebur~ , J,1ckso11, Her.1plt is, i~ew York, anJ na shville, recalling _tlut d uring il riot i n ~:.1shviJlc he \Jas l~idln~ some\J here in uy r,1i nJ \vich LlJridie Cle aver ... q;0 \ �"lto o u ; " i s an un s uccessful atte1.1 pt to fuse the:: J r:.1Lt,1 o f co ll o( u L.1 1 el.1cl, Lm 0 u'1 ~'-' \1itl1 :.1 fon.1al tn ::, li.sh narr a tiVl~ a Lo ut h i s r: rand1aoth c r. poets liv in 6 or publi s hi1 2, Other in the D. C . .1 rea <lu r in g the sixc · 2 s a !lll st~vcntiL,s ), c11h.l Be atrice we re llerna<lettc Golden (1949r ) , \!ho ov.e r the yeot· s has contributed [; n .!a tly to the z rm , th Hurphy (190 8of Uln c k po etry . Sh e cd it c::J t!1ree i m1rn rt.:rnt anthologies: :Cbony 1'.liythm (194 7) onJ To<lny ' s Nei> ro Voices (1970). n c1: ro Voices (19J o ), · llcr mm v o lu1aes of poetry ure Love is a Terrible Thini> (19lf5) an<l, with i1ance Arnez, The Rocks Crv Out (19 6 9, nrond ~ i.<l e ) . Iler mm poet r y h ns n,ov e J fron1 ::i traditional meter to n tr odi.tional free verse dealin13, in th e new pk1s c , with tensioris caused by overemph.:isi2in?, "white" and "131:.ick , " anJ \-: ar . She is currently director o( the Negro Bibliographic ,:rn<l lles'-'arch Center .:i nJ serv c s :.is m:.10:.1,; in ;_; editor of its publication Bibliographic Survey: The l~egro in Print . Poetry by other D. C. area poets can be found in Transition, a journnl .of llmJarJ .'s ·Afro-American Studies Dep::irtment. Editors are Hiller , Iris Ilolid, y, °rlln Ilnnlin r; nnJ Veronica Lowe . Adjacent to D.C., in Baltimore more strength is added to tltc t-otem . ' Lucille Clifton (1936), Sau Cornish nn<l Yvette John son (1943) h::ive produced poetry tltat holds them in good stead . Good Times (1969) , Good News About th e E.-:irth (1972) and An Ordinn rv l!omc1n (1974) are volumes produced by Lucille Clifton who also writes many children Is bool~s . : .. She currently teaches at Coppin State College in llaltimore where she lives with her husband and six children . temperament . Ev~n her title~ su g~ est somethinc nhout lier spirit a nd In the swamp of depression and bleakness, it is in<lce<l warming to sec someone proclaim Good News! which \-, ill not "rus t or break. " "Eldridge" i s compared to a meat "cleaver" And th_e re is humor, irony anJ truth in l r1\ \. , �"La t c'. l ev ": Hh erc th e " nlHay s dru nk " ct c 1 i v ery man s.:i ys : 'I' m 25 y 0~ rs o l d and a l 1 tl1t · whit e boys ar c yo un ge r than me. But whlJ c c,; ome sinl_; ;;oot! times in t h e ki.:: c h e n, t h e r e a r e a l s o o th e r ack no11l cd gemen u: "Ma lc o lm," "Eldri df;e ," "Bob )Y Seal ~; ," an d th e stu tlent-p a rtici pants at J a c!: s on .i ncl 1:e nt States . Good r:ews tempo r a r y sc' Lt jnr, t o Biblicnl stori es . f )Out th e Car t h g iv e s a Bl a ck or c on' !os t a r c un iq u e , li ke "Mary ": this kiss sof t as c ott on ov e r my b 1 ,' n:, t s al l s hiny hri .' ·1 t some thin [', i_s i n thi s n j ght o h Lord h a v e me rcy on me i fee l a , 1r ct c . in my mou th · b e t\leen ff\l l e gs i s e e a t r ee /1.n Or d j nn r y \lomc1 n i s c ns cio u s l y 1m rna n a ntl th e poems, like thos e in other vo ] umeE" , dea l 1, i th cv r ·yday thin ~s--"ord inary '' thin p, s. Howeve r, she has become mo r e of the myf i c, usin g surrea] and n llusory ima ~e r y as in " Ka li," "The C min g o f Kali," " !!e r LOV!= Poem," a nd " Sa lt." "God's Hood" is: \ V �i t breaks. is tir l'J 0 01 1<l:.1111 1 s 11h i 11i. n Cori i s lt i. ;; ; ,mys . poL' l, t e.cc hcr an <l e <l itor . I/inters (1% 3 ) , Your ll.111c1 llis b ,JO k ::; LncluJ e .\n !~les n 9u 7), i n Nin t~ (1 9 70) , r: e ncrations (1971), o.nd l'eople Bene :1Lh tl1c h'indO\v (n.d.). from the BLtc: ' eve ' s f ancy c1m: \Ht!. l·l . Luci ~rn, he e<litcd Chicory: Youn!' Voices Gh e tto (1969) wh j -.: h <lcvelo pe <l into a series still b2in3 pub- lished by tl1l l'. noch PraLt Free I ibrary (Co11u11unity Action Pro g r;1111) . ediL o r o r Chi .i.s ML' lvin 1:J w, r <l Brown. ,~ ni.tion and is d Cornish h .J s Et u c h i, t y li s ti c ammu- preci se navicat , r of lan:::, llcl.c\ C. HIT!l CRIPPL Ei.J FINGERS \!i\ITINC. F( your (in g l.!rs folded in your lap control the sc· rpenl in your e yes " your L.1c e never st a rin ;; wi.th a s 11 il c; in yo ur rnffleJ color your ey e: populat e th e 1,rick 1~ Current Ile t e ll s " l llLJ JJL E CL,\~~s r. r m . s Nf, TO LICHT 'fllEIR CIC:,\ il ETTS ": �Tltt.:!SC l'. t1ti.mor 2 .oe ts, anJ ot hc:rs , conti outp ut that e i:1Lraces t he South wher e. 1:1.::iny pol l UL'. Ls th e vast line of poetr y nm1 live : Spell:a.:111 , .Tef f ers , ) , P i nld c Lrnc , tlw 1'. Ll ~i\ l~TSOUTII poets (Nl.!h' Or lea 1s), the f -Ullllira po-2 ts (North Car () 1ina Central Univer s it y ), Betty ) , Ladclc X (LesH c Powell), Le o J. lb so n (.Hl cnit :, ), Lor <! nzo Tho mas . The South ha s received ant! g Lven new Lloocl to poetr y thr ou~;h cx c h:111 1: •' p ro ~ ra1 .. s uhich, sinc e tLe 1 d te fifties , h:1v,~ allowed for a fl ,)'vl of po e t '., an cl tec1chcrs to ancl from the So uth. Pl) d .. Some well knO\.Jn o 1J c r names arc ! Johns ,Jn (J.:une s) , Br::iithwnit c , Tolson, ll.:lyclen, Jeff e rs and Ve s ev . ' )m e youn ' Redmond (S o uthern), and K'.;ositsile ( Nortl c r poets Sou t h are ,\udr c Lo nl e. (To o ? a]oo), · i ght ( 'I )u 0 aloo and T:iJ l a der,a) , Spellman (Mor e hous e ), C::1rolin, A & T). The South, too, has exp e ri e n c(•,1 tremendous a nd Jrarn:it i c chem:,• •s a s n result of the Black Consciousness Movemen t. Some! symbols , re ever: •her e : in New Orleans, SUDA' Soutn 1 \. The Free Southern and the Da.,hi.ld theat e rs 2s t poetry-music theater g roup in Housto n·, -th e Theater of Afro-Art s i n Miam i , ant! Atlnnta I s I: lac.:k Image. org;.ini.zed the Cenu· fu r llla t ln Atl:mte , Spellman Art \/!ii.ch publ i s hcs n11vth:n (1970) . S tone bcca11ie edjLor , Ll,o n (Slt:l.!11t ,n<le l~har] i s \!l rn berli) poclry c clitor .:rnd Sp c Jlman · cd:i t or o( L! Ssay s, 1d features . to Donald Ji re clor oJ The :;urn1:1L!r (1971) issue of lU1ythrn \/i.l'.i al :10 a 111emorL.1 l· . Gralt;.1111 (1 '. J/14-1 9 I) , pu et -' Lltl·o re::L Lei.an \-1]10 succecd e J · 1, j 1 I.ens. i.ls th e \Jrl t ,•n; \fo r L ·1 up at l.'i:;L . C'r ;.ih:11'.1 , 1vho \·!.'.lS also a rnu:;ician , h:1 d publi. sl1 d t hr ee b uok s : r:I 1ytl1rn :} a i d lt e '\,,as runni.ni~ me of th e b:.1d<lest Hockshop:, in the South " ::incl 11 Lci.1clii11 ;: i.l t the n <•v olution:, y Peo p l e ' s colle~e in l-!ashville ." l·lissis ~;i.ppi , host cLl in 1 973 the bi - ·cntcnnial c c ] c liratio n of the publication - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - �of Phy ll is \.'h ea tle y ' s Poc111s . lier r, ·. from the s t an c e sh e t ook i.1 fo r 11y ' a nd Octob c1 .Jo llr ney (197 3) Sh e turn cJ to the n ove l i:.! Ce 1 poe tr y , ho\lev c r , h as c h::i n t',ecl so1:1d1ha t o plc . Yet Pronl iets For a ~~ew lby ( 19 70 ) cli ff 1-.: u lt t o ju cl ge aga in s t h e r other \JO rL i11 the fift Lvs a n,l c-, i :: Li es b ut sev e r.:.11 pocw; i n Octobe r we r e publi s )1 '-' J in j our an l s lie t\veen 1 9 30 am! 19 60 . l'r on he t:, i s a c hr o ni c l e of th e C i. v i. l l~ i g ht s ~lov ement up to i ts allL1 1c c with Black Pm .. e r. ,1bo ut 11 She write s Bi n 1in 13hnr.1," " S tre e t ·ne mo ns trnti ou , " " J a ckso n , Missis s ippi, " on Ha s hi n: .: o n , and the 1. c \1 prophe ts : th e lla rch " Jer er,1 i.J h , 11 " Jsa i~11i , 11 " Amo s ," .:.111J " Joel ." In " Ofor d is .:i Le g end " >' 1e sa ys ~wme " fo u ght th e c ivil \•m r a ll ov e r ag ai1L " Ne w pro phe t s are Malc oJ 1 , 1led-)3a r Ev e r s , AnJy Goodma n, tl ich a e l Scltwc rnc r , a nd Jame s Cha n e y , who fou gl11 " oppr ess i.o n " in Louis i an;'l, Mi ss is s i ppi a nd C.:!or;; i a . OcLober is .:.1 qui e t e r , 1:10, emp l oying a va r i e t y of v e r se for ms i11 c] udinr, Lb e balla d in " il a rrL.: t Tubu:.i1 ." lier own unique s onnet~ i s see n i n "for Ma ry McLeod Dethu ne " and " For P.::i ul Law r enc e Dunba r ." The earlier poe t i s s u gges t ed i n " I want t o \/rite " w t h th e poe ts te l li ng us : I \Jant t o \T rite son g 5 o f my pe opl e . Alic e \fa l te r , nov Lli s t and poe t, sh<, res th e st a te of ~: i s sissip pi (ltoc kdal e ) 1vith Har gard Wa l ker . He r volumes of poe tr y ar e On c e· ( 1968 ) and Re vol u tionary Pe tu ni::i s ( 19 73 ) the titl e of Hh i ch , j ud g in g fr om ot h e r st a t e 1·1ents sh e has mad ! , i s prob 11l y a l so a pun. Her poems cove r h e r own civil ri ~hts a ctiviti c. 5 , g e n r- r a l e xp e rie n ces , a nd s ome s.:iti r e . A poem in On ce r e l ates t he s tor y of t h e youn~ Black man who wa nted t o inte grate a whit e . beach i11 Al a hama- - in tli e t o Pe t uni11 s : 11 1 udc ." She ann o unces h e r d e bts in the: d e dication Ge oq~e Jac ks on , "h e r oes and h eroines, a n d friends o f ea rl y SNCC ," Bob Mo ses , and Fanni e Lou !l.::imc r. Th e se poems (wri tt e n in p e r s onal t ones ) d e al �rocms l,y .\lvin J\u!Jer t, a s_ uthern nlu1,11:us who 1101v r esidi2s i n NcH Yor k and ed its Obsidian: Black Literature in Aube rt' s ,\;,a in s t the Bl ues (1971) surveys blues , love anJ his L uis l.an:i hc:rit.1;;;c . Pinkie Lane, 11t:1J English De:p;:irt1.1cnt he:ad u t So uth ern, publish~d Hind Thou·::>,hts (1 972) as 1-1e ll as several ~roaJs id es: T,-, o Poer.is (1 72 ), Poems to }Iy F:.it her (1972), a nd SonGs to t11 c Dialy sis Machine (1 972), all brou ght out by South and 1-Jcs t, Inc., of 1\rkan~1as . South and Hest is al s,. the publisher of t he annual Poems by ll lacks (1970, 1971, 1972) for whic h Pi nkie Lane has beco me permanent editor . Butler in,,ugurate<l the annual IH..1ck Poetry Festival in 1972. pro gram or In the th e " irst festivcil, he• st.:1ted : Th e lH.:1ck , 0e tr y Fes tiv al provid-.!s n rare opportunity to brinz to ge th er professional ,::mu apprentice poe.ts in an effo rt to define and ler;itimize all fonns of Blac k poetic talent as a prelude anJ postl ude to definin g and legitimiz ing the reality of Black . people. Hop efully, the resul _s of our efforts will be a better unders t anding ~in,! a g re at , r apprecL1tion of th e lives, aspirntions and achievements of ' ,: 1ck peopl e . . For the festivals, South ern has attracted a numb er of poets : llaJhub~ti , Sonia Sanchez·, Randall, R .: dmon<l (writ e r-in-r es idence, summers 1971-72), Zu-1.\olton, Kni ght, Aubert, Lucille C t. if ton, J~ ;1 ln1:1u Salnam, ti eal, J\u<lre Lor<le, and Irma NcLnurin. The festivals, which in L·h)decl stuJent poets and musicians, have inspired a Poetry Writ:in2 Horkshop under the sup ervision of Rowell, au Enr,lish in! ; true tor . The first t\JO volur,1e~; of Poems by Blacks cont a in u rich lode of southern poets: Leon E. \Ji les (P h Llan<ler Smith Co ll eGe ), Elij a h Sabb (Little RoL:k), Booker T . Ji1ckson (Little f- >c k), Eddie Scott (lli2m phis), Otis \fooclar<l (Memphi s) , 1\rthur Pfister (Tuskegee Institute, Bee r Cans Bullets Things & Pieces, �1972), lJp ton Penr so n (J a cks on, llississi p pi ), Jdcquel v n Drynnt (HeriJi.rn), Lois Hiller (B a t on Rou~e ), narbnra Jenn Kn i:; hL (Ee1.1phis) ,mJ 1::.ithelcc c n lteed (Shr eveport ). .'\lthough Pinl~ie La ne cl i J not edit the first t1-1n issues of Poems, she ac t eLl ns :1dv i sor anJ her Olm \Jorl · ' •-m s s uhst a nti .:.11.ly. re p res e nted . n 0 ift ccl Sh~ is 1-m rd-m,mi pu ·l a tor with s6µ, c 11 r:111:1tL~ sk ill a nd passio n. t!nrth of 11 n ton Rou:-i e i.n Ne\l Orle n n s , the Fre e?. Soutlwrn Tl!L: .-tt c r hall burneJ out by the late six1:ies but out of its Horkshops cnm P 1'H:ombo Hhich carries the work of BLKARTSOUTll writers. Tom Dent, one of the founders of FST, and J(~ila1n11 n011 jointly edit th e publication . to;~ethl!r-·-except the " n1uv ,'ment" ln th e Sou t l • Some 13LKJ\RTSOUTll poets arc n ut th eir concern s fo r the movemcut arl.! often expressed b~tt er outsiJ e of the poe tr y titan in. BLKJ\RT SOU'l'il publ i slwd lnd.i.vidu<.11 v,1l uL1es of poe111s Ly ~:.1la.:1m (T !1c 1\luc~ t·il' t:-Clt,rnt_), Fernandez (The frtpatj t ·nl ~el>el) , .. 1yo (T 1-Jan t i ' e a llo1~1e) , :1110 l!a s li i.n::ton 1 ( Visi.ons From tl1e CIH' Lto). Af r-o-Amcr .ic;iu salval ion . " Raci ~, t Psychotherapy" is Black ' s ulue-pri,1L for lie .:idv'.i :..; cs Blacks to spend l ess t.i1ae rappj ng ai,J Jr.ink in g and !!tore t ,1 1c \1or.!~lug for t!te cnusc . State" Dent In 1%9 In " P,ay Cl1...1rles u l Hlss.isslpp i ,.:iys L heat tl 1L' L!upl<.: IJ,ij tl r . fl ,1- L'.,L rio t to be:gin i. 11 hear t s . ... Of " The Blues ,'' S.1 l .11.1 siJys : :i.t i~; nol s11Lm i. ssion ... . But too 1,1t1cl 1 of hi ,, \Jork i~, speechy. Salaam has a l so p ubli shed llofu Hi KHenu : tly Fcnr ls For Yc u (1973) \lhich· rcct:lve<l n mL~cd rcvi-211 fro111 l~m.,rcll in Lile �l! 12w Orl e.:ins-l>ase-d B1 nck Cn1 l e'"'.Lrn . 11 Bedti1,1c S t L) ry": F..;l]o,.' l~U-:..\H'ISOUTl!erner :lctyu \1r it e~. u an cxclu.rn~e bet\1 ec:11 1,10 Ll1L!r :rnd son ubo ut " revolution." i\ns\1erin;~ tl1c, son ' s qu es tion , " wh en WL! [_',onna have th e revolutL on? ", th e mo th er says 11 soo,1 :;011.. " The· othe r poets castL '. :, clte whit ey r111cl pr n i se Blacks . ironlr .::i ]l y th ey wrile V ' l'Y little aLout sout hern life . the Conzo Squ.::ire Hritin;~ Horkshop . But , Dent currently l ead s Thc1·c a re nlso \ffitini3 workshops n t Dillard a nd X.1vier Universities . Julia Fi.2l<ls , !:itill livin<j in North Caro lina, brougltl out Eas t of Hoonli gh t in 0 73 , but one of her r,10s t eloquent t cst i Don i e:3 i s Ho g " whi ch ei;t 1l> lisl1e s her ri ght to h ave " gut " or 11 J0\•1, . 11 11 11 Hii~h 011 ·the • 11 or "SI1r1.mp . caviar soul- [ 1e' 11 over Some mer us . , 1cl political stances arc uver-exoL Lci:~ecl uy revoluLlon.::iri Ls , s lr L: says, ancl she has " c.'.1rned " th e ri ght to do \·ih_.Jt s h e likes . She lws even heard 11 J-l. 1us Ha u s" scre~1m ing nnd " Romnntlcizing 1;.1in . " But. she has p a id he r dues, and hacl e n rngh pre ssure s from both sides of thl:! -color line . \""- The subtle n11J g e, but Jirect [1 0\-ler of Julia Fiellls ·c u ggests that Black ·poetry -, in goo<l kmds in t h e Sout h . No,·Lh of Nortli Carolin.i came Joh n Oliver Kil] e nfi iwport ,111 t IJrLters _ Confer ,-nces at Fi !3k Universi. t y, the most impor t a nt one t aking place in Sprint; of 1967. l!ayd t:n , who had be L! n :.1t Fi sk s ince the fo r ties l eft in 1968 after a s e ries of brushes with proponents of the Blnck Aesthetic . The ]967 con- fL,rence (prol;nb ly ti ,e s tra\v th at bro ke the ca mel I s back for Hayden ) is seen by some as a major 'unc ture in the tlew Black \ffi ting . Goendolyn Br ooks t;:ill ~eJ abJut it i n her autnbrography , Ha r garet \folker Jis cu ssed it \Jith '!ikki Giov.:m n i. in thc: i r ]'llb lis h cd "conv e rsati.ons, " a nd lloyt F11 Ller v:rote ;; lm,in g l y of it in Bl 1ck h'or1 d . l!r lt e rs a t tc.ndin 1: t '.1c conference :vere D;:ivid Llorens , Fuller , �Ron Hilner, Clnrke, Bennett, tlar,~are t Danner, :: iLki. Ciovauni, Ramlall, Lee, Margaret \lalkcr, SoniiJ Sanchez , Jones , and Har ::n ret Burrouihs . Probably held in tile South for symbo l ic reasons , the conference prov id e d t h e fi rst renl nRtionJl dramatic ar c nn for old and youn r, wr iters . Gwendolyn Brooks (a " Net'.ro " t hen , she h ns· said) r ec::i l l s b e i n :; " colJly respected " nfter ju8t havin 2, flo\Jn to Mashvi.lle from " whit e lihite So11tli Dakota . " Hm,eve r, she was mnong the fir sl (\,iith Randnll and Ful l er ) to take up the banner of the Black Aesthetic a n d th e causes of t he yo unr:; wri t ers . Such action, of cou r se, was d ispleasin i1 t o a numb er of wh ite anJ Black poe ts, no t t h e J east rn:ionr, them ll,iydcn \Jh o r ef u sed to acknoH1ed ;;c the existence of n " s epa rnte " nesth c tic for Elacks (Ka] c id oscop0, J a nuary , ] 968, JHack \for_~ poll) . A]tho u~h the Fisk c onfe re n ce l1as bee n fo l lowed by doze ns of .Bla ck c o lle ges a ll ov e r th e South, Midwest a n d East , th e r e is s t i ll no monolithic s tilnJ on " d i rections" bu t some wrlLe r s keep t ryini_; t o give tl1e1:i anyu.:iy . One i11di..:. cation uf th e healthy Ji vers ity rn:1011~ Elil ck Hritcrs ls the journ:al · 1~oot,,, publish e d at 'l'ex:is Southern Universit y . Tu rner \ilwrton, an<l Hanc e 1:il l im,1s. [di tors ilre To1cn:1Y. Guy, Jl! f Cree J rn,1e s , Volur,1c I , number l contains essays , .art · and th e l•JO rks of several p iets , most of the1:1 southerners . of n1onuto11ouH tbt::111e or SL ) I.e. , repre sents a bro a d ran~e of int:er c::; ts in lin-. gu.i.stics, s ubjects and for,:1s . gaze::d fon.:Vcor Li.icbmr J:; ." The ppo etry , devoid m' lo in " .:.i Jove supreme" says " all my eyes ln ' she 1 11 11\..'.ver know " l[ickcy Leland \,rites of var lous aspe cts of th e social and physical landsc ape , inc l uding the "l~inky lwireJ boys" wlio build ''<irsenals of straw . " On" thilt the rent has );one up , L:\ Clarence \lard notes in "llanging ict~on is ii:rn1~ent , there is no food for tlle La Ly , cinJ 11.:.m g i.ng on .i.i.nt ea:,\' . .. . � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. 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In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/4867017306b446f53644232a1856527e.pdf cb8e5567dc585f967ea5661a7cde1eec PDF Text Text Ci!APTl '. R VI FE STIVALS & FU HERALS: BLACK I'O ETRY (JF TH[ 1 96 0 s & 1970 :; Th e y v.1 in g e d h .i !~ sp irit & wound ed l i s ton g ue but death was slow comin;>, · 1"1110 kill e d Lumu mba Wh a t ldll c J Jlal colm festivals & funeral s festivals & funeral s festivals & funer a ls & f e stiv als & fun eral s ---- Jayne Cortez Ov e i:-vi c \·.': The space betwe en f0stiv a ls a nd fuu c rals c a n be infinite or it: d e :ith] y s hort. her pol:111 . ,::m<l tr j ,, t' , 111 · he So Jayn e Cort ez s ay s thr o ugh the twistin gs a n d Lurnin g s . 1n But wh a t e ver the s pace, or th e pace, we a ll slip, slide, s o..1r ·, as we mak e o ur way b e tween th e pol a ril ie s (a ss l ~ n e <l c ,ic-lt at· lilrt l_t ) of life we live and the kind of d e ath 1✓ e die. 1970s o f t e n faces life and d e ath "stra i g ht up": Tilack po e tr y o f th e· 1960s a nd th o u gh, ns we have s e en, Bla ck po e t s in oth er time s did not cring e from th e br e ach es of racial nightmar e s, violence, sexua lity, u11bca u t i f ul lan Bu ag e, wickc J o r reli g ious folkis ru s, an d - th e~ Jc1 nands o f mu sic vihich e a ch of them seemed to h e ar--albeit from "Jiffer e nt drununers." To attempt a discussion of c ontempor a ry BL 1ck poetry is to turn others' t o n g ues into· flam e s: 11 b] .:1sph emy ! ," 11 1 wa s th e first!," �"We started it!," "That anthology was incornplele since it didn't inl'.lude me!," "It all started in this place or that pl~1ce! ," "llis/her poetry is not Black enough!," and so on. Nevertheless, the "smoke" from the sixties is beginning to cl~ar and, while more hingsir,ht is · neeJed, there arc important observations that should be made. llence in tlii s ch:1pter, the format will follow preceding ones-- will1 a notlceable dc-emrhasis in biographical-critical n ~ on individual ~ poets. Most serious poets who began writing in the late 1ifties--;- sixties and seventies, still !1ave much growing and threshing to do. volumes really contain earlier poetry. Also many recent So it i n not easy to evaluate (or even list) Black poetry produced over this peri id. Yet, historically speaking , certain undeniabl(' trends have occurred, and t li ,·y look roughly like this:· Black Poetry since the Harlem Renaissance (see Brown, Redding, Henderson, Jackson) has had cycling currents of "rage and "fire" though not the sustained gush witnessed in the mid and late sjxties; Black poetry after 194 '> expressed a belief (see Ray Dure111) that white liberals were no ; really interested in mounting the "final" chariots of fjre on behalf of Blacks (despite CommunistSocialist pronounceme1 t s); Black poetry of the J '1 50s and e arly 1960s provided a Civjl Rights groundswell for the volcanic burst of the later sixties; In Black poetry of th ,· early sixties ther ~ was planted the anvil Hhich shared the styl j stic., attitudinal and linguistic character �o f what is known as the New Black Poetry ; Current Black po e try , despi te " evolu t ion s " and "chan ges, " has not radically altered or laid to rest the best work of Hu ghes , Johnson (both), Davis, Toor1e · , Halker, Hayden, Brooks, Tol s on and Dods on: Exce pt for what Stephen ll encle rs on call s "tent a tiv e" ;inswers, Black poetry de fies all definitions (like Hari Evans ' s " Black Woman" )--splintering of f into ennumb e rble directions, s tyles , for ms , th eme s, cons i de r..itions nnd icll!as. This ch;:ipt e r, al l ab ove co nside red ( !) will. brjefly ske tch the of poetry from tile fiftie :-:; int o the mid-s i xties . co ntinuit y · Again , chronolo ~y wil.). be related since man y of th e po et s list ed we r ~ writing in the forti es and fif~ie s ; but most d ld not receive atten t ion until the sixtie s. µ The sk e tch will inclu<le general look at transitional poets (ol<ler and younger) a s th e i r \:Or k ·app e ars primarily ln about a half dozen anthologies ( from I Sm, l!0\1 lHack -1 Wa s., 19.58 , to Kal e i dosc ope, 1967) and wha t ' f ew volum0s were being brou ght out a t the time. Fr om this j uncture ·, th e exn1,1ination (see Locke I S anJ Bontemps I S di.v ision of the lle1w is s anc e ) takes up the po e t s wl1u came to recor,nit i on unde r the banner o f t he Black Arts Movement and Hho loo s ly fall into the category of New Black Po e t ry . Ol der poet s --ll ay den, Brook s , Randall, Walker , and others--will be briefly re-visit ed to see if the " new" mood wrou ght any significant chang e s in their vie1vs and/or their poetry . Thou gh also a critical history , this book is prima rily a historical guide--Jesigned to a id stud e nts, Le ac hers, and l a y re ade rs i n t he ir LXploration of Black poetry . Only a na iv e person 1 �would a ttempt, at this sta ge, a f ull critique o f th e poetry of the 1960s and 1970s. However, there are styli s tic patt e rns, similaritie s, and th ematic clusters which will be pinpointed and assessed from time to time. Some of the most provocative of recent stud ies of contemporary Black poetry a re Henderson' s The llilir an t !Hack Writ -: r in Af ric a and th e United States (1969, with Merc er Cook); Joy Flasch's l!elv in Tolson (1972); ,m Ne w Black Poetry (1973); Shirley Williams' s Giv e Birth to Hrichtn e ss (1972); Gibson's Moc rn Modern Black Poets (1973) and J a ckson's an d Rubi~'s Black Poetry in America (1974) (also see !J i. bliography). Lit e rary an d Social Land s cape: Assassinations, high political corruptio1 1, uph eava l, violenc e , c ha nge, · t en t i·ct eo 1 ogies, · fl amin~ · · --- 1 persis r h etoric ~ e tern1s used to de s c r1·b,.,~ t·l1e 1 ' ~t t,{;cfo,,1,,J.µ.JL. i:-. --, contemporary pe riod. Revolutions (of all kinds) mock and mold the world. _, From Cuba to Vie tnam, Har lem to Chile, Pakistan to Watts, Nigeria tu . Indonesia, Kenya to Berke ley, Jackson State to Kent State--the facts · and symbols of change have been dramat ic and violent. Meanwhile in th e Black spher e , Ile Bop w:1s declining (by the micl-fifties) and J a zz's great e st livin{ interpr e ter, .Charlie P~rker, was de ad . Musicians and vocalists began probing new for ms unJ c r the leadership of Mile s Davis, John Coltr a ne, the Mode rn Jazz Qu a rt et , Wes :tfonL gomery, Duke ElliugtOfl, Ray Charle s , ~ . Orn ett e Co l emn n, Billy Eckstine, ~ . Ella Fit zgerald and Billie Holiday, who died in 1959. Miss Holiday's name and ,. fam~ a Rain r e ach ed a worldwide audi e nce when, in 1972, Diana Ross, formerly of the Supr emes, starred jn the controversia l movi e , Lad y Sin gs th e Blues. Saxophonist Coltrane, a m:. jor influ e nc e on the current e en c ration of musicians and poe ts, d ied in 1967. An innova t o r, he sparked new interest in music with .l \..X �his " s h ee ts of sound" .:ipproach to pl.:1 yi. n g , influencing poets as well as musicians . The Fifties also witnessed th e maturation of Rhytl1m and Blues, popularized primarily by IH.ick radio disc jocb~ys \;ho developed lar g e followin gs . Inter- weaving with lively Black ·social n e1-rn nnd commentaries with the news, th ey anticipated the new oral poetry of the Sixties. Spin-offs from these broad- casting s tyles were pro ;; rams like 1\a nd s Land (started in the late Fifties). Young white America watched BJnc ks c.lanct, listened t o Little 1ii c hard ,:rnd Ch ub b y Checker, and trieJ to imitate it ~111 on TV and in their homes . This perio<l r,ave birth to th e first white su 1 c rstar Soul artis t-- Elv.i.s Prei,lcy . Black critics and social histo c.i.a ns not t that the new Black social 1:1usic, and the dances acco10panyi1 ; ; ii , fre ed 1li 1ite Arner lean you11~s tcrs fnw1 the prudish and self-righteous inhll>itions ,i [ their forep are nt!:>. Generally , America n science and i.n,l ustry developed more rapidly tha_n in previous periods. Russia launcl1e<l Sp utnick, a feat which was followe<l ~ by Arnerican-Russian science an<l space-exploration race which still co11ti11ues. I\ Tele;:,tar paved the way for televis ed covera ge of g lobal activities .while biochemical warfare and atomic res earch became th e ni gh tmar es people lived daily. · The Ar aer ican literary scene was ·swamped with political novels, sa tire, writin)jS on the war and experi1nental j ou rn a listic prose . The "underground" nc1vspaper eme rged ;:is a major v ehi cle for this new writing. psycho] o n ~ nploycd in ea rlier writing , is s till pr esent. The s ymbolism anc.l However, the influenc e of the writers from the Depression and war years is giving w-ay to ga d)jetry and a new wave. of existential concern. I Black, Jewish, Chicano, Iwlian anJ Asian writers are g rabbin g more of the lit e rary stage. �Contemporar y wl1ite anJ third worJ , writ e r s of influence in c lu de : John Cheever , H. Scott Homa J ay , Ralph Ellis r,n, Be rn c..1 rd Ma l amud , Fr a nk Chi n , John Hersey, Saul Bellow, Norman Mail e r, Ch i u a Ache be, Erne s t c ~i in es , J ame s Baldwin , Paul Chan, Flannery O' Connor, .\lbert Hurray , Ishmael Rc~ d, Hillia m Styron, J ames tjg ug i, \·/il l i am Demby, Shn -m llsu \fon g , J ohn Da rth , William _Me lvin Kell e y, a nd Irvin Wa ll ace . Dlack writ er s are includ ed in th e genera l listin g b eca us e during tlie cont e mporary pe riod . many of them achieved reco gnition on par with the b e st writ e rs everywhe re . ( Reed, for exampl e_,, was nomina ted in two categories for The National Bo ok Awa rd in 197L, . ) tempor a ry poets are: Some important con- Stanle y Ku r it z , Cyn Zarco, Robert Hayde n, Ri chard Eberhart , Robert Penn Warren, J os e }!onto ya , Gwendolyn Brooks, Laws on I na <l a , Theodor e Ra ethke, Karl Shapiro , i:obert Var gas , Melvin Tolson , John Berryman, Henry Dumas, Victor llernan<lez Cruz , Robert Lowe ll , Daniel Halp e rn, Rich a rd Wilbur, Paul Ve sey, James Jickey, Imamu Bar aka , Sylvia Plat It, Willia m Be.1 1 and Jame s \-!right. Hayden received a ational Book AwarJ nomina tion in . 1972 . 1 Many of the Black prose writers a nd poe ts (some from the pre- and post-war schopls) <lied durin g the contem~or a ry pe riod (Tolson, Bontemps, Hu ghes, \Jright, Durem, Dumas , DuBois, Horne, Rivers, To omer, Malcolm X, etc.). Ind·e ed de.:i th, in one wa y or another , not only preoccupied writers (white and Black) , but w.i s often r omantically pursu e d. Bea t poe t Kenneth Rexroth asked "Why have JC 1 Ame ric a n po e ts committed s uicid e . s i n ce 1900? " Those poets not concerned wi tl1 death we r e investigatirig deca de nce or the deathne ss of society. The development of contemporary poetry cannot be viewed prop e rly witl1out understanding the 11 Be at 11 per iod. As a partial product of th e Be Bop era in Black music, Beat poets emulated t!te hip mannerisms a nd aped the "man alone" (drop-out ) image) associated with musicians . us ed to f i ght the comme rcialization of .his Be Bop 11as one way the Blackman ar( He al s o us ed it in playing I �"Somethin;~ ," in th e words of Thelonious Monk, "they can't play." meaning whites). (They, Important among Beat poets were Lawren ce Ferhlinghetti, Rexroth, Allan Ginsberg, ancl Gregory Corso, amon~ the whit e s; and Bob Kaufman, Leroi Jones and T d Joans among the Blacks. Anotl1er Black poet writing c:it the time and loosely aligned with the Beat image was Russell Atkins who founded Fre el;ince in 1950. The neat Movement, which nurtured I occultism, rejection of the Establishment and an existential view of life, I was centered in Ne\/ York's Greenwich Village and the San Francisco Bay area. I The movement died in the early Sixties. I Kaufman is viewed by many as the unsuni: patriarch of the neat era . '-. JHac k cri_tics say major white poets of the movement entliusinstica lly t oo k their cues fro111 Kaufmnn ' s innovations, but were not so passionate in re- . cognizin8 l1is influence. his two volumes: Sardine (1967). Kaufman's poetry is found in c:inthologies and in SolituJes Crowded with Loneliness (1965) nnd GolJen As a kind of spir i.tual heir to Toomer, Kaufmtln is a ·complex, sometimes fra gmented, but brilliantly original poet. Ilis work, like tlint of m~ny of l1is contemporaries, ~s influenc e by Eastern religious thought and the occult. Stylistically, Kaufman has the "sweep" of Whitman coupled wi_th the best techniques of modern po~try . Ile passionately experiments 1vith jazz rhythms in poetry and often invokes jazz themes, moods c:ind musicians . Hany Beat poets and cnthusi.Jsts later joined or were spawned by the . ~ vVA-tS Civil Ri ghts str uggle whlc1t·wc1s int ens lfi~d by several things: Martin Luther King's Montgomery bus boycott ·in 1955-56; sit-ins and other dramatizations of segre ga t:ipn and discrimina tion; the challenges of Jim Crow in travel in 1961 (CORE); th e widening activities in '. ;NCC (1%1-64) and the tlarch on \-Jashing ton (196 3 ). Other significant act Lvi ties enflamed and ..j �inspireJ the hearts and imaginntion of Black Arn,~rican youth especially. The l'luslims' (tlation of Islam) growth to 50,000 members by 1963 and the Congressional action on Civil Rights Legislation were two seemingly unrelated but strategically important events. The growing influenc e of the Huslims s ugg<2s tcd tli il t many Black : no longer believed America was )(~ sincere in its pledges to implement c en when they be.::ame law. Abetting their Jistrust were the continued kiJ ings, night-ridings in the south and harrassment of Blacks in public p l aces and their homes. \Jith the bitter taste of Enunitt Till's murder still on their tongues , Blacks reeled under the killings of Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner, Malcolm X, Med gar I Evers, King, the Kennedy brothers, and the three Black Panthers (gunned down by police in their sleep in a Chicago apartment) . By 1966, however, - lllack Power signs and slogans began to replace the "We shall overcome-lllack and White Together" exclamations. Young Dlack America, adorning Afro hairdos and African jewelry, attended cultural festivals, back-t~Africa rallies, poetry readings, and began reading community news published ·n revolutionary broadsides and tabloids. Rhetorical forays by H. Rap Brown and Stokely Carmichael, youn g SHCC officers, set off a flurry of state and national laws against inciting to riot and the- transportation of weapons across state boundaries. 1.arc e and small cities ignited in flames that set the stage for gun batil~s between police and the often "imagined" snipers. These C:onfla13rations were repeated in scores of cities after Dr. King was assassinated in 1968. Watts poet Quincy Troupe captured the shock and horror, and chronicled the official reaction, in his poem 11 \.Jhite \.JeekenJ ": �The deployed military troo ps surrounded the llhite House an<l on the steps of the S, 11n te bu LJdin,; a soldier behind a machi1H gun 12,000 in.Washington & Ch ca go 1,900 in Baltimore }bryla 1d 76 cities in flames on th ~ lan<lscape and the bearer of peace still lying in Atlanta ... / In the last stanza, Troupe nptes with curdling irony : Lamentations! Lamentations! T.ament.:itions! lforldwide ! But in New York, on Wall Street the stock market went up 18 points At this writing, fallout from the Black Revolution reverberates a rounJ tl1e · globe. Black journalist Thomas Johnston reports Irish revolutionaries sinr, "He Shall Overcome." Posters and emblems commercialize everything from African hairstyles to the raised clenched fist--the initial sy~bol of Blac~ unity and defiance. A wave of . Black movies-- called Blaxploitation-- beginninr, with "white" experimental f licks like Putney SHope (1969) is capturing a multi-million dollar theater patronage. Dlack movies retrieved the crippled movie industry from tlie 'brink of disaster. Heanwhile, the murder, incarceration an<l political harra s swenl of Black ~en and women made them heroes and heroines in Blacl~ conu,1unities-- yct ironic:1lly symbolized the toriilenl an<l what some BLtck journalists cal led the " genocidal schemes" of ~ uerica (sec Samuel Yette 's The Choice). �Cri s s-crossed by paradoxes, politi cal c on.t ra<lictions, s ocial r evolts and relig ious and ambivalences, th e DL:1ck com1,1unit y i s nev<~r th e l ess r egene rated by it s singer s and pe rforme r s . Bl a ck popular mu s i c l1as not only r eached unpr e cedented aud ~nc es , but unprecedented money-making cap ab ilitie s. Rhy thm and l\ l ues , s.:.i i d t o have died ab out 1965, gav e way t o "Soul"-"I' m a So ul Nan," Sam a nd Dave announc ed in the lat e Sixtie s. The Impressions t o lJ lovers that you " gotta have soul" and Bo bby Womack r eminded listeners v that the 11 \foman' s Got ta llg.ve it"--presumably "Soul." Dl~k re cordin G cor,1 panies are in a boo1r, the two' largest on es be in g Mo Town (Detroit) nnJ \fa tts-St ax (Memphis). The current pe ri,od ha s also seen the np pea rance o f th e Bl ac k sup e rs tar--of ten called "super Nlgg er"--in e ver y th i ng from sport s to t!1ovi es . Curtis Hayfield's soundtr ac k album Superfly (1972) sold more th a n 22,000,000 copies and Marv Ln Gay's Hlw t 's Goin g On (1 971) set records for album sales: Recently, however, Stevie Wond e r has surpa ssed th em all. Lit e rally dozens of singing groups--mo<leled on the quartets a nd ensembles of th e fi fti es -are releasing albums re gularly. These folk or "soul" poets have be come. · more "conscious" in recent years and many now imbibe their songs with po1itical message s and exaltations of Blackness. Much of this new wave came on the heels of s e vere criticism by Barak/40 .::i dmonished the sin ge rs f or doting on unrequit e d love. Too ma n,. a re preoccl!pied with "my baby's gone, gone" themes, he said. Black consciousness activity--anJ cr e ativity in c eneral--now flourish e s. · Rela ted involvement includes: develop ment of Black acting ensembl e s; opening of fre e schools and Black universities; es t a bli s hmen t of Bl a ck Nationalist/ cultura l communes; increase in the numher of Black bookstores and African boutiques; establi s ~ nent of Black Stu<l{es programs on white and Black �campu ses and, in some cases, quota systems for enrolling Black stud ents; the escalation of Black demand f or "cream of t he c r op" job s s uc h ns tv announcing and the hos tin g of va ri e t y shows; expansion an d c r ea tion of new roles for Black newspap e rs, maga zin es .: :i nd r a dio s tations; for mat i on of ~ nat-i-ena~l - a-nct~s t-a-t e Hlncl~ Con gressi ona l caucu es and simil a r unit s in cw.-&.. l-eq ;d . ., . ;;c o~b H!G-5+- boo. t-e ( profe ss i ona l a-s -soelatie1. ·and , fin a lly and impo rt ~mtly, new enga ~ement with Afr ica a nd he r problems and possibilities. Ind eed, futur e trips to Africa-- to the "Moth e r country" or "llomelancl"--are discuss ed a t a ll a ge and s ocia l \ levels. Much of this renewed interest is understandable in li ght of the emergence during tl1 e contemporary period of sev e ral Afri ca n na tion stat e~ and the increased fraternization amon ~ Afr i cans and Afro-Ame ri can s . H.:1 l c olm X, , cannonized today by g r eat numb e rs of young Blacks and Bl a ck int el l ec tu a l s , did much t o foster this current int e rest in Africa. Shot to death at a · rally in Ha rlem in 1965, Malcolm (El Hajj Nalik El Sha bazz) had alr eady _be en expell e d fr om th e Nation of Islam, and had formed a splinter gr oup known as the Or ganiz a tion of Afro-American Unity. llis Autobiograph y of Ma l c olm X (wit.h Alex Haley, 1965), which (a s he pr edicted) he did not get to . see in print, chronicl e s his odyssey as Ha lcolm Little , hustler "De tr oit Re d," 'Malcolm X, and El-Hajj Malik El Shabazz. Halcolm w.:1s lioniz ed by Carmicha el; ll. lfop Brown , Oss ie Davis, lk1raka and v a rio us oth e r shc ol a rs, a c t .i vists and ar t i s ts . Bl ack po e t s , es pec i a lly, ha ve fo und Ma lcolm (aml Coltrane) a limitl es s s ourc e o f i nsp ira 't ion. c a n be see n in For lfa l colm : A pa rti nl in<l 1cu t ion of hi s i mpac t O ll I ·! :. peel s Po ems on tlie Life on d Dea th o f Ma lcolm X (1967) ,' e dit e d by Dudley Rand a ll and Mar gar e t G. Burroughs . Shaba zz " Rob e rt Hayd e n noted that: In " El-lfa jj Malik El .. �lie X1 d his name, became his peopl e 's anger, exhorte<l tl1em to vengence for their pi.1st; rebuked, .'.ldmonished them, The.i.r sc ouq_; er who \vOul(l shame Lhe111 , drive thern from the lush ice gardens of their servitu<le. At the First World ?estival of Negro Arts, held in Dakar, Senegal, in 1966, Hayden was awarded the Grand Prize for Poetry. ,\ major event, the festival was attended by experts, scholars, art.i.sts and enthusi.asts of the l, L1cl ~ Arts who gathered f:or 24 days to hcnr papers and J.i.scussions, view art exh.i.bits an<l cultural performances, and give prelimanary direction to the lllack Arts Movement. I 1 I 1 Presiding over the festival was Leopold Sedar Senghor, Senegalese I President, and one o[ the architects (with Aim~ Ccsair~ anJ L~on ]);_unas) of He~ritudc. I Negritude is a pl1ilosophy of Black Humanism which ensconces, according to its originators, the Black mystique or religiosity. .I The term grew~ut of tl1e associations of Black African intellectuals, French writers an<l artists, and Black American expatriates. I African-oriented publicatio~s ·. I such as Prtfoence Africaine and Black Orpheus have renewed their interests in Bi'ack Arncrican writers. ·I Likewise, · l'>L., ck American journals and popular ma~azincs (Il lack World, Journal of BlDck Poetry, Tl1e Black Scholar, Essence, ·1 Encore, Ebony, Jet, etc.) ha·v e be gun to publ.i.sh r.10re mater.i.als by and about I Africans. I The revolution in the Black Arts was signaled by many cvc11ts including the F.i.rst Cunferenct! of Negro Writers in March of 1959. Langston Hughes was I an important ilgure there--as he was at the D.:ikar gathering seven years later . I The First A,1 ~r.i.can FesUval o[ Negro Art was lk ld in 19 65 ilnd the Second AFNA I °'.lo r· ' ·11 \Y �took place in Nov12mber of 1969 in Buffalo, N.Y. Interlacing Lhcse and other conferences, symposi.:1 and conventions, were exc i.ting developments and experirnents in tlew York, Chicar,o, l.Jatts, Philadelphia, Atlanta, B,1ton Rou g e, St. Louis, Cleveland, Detroit and llashin :~ton, D. C . Durinr, thes e periods of social turn oil and artistic upsurge 1,riters and poets often ali8ncd themselves wit! movements. ideological positions and reg i onal Consequently , Black Ar t s coJmunes and regional brands of Black consciousness grew concurrently. Split s between older Civil Rights workers a nd ll]ack Nationalists were paralleled liy splits between older writers and yo unger prnctioners of "Black Arts ." Tlie splits were not always clear- cut, h owever , for many older activ ists and poets joined the new mood in spirit, thematic concern and personal life styJc, while some of Lhe youn ;:,e r wri.ters retained the influence of the earlier uwods. Complicatin~ things even more were the variants on the domil n ant themes of each camp. GwendoJ yn Brooks ., Duc.lley Randall, MarL'.,arct Danner, H.:iq;aret 1/alker and John Oliver !~.ill.ens are amont the older group of writers who vigorously took up the banner the new mood. o( Younf,er ,,riters \~ho :;e \.JOrks imbibe some "tradition" · include Henry Dumas (Poetry For My People, 1970 and Play !•: bony Play lv, l ry, 1974), Conrad Kent Rivers ('l'li 0 Still Voice of llarlem , 1963 , etc-. ) , Julia Fields (Poems , 1968), Al Young (Da11cin1! , 1960, L!tC . ) , and Jay \frir,ht ('l'l1c llomecorning_ Sing er, 1972) to name just cl few. Tl1e crent i.ve prolilise of this perioc.l was dealt a severe bl0\,,1 by the untimely deaths of Dumas and Rivers in 1963 . These poets are deeply influenced by the moods and preoccupations of the period (self-love, racial injustice, violence, war, Black Consciousness Gnd History) hut they \vork alone, test e d Jines and e xperi11ent within careful and tliou i~ht-out frames of referencer; . l!ost of the writers of the JlL~riod ·• o.' \ /J._ \7 �(th e ir s Lyles and id c ol.01.;i e s notwithstanding ) ha ve found thems e lves engulfed at one tir.1e or another in heated debates ov e r questions related Lo the "Black Aesthetic," the relationship of writer to reader , Bl ack vs white audiences, a nd the part politic s should play in their lif e and work. At this writi n3 , Lhc se cU sc ussions continue in most section s of the Black 1-lorlJ. The flurry of ideoloBical and aesthetical debate amonB the poets (and 0Ll1er writers) has often been precipitated or attended by critical writings, historical s~clies, social essays and public politica] s t .-i teml.!nts. Some of the individuals associated with initiating the plethora of rhetoric on the questLon of a "Black" ilt: sthetic (and re]ated i ss 11 e:-5 ) a re l~on Kar c n~a , Gwendolyn Brooks, llarak.:1, Addison Gayle , Jr., lloyt H. Fuller (Black World), l~dward Spriggs, J. Saunders Reddin ~ , Ralph Ellison, Larry Neal, Ernest Kaiser, r!el \fatkins, Ron Welburn, Dudley Ran<lall, Lerone Bennett, .Jr., Nathan Scott, James Ema nuel, Toni Cade-B<.1mbara, John llenrik Clarke, Don _L. Lee, E<l Bullins, and Stanley Crouch. A number of important studLes, liter~ry -1 and cultural, by Black and white writers, aided in wl1etting or prolongin~ the criticnl thirsts. are: Some of ·t he important and/or controversial vtritin gs The Militant Black Writer: in Africa and the Unite<l States (1969)~ - Cook and Henderson; Blacl: Expression (1969) and The Black Aesthclic (1971) Gayle Jr., ed,; Muntu: Literature: The New African Culture (1961) and Nee-African /\. History of Black Hritin,; (1968), Jahn; Lan ~ston Hughes: Black ~enius (1971), O'Daniel, ed.; Hlnck Poets of the United States: Paul J,a0ren ce Dunbar to Langston Hughes (1963, Fren c h edition; 1973 Enclish trans., Dougla s), Wa gner; Before the ~~yflower (1962), Bennett, Jr.; Shadow and Act (1966, Ellison; Unders tm1Jing th e New Black Poetry (197 3), Hend e rson; Collo quim on Ne gro Art: I First World Festival of Ne ~·. rn Arts, 1966 (] 968), .. ' �Editions Presence Africaine; The Nc P, ro Novel in America (] 965), Bone; Mother is Cold: A Study in West African Literature (1971), Rosco e ; The _C_r_i_s_i_s_o_f--t--h-e_N_e_p_,r_o_I_ . n_t_,__e_l_l_e_c_t_u_a_l__(_l_9_6_7_)_,_C_r_u_s_e_;_N_a_ti ve So,J A Crit-;c~l- { Study of T1-1enticth-Ccntury tlcgro 1\.rnerican Authors (196 8 ), Hargoll cs ; Dyna1:llle Voi cos : eL1cl~ J'oe ts of th e 1 9 60 1 s, vol. I People (1%J), IHacL 1'lu s l c (1967), llo,~ie: (1971), Lee; lllut2s Social Essays (1966), am! l~ai se l{ace Rays J~aze (1971), lfaraka; and Give Birth to Brightness (1972), 1-lilliams. A number of Black critics, artists, and activists heatedly de- nounce Hhites who re s earch or criticize Black liter.:iture, saying tlw t only those who have lived the Black Experience can write a b o ut it. Another group holds that whites can report on Black writin cj if they are sl.ncere and sylllpathetic. The Bl.J.ck Arts Hove1aent, as the contemporary period is sometimes called, took place in the sh.:idows of what many Black social critics hav e called the "second Reconstruction." Hence, much of the writing is a revolt a g ainst politicc1l hypocrisy and social alienation. In the angriest poetry, authors showGred disdain ancl obscenities on the "system" and whites in general. llefusing "integration" even if offered, younger poets derided Americc1n values and attitudes. I "Unlike the Harlem group," llnydcn noted,-"they rejected entri into the mainstream of American· lit e rature as a desirable g oal. 11 Of course, more than a f ew of the older poets \Je re writing in the Sixties and are writing today. Mnni of them, however, were sometimes laid aside by youn g readers who were unable to separate "poetry" from the fiery declamations of Cnrrnichael, Brown and innumerable local spokesmen and. versifiers. Of ten Ll1 e poets exchan g ed super _f icial indictments, indul ~eJ in name-calling and, as groups or individuals, began ratinr; each other on their "levels of Dlackn c ss'' e ven thou g h no criteria existed then and none exists tod a y for ~--- . \ .i �such ju<lgin~. Huch uf the <li.spute centered arournl tlle question of who "started" tlte IHack Arts or New Black Poetry movements. 1971, issue of Confrontation: In an article in the Spring , A Journal of Third \Jorl<l LiteraLure, Eugene Redmond stated: While it i s t.rue thut there are lea<li.ng lights of tlle Dlack Arts Hove1. ent , it is rtn emphatic lie to say one geogr;iphica1 region of the country is solely responsible for either the 1&ain (an<l Major ) writing outpu t or kicking off any tradition of Blacks \ffitlnr, about themselves . To · take such a contemp- tuously arrogant stand would be to write off the Black musical past . Aggression has been the rone in much of the contemporary poetry. This is partially <lue to tl1e presence of some who selec t ed poetry as a medium j of expression because of its deceptive simplicity nn<l briefness . HanU of .-::-(._ the new "poets" obviously have no genui ne i n terest in becoming good or . excellent craftsmen . On the other hand , the current period continues to witness a growing and wide-ranging concern for poetic craft and knowl6J ~e . During the sixties and into the seventies, literally hunLlreds of Black poets starte<l \ffiting and publishlni;--in ta.bloicls , mag.:nincs, bt·oadsides, antholoriies and indivi<lual collections . 1vere the ne\J publications: of Black Poetry. regions . Also showcasing tl1e new poetry Umbra, Black Dialogue, Soulhook, and The Journal Si gnificant ~lusters of poets develope<l in geographical And the atmosphere was enhanced by a number of African thinkers, ,"rt urtists , poets ;:ind novelists who arrived to America to teach, lecture, perform and travel . Tlte importance of this interaction amon g Blacks from vnri.ous parts of the ~lobe cannot be overemphasized . Black writers and students now read African, West Indian and Afro-Latin writers . Langston �llughes ncCJuainted American audiences with Afric..in literc1ture in his nnthologies: An African Trensury : Essays , Stories, Poems by Black Africans (19 60) ancl Poems from !Hnck Africa (1963). Whisners from a Continent: In 1969, Trinidadfon l!ilfreJ Cortey edited The Literature of Contemporary Black Africa. Narie Collin s c01,1pile<l Llnck Poets in Frencl, (1972) und Keorepetse Kgositslle eulteJ The \Jord is !Jere (1973). Other scho] ars and writers also wrotr critical studies or editcd ·antholog ies of A[ricnn and Caribl1ean literature. Black writing received a significant boost when in 1971 Senghor nnJ Afro-Cuban I poet Nicl1olas Guillen were nominnteJ for the Nobel Prize for literature--thus I I fulfilling James Weldon Johnson's 1922 prophecy that tl1~ first Black writer I to achieve substantial international fame would not come from America. ·1 Heightening the feeling 01. th e period was Charles GorJone's winning of the Pulitzer Prize [or drama (t!o Place to Be Somebody, 1970). Hany non-American Black writers now publishing or living in tl1e U.S. are Nigerinn novelist-poet Achebe, exiled South African poet Kgositsile, Nigerian poet-playwright Wole Soyinku, Ghanaian poet Kwesi Brew, South African critic Ezekiel Hphahlele, ., Nigerian poet-play11rir,ht Ifeanyi Henkiti, Martinique poet-playwright Aime I I Cesaire and Cuianese poet~scholar Leon Damas. chanBe ideas and compare styles. The writers fraternize, ex~ tl~hahlele, for example , has written criiical studies of Black American writing (Voices in the IJhirlwind, 1972) while Hiss Brooks has praised African r1ritini:; (Introduction, Kgositsile's Hy Name is Afrika, 1971). South African poet, Hazisi Kunene, wrote the Introduction I foi Cesaire's Return to•~ Native Land (1969 translation). Several Afro-American expatriate artists and writers returned to America during the current period for eithe r temporary or permanent residency. Added to this flurry o[ activities ancl changes were the establishment of � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_07_51 Title A name given to the resource Copy of Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, typed partial manuscript, p. 85-101 Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/d8eb1aa3baa8362470f1f9ad7acd11de.pdf 192c5bb1aee5077ef8c5dd67e040609d PDF Text Text j. nhlil,1d j. ' s titl e 11 ilard llcad M:.ikcs a Sof t ,\ss " li,1p lies tile )Oem ' s stute!llent. And fnntasy etcrnaliz cs , " 'ike a ,.,uoJ hi..:,h," ft)r 'J o1:uay Cuy in " Hro t hcc . " 13ut the thc1:ws uf unity , self-esteem , Ll c .\frlc.an " 1,1utherL.111d, 11 nnJ unabat eLl an,,cr rcr,m in in tl1c n -~w poetry .:is the !·fiJ11cst ,1Il J \:est cuntr ibutc inunensely to tl1<! Lrllliancc nnJ tlK conLro v crsey . sented .'.l unique ga tl1eri ni of a nwnLer of poets to aid the l~il~orc, Ohio , for cxnrnp lc, r cpre- live rsc views on the new consciousness , u ttr.:icti n~ I ) , /\tkins, J.:11ues o rk of :ion an Jordnn (1 93G - (all form Cleveland) a nd JlL~rnton . ~low at Oberlin, 1Jen1Lon succeeJc,l Redmond \1h o \Jas oritcr-ln-resiclencc thcr , (1969-1970) , th e snme yea r Troupe bezan a r esidency at Ohio Uni ·.1e rsit y . during ll erH ton ' s le:ive-of-abs •nee . Sarah Uehst ec ho.s also L,1u<)1t a t Oberlin llowe ve r, Cleveland activity was spurred by a lonB tradition of Il lack \ffitcrs in 1.uLlin g llu ~hes , Ches nu t t (,rnL' of t1k fuun<lers of Karainu llu L, se) and At kins . host of y0tmger pO, '. U, : Th is continuum producc<l Jordan an! a ,\nthony Fml;~e , L:trry Howard , Larry \fade, .\r Nixon , Clin t Nels on , Rob er t F lernin!; (K u \!ais maga zine) , Alan Bell, Uo]and Fo rt e , Tc<l Hayes , E. llufo rd and Bill Rus s,•11 o f th e Mun tu Poets. Other p,Htlcipati'ng writ e r - artists uerc Clyde Shy, 1\p1cer ltn , hid a nd A11ettn Jeff e rson. for poets an<l thelr nctivi .. ies came fro n vnrlous places: Support the Clcvcl,md Call and Post, Afro - SeL Black Arts project , Unite<l Black Artists, Free Lance and Karu11tu ll u usc 1-1h e r~, Jordan ' s pl.:iys wer·e pro du ce<l . Ki] :_: ore 1-.rrit es out of a stron<,_ -t rn tliti.on of Black hum ::i nism riurturcd in rcliiiou s homes . llis vol umes arc The Di g Buffalo and Other Poems (1969) , 1·1i.dnir;ht Blast (1 )70 ) and A Time of Bla ck Devotion (1971) . the c ont ra<licti o1 The poems expose in i\m..; rican De1.1oc r acy ancl s urvey the " lli r:,h Rjsc Dreams" of metropolitan ] lacks caught in the urban r enc\·Wl scrabble . Devo ti o n, dedi- cated to ~o re t ta Scott KinG , vibrates wi t h concerns for Black stu<lents, ThirJ I I \ ·I �\!orJJ s urvival , a nd f.:1sc i nation with Frnnz Fnno n. .'.l /1. different kind of poe t, Jo r dan i . somet i me s a n gr y , c y nic a l ::i nd v i o lent; o t her tim s pr o ph e tic le h as p ubl i s hed t hree v o l urnes : and my sti ca l. 19 71 ) , Ab ov e J:, ·1 Des t ina t ion : Ashes (1 96 7, ( 1971) , nm! uith r!arc lw G.--1. g e , Two Poets ( 197l1) . D<:!clica t e <l to t h e " Corimun i , y , 11 Det~t innti o n contains J o rdan ' s best anJ most memorabl e po e ms . In Cl eveland h e c me r ~~d ns n major fo r ce in t h e n e w Bla ck poetry , u niti ni_; t he olJe r t raditio n s ymbol ized by rree Lc1ncc , c1 nd the !1untu Poets . Dest i nation , 1 irs t pub l is h eJ priv a t e l y b y J ,1rd,:m , wa s lat e r brou ght o u t by Th i r d Worl d Pr e s s (Chica ~o) wi t h nn Int r o duc ti on by Lee , uho sni d he " l ea r ned " th::i ~ Hu ~hes h a d no n e ed to "r e-\-T i t e and r ev i se ." ( ! ) Any \•.•a y , Dest i naU 0 11 ch r o11 ic l es J ord.:1.n ' s 0vm dev e l o 1 '11cn t from the pe riod of civil ri g hts thr ou ~h BJ ack Pm1e r . lli.s poet r y i s a ll f r e e v e rse, u s u a l l y simp listic narra tiv e maki n r~ rnup l c use of d rama t is pe r !~o n a f r om e v e r y wa l k of Bl ack li fe . Th e r e is .J. lcoh o l i sm , v iolence , pov er _t y , l o n e liness and exal t a tion· o f' Bl a ckness . " I Have Se e n Them" d e scrib Lis those o n r elief , hun :'. r y and c o ld pray in i3 for " mira cles . " Ne l ] . e Recd u r;ed t o be a hirl-ab ou t-town, "Lau ghin 13 an d danc ing ," b ut now a t 26 s e is deaJ and h e r !3hos t " tremble s" i n nn alley wine b o t L1e " n c>ed i n r, ,1 fix . " Jordan a l s o spoofs " l!i zh Art a nd All Lhat ,tiz z " : ru c k you and yo1.. r d rn.m v erbs l e t me t e ll it l i ke it is na~, _t;,.<',.;,' and f W.11~~:,•. " Fe eJin r: th e Lion s " (1 966) is hi s ;:,osL anth o lo g iz e d po em . Thl! " a r my " uf brie f-c a s e - c.1 rryin:~ s oci a l wo r k !2rS in v ad e s lH:lck nei r) 1b o rl1ood s L'.:l c li 1.10 r nin~, pas ::; out ch e c ks , 1;1ove qui c kly from 0 11 2 door t o anoth e r , anJ , after filling �th e ir qu ut;1~, lenvc " before uurk ." ' TlH!r<= are nl so poems about 1ay ~; ticisu , rc lii i o n, 111y t holo13y , anJ l:aniu , i ncludinlj drm1i 1, r, s o f e y es , Lr icrn~ J cs :J.nd cir c l es--all r e.· i" lec t in ~; tl1 c mcm y in[ l uenc<.! S u n .J o r dan ' s ,wrk new mood (Abov c-_: ia va) . ,111J the a pp i: ouc l1inL, Bu t Dcs t i r.:t Li o n , \·J i th it s slor t, cxp i f:ra ,t1n::i tic v e rses and pa r ables , ~; ccs tltrou .jh allus ory , r omantic "unity" n ea r th e e nd a nd moun t s an att ack o n rc vo luti on;:iry d iur l .:t.:a n s , b uck- s lid e r s of th e 1no v emcn t :inJ t hose \-1h o vil~11 vi o l en c e a s th e onl y sol u t i on t o racism . reaff i rms h i s fa ith in Bl.:i cl: writ e r s 1.'o r tin g far Yet " Cosuti c lli t ch<loc t o r s " j n t o u " l i q u i d n i ght''./ t hl!y provid e t he !o unJ u ti on for t omo r ro w' s liberati u J o rcl a11 ' s he l ief in th e 11ys ticul, rn.i,: j , ·11 pm·1 ers of th e word can be see n i n t h e name Vi br .:i t iu n, a Cl ev e 1nJ rna r, a z · ,1e 1. ith which he 1.Ja s c lose l y ::issoci.:J. t eJ . · It i s " Deel i ca t e d to th e n e sur r ec ti on of t he ~~e n t ally a n J Sp irit u:1lly lh~ad ." Ot her Oh i o poets f' oun<l out] ets for th e ir wor k i n Vi bra t Lon ,1n<l o t he r journal s : nL:ick As cei, s i on s (Cuyo. ho ga Co1mnunit y Colle g e) , Proud 1aack. I mo.:~es (Ohi o Stnt e Un ive r s it y) and Lif e line : W11 e n Amer i ca Sin g s Sh e Croaks (O be rlin). Ob e rlin stude nt s a l so pro <l u~ed a .sr c ci ,l l Blacl~ i ss ue o[ th e col l cge ' ·s Ac tivi s t . ma e,az in e ; i t c ont a i ned poems by both s..: ucl e nt s and wel l k now n poets . a sta f f me1,1 be r o f Rl.:1ck .i\sce ns ions, pu i1 l i s h e <l Mi r, rati on in 1 9 7 2 . Clev e l a n d p<Je t, IL Fe lton (1 934 - .Fu dge. , Ano th e r )~ br ou t_; Lt out Conclusi o ns wi t h an Iutro- duct io n by .\ t k ins \/ho p r aised the youn~ . po e t [ or n o t c o nscio u s l y e n gag i ng in the "<li sfi .; u r c,ae nt o f pe rc e p tio n s " tu pole mi c i ze a " co n stric t e d kind of 'r elc v anct· 111 In 11 /\n i: l egy t o Et e rnit y , 11 Fel ton, :1 vib rnnt poe t, s::iys : Ten r - du cts swe ll, b urstin g in a de l i ght o f flooJ and fu ry . Ga r f i ,· LJ J ackson , a yo unr; pri:~e-winn i n g poe t, i s one of th e ed itors of �P rou,1 Black Im:1~es. pai;es: Nany youn G .111J old e r Ohio poets are includc!c.l ~rn1ong its Forre:, t Cay, Diunne Cou j J , Jacki e Toone, Ebrahim Alj a hi z z, Hohssen Asl,:1111 ( Chris Jenkin &) , Battuta Luk-1lilha Barca , LinJa Callend e r, Be verly Cheeks, Antar Sudan Hberi, Lt!ntrict! Emcrm.1 a, Ros]yn Perry Ford, Ray Hon ,t gomccy, Kil(jore , JorJan, an d otlwrs . J\lthoueh the journal's title set s tl1 e conceptual paci2 :11H.l plac e s .i L in the strem11 of the ncu consciousness, tli " rc, is no unifyin'.', theme or iJea in the poetry. John \·/hit taker calls "Singe rs, Dancers," the "do ers of initial cl..•c ds " anJ Implementers of th e inc!Vitable Black life. llernt o 11, \Jh o atten<lec.l 0 ]1io schools , Le cm1e ,1ril c r-Jn- r cs idt'1 1cL! .i t Centra l State Univl.!rsity , in the sixth· ; , !louse of Ni;~ht son ;-.; in 1963 and Il e publ:ished Th e• Co nin r•. o[ Cltron o:; t o t:he ;incc theu he J1as ,vrittt' n mn11y l>o o Ls :rnd ,irticL.. s on Amer:lca ' s sor:lal/se:·'. u.:11 han ), 1ps . in the fir:;t issue o[ Confro nt n ·ion: One of his moGt powerful Jh)('i,1s wpp0 J n,;d ,\ J ,lllnrnl of Third Worl J Lit e rature (suuuner, 1.970) founder\ anLl cJited by Troupe at Ohio University. " S tr ' ct Sc.en c " shm-1s Her n ton plav[ 1] ly lookin ~ at the hl 2ntity question alon~ with other things . \/lien he mL · tG ,rnd s ricn l(s to his "<lream" on the " street," h ~ recc.ives " Go t o hell, so no 1hi tch." Cnnfro nt ntion nlso publishes o !1er Ohio poets; yet , its concerns are broa<l as see n in th r names of co ntribu t i 1g edit o rs: Damas , Sergio Mondra~on , FernanJo Al ~13ria, , ,·.'.11 , IZcdmond , Tam J?.io1· i , Duvicl Henderson , Melviu J'c hmrd s :.rnJ \Jilfr,:J Cwrtey. I n other Ohiu c01,1munili.es reL:.1tcd events occurrl:!J. Cincinattj ' s fir ~: l Black An ,. FL!stiv .i1 11Js oq;an.iz12J by . . ikki Ciov,rnni i11 1 0 G7 ~nJ uut uf tl1.is �lUl.l l o :1 dnJ Other l'oc:ms (l0(i9) , 1:1a J2 :1:1 i.u11e .1 su1·Ltb1 y v:..t]u::ible conu·lhut:i,m to th L! Lt1tderslnnJin[_; of f,lacl- poet r. / li hcn h e o r~ .t1Yi.:OL•d thL! P:1ul L.1urence Dunbar Ccntennl:11 lu ] lJ 72 at the Cniv,orsity of Dayton . Indio.no. hc::ived foL"th precious \,orJs from Cary , Imlian..;po]is, Purdue , Terre llo.ut e .J11d- oi.:llL!r !!arl Ev;rn" ·or t:,. ,nlzeJ o.rts ar.J ..:onsciou::;ness ,l ."L! as . progr:11,1.; in Int!i.:inapuli. i ,. .:11J l.l loo,nin~~ton . wrilLL'.1 T .\Jn a DL1ck W,ll:1.1 n,conL.1inin g poc1:1s over s c ver.::il ye::,trs , unfortunately di d not finJ a puL!isher unti] ]970 . Howe v er , the ]Jock cles "rvcdly received the Black ,\caJerny of Arts ..inJ Letters Secom! L\nrn1al Poetry ,\Hard . She h s bL!C!l closely idc•ntifil!d ,iith :1ctivitics in Chlca;; u \lhere Third \Jorlcl Pres :· publi '.d tes her childr •n ' s writ:in;;~, . Her t itle pc>1 ' ... is ::i spiritual , psyclt<,l o r, ic::il ,ind historical journey of the: t.:la ck woman \-,hose " tr iegt'r t re/ cl fin~cr :;" now seek tltc softness of my \-1 0.rrior ' s bco.r<l ... L\ major po em a111ong the nc.:1-1 poetry, it combines the b e st of L:lw 111o~lernists tec h n i que :, \Ji Lit a dwrt-\JOrk of 111 usic :;o as to r,i.ve th e impre:, sinn of 80111eonL slnzlng 01 l1u11unl11;~ .:1lon:~ with the readin:.:, o( it . Mar-i. Cv.in:, sc.:in ~; 0Lltv1 · fil'] ,L of Black 1 i.f,,, writing abou t lor\ely ancl di.;jLCtl!J \Wl11en , se]f-priJc , violl.!n e, Black uni.L y and L\frica . In 11 \1110 can be llorn Black" she joyously :rn,l_ Jefiantly asks : can he born and 1ot c .:ult ! Al :;o clo s ely ;.iss11ci:1ted with the Cl1lca~o ;ind DeLruit mov e m nts is Et h riJGe Knight (1933- ) , \~I o 11as ser.vinf, a '.20-year tcn.1 in In-!Lm:1 State Prison �Brooks. She called his poetry Vital. Vital. Thi s 1, 01.;try is a rnaj or anno unc eHicn t . .. And there is blackn ess, inclu sive, possess ell nnd give n; fr eed nnJ terribl~ uriJ beautiful . lier own vers ion of th e JlL1ck ,\esthctic was expressed in the snrnc statement: " Si nc e Et h er id ge Kni~ht is not your stifled artiste, th e re is air in these poems ." Knight roams the deep crevices of Black spi ritu:11 and psychic experienc es as he combines the lan:.u:i~e of the prison suh-culture with the rhythms of Black Americ~rn stree t speech . lie bounces or drjvt'S lwrd--a poetry of " Iinrd bop " --lookine :.it prison Jifc, love c111J ancestry . Exception.'.11 plcc s are the folksy "llard Rock Returns to Prison from th e Hospital fo r thi.:! Crimini>l Insan e , " th e mysti ca l and mythical "lie Secs through Stone," the genea lo gi c a l "The Iden of Ancestry," the innov.'.ltiv c Haiku sections , and "On U11ivcrsa]ism 11 which ,~arn s agnins t appl y ing " univ crs.'.ll la,JS " to " pains " and America . 11 cl 1a in s 11 in lli s technic a l ab ilities arc poignantly <lisp] nyed in h.'.lik.1_1 " 9 " : 1!.'.lidn g j a z 7. swing in Seventeen syl lables AIN ' T No square poet ' s job . Kni gl1t , ,-1ho vrns lnt c r released from pr l so n, al so edited rnack Voices From Pris on (1970) and in 1973 HrnaJside Pi0ss published lle]ly Son g and Other Poem s . He los es hi s reach whL~n he tri es to over- int e ll e ctualize in his poetry . Ant.I t hough it may be a hit unchnritablc. to say , Belly Sonr proves tl1at h e wrot e better poetry in prison . slips into polem ics . Th 0 last book has some fine moments -hut it sometimes However, Knight is still stretchinr; out as a poet, currently doing research into or;i l lit e rature with the aid of a Cu;~genheim grant . �· ncJ l y s h ows h im pu r s u in g t his t radition in " Th '-' Bon es of My Fath e r " which smil e at the moon in Mississ i ppi from th e bottom o f th e Tallahn tc hi.e . Fi nal 1~, , a numb e r o f · p oets fr om t ' lis z enern l re g ion of the Midwest a nd So u th ar e includ e d in ;i sp e cial Bl nck Poet r y issu e of Ne ~ro Am e rican Li t e r ature · Forum ( spr ing , 19 72) eJi t e <l by RedmonJ . The Forum is publi s hed by India na S tat e Univ e r s ity School o f EJuc a ti u n and e dited Ly John Luy ll s s, :.i n 1:n z li s hm:.1r1 . I t H !r,uLirl y r e vi e ws lllack lit e rature . Ch i c a g o i s a Hi Lh-,cs t !1e,1r t nnd lws .1 l ong tr.;id _i t i.on o f e L: 1c L /.rts , to i n 1; back tu, a nd before, Co un t lJnsie ' s op cn i n, ; at the Su nse t Clu b i n l (J '..!7 . 1/m:eve r, some o f th e 1,1orc r •cent forces h e lpin g t o sh a pe th e; 11<..: 1.1 po e tr y mu v e111e nt LIJL'rl' ar c : So uth Side C01,1 munity Art s Center , John s on Public:itio n s , Kuumbn ' s l' oot Th e a t er (Franci s and Val \~ard) , th e DuSable Muse um of Afri c,rn· A:,w ri c au ll i s l o r y , 01\AC, 1 ll !, Litutc of Positiv e Edu cntion ,rnd Third \!o rld Pr esr; (/J;,,lhuhL ti ) Frt~l~ lllack l' r ess , Af r o - ,\rt s Thea t e r, l!alcolr.i X College , Oscar Br0\·/11, Jr. , Muh a nuil ad Spe <.i.ics, Elli s Books tores , Ch ica go De fe n der , Philip Coliran (Art i s t l°c ller Lta.Ge Ens embll') , to n ame j ust a few . As a maj o r point b e t1-1e c n East a nd \/c;s t/ Nor t h aud Sou th , Chic ag o r eHiains a city in tran s j tion . Huch of th<..! n c H poetry sc e11e 0 c, nerat cs from t lte huh known as th e Or ;_;il ni :<'. a t ion o[ Blacl~ /uae ri c ;..111 Culture and 1,\1e nd o l y 11 Bro oks . Fuller , BJ :ic t i!u rld mana ~ inr_: edit o r, is a lso advi s or t o OBAC ' s Writer ' s \/or ks hop·. ln J 969 ( fall ) issue of Hommo , th e workshop ' s j u urn n J , Fuller said: Bl ac L i n a 11ay o f lo o kin t c1 t the 11orl d . Tl1 e po ts 01· OJ;AC , in rev ea lin g their vis i on , c c lcbrntc th e ir bl:.icl:ne ss. In thi s momen t ·i n hL s tory , what mi g ht un der differen t ci r cum- �st; nce s be sii!lfllY assumed must nec 2 s s aril y be :.1ssertcJ . 1\ml the OBAC poets know--if others do not--tlwt pale men out of the \vest do not <lefine for mankLnJ the perimeters of arl. Tliis they want all blacl; people to knoo . In the Jou nw l ' :; \lint e r issue of th . s ai.w ye :ir, Fuller said 01:,AC members · \·J er e " see];in t;" to 1..i·e "both si1:1ple and profound." They display an " i maginative re- pres e ntation of their e;~pe~ _i.ences ," but they also seek "t o be revolutionary." In the first quote, Fuller ' s tone, carrying the battle-baiti1 ,r, phrnse , "even if others do not," see111ed to have been a signal [or, among oth e rs , Don L. ) , to continue his attack on all fr o nts. Ther e \Je r e no :.;a cre<l cows, as Lee saw it, anJ since "others do not" know what the youthful Chicago Blacks presu1;1ahly <lid knm-1 , Lee's assi gnment was to teaclt them. C\iendolyn Brooks concurre<l with most of this feeling, embracing as it \Jer e a "n e w" Blackness anJ (unfortunaLely) occasionally enr,aging in a kind of self-Jeprecation : ·j "It fri g htens me to reali.ze that, if I had <lied before the age of . [.Lft y , I I \·JOuld have died a ' Neero ' fraction." I Lee follm,7 in8 the examples o[_ Randall anJ Bar aka, be gan Third 1-Jor] d Press-"-a valuable vehicle for the ne\l poecs--:rnd I chang ed his name in thL! e arly seventies to llaki R . !>iadhubuti. I He al s o eslab- lished the Institute for Positive [ cluc .'.l tipn whicli publisl~cs nl.a c k Books Dul let in \vith himself a s e<litor. St e rlin ~ Plurnpp (1940- Oth ..: t· poets .1 included in the editorial st.::iff: ) , Joh.::iri i\ 111in.L (Jewel Latimore) (1935- ) , Em.'.lnu c l, I I Sarah Webster Fabio, the late Ll o r e ns ( who launched Le e's n:.1tional c a reer in I Ebony, l ~rch 1969), a nJ Ha dall. I OBAC was founde<l in 1967 anJ poets of varying temperauents were attracted to it and Gwendolyn Brooks' worksh.o ps: Rodr,ers (1943- ) , I/alter Bradford (1937- ) , Carl Clari~ (1932- Cnrolyn ) ' I I I I �Hike Cook (1939- ) , Jo.1:10s Cunnin~:h;1m (1936- Sam Greenlee ( ), Phillip Royster (194 3- Lee, Linyatta (]947(1938- ), Sharon Scott (19510 ), Ro1da Davis (1940- )' ) , Pe ;;g y K.2nner (1937- )' ) , and Sigt moncle Hjmherli (Ebon) ) , and continual stre:::n of ne,·: ly arrivin g poets. 0 Other Cl!ica ::;o area poets are St cp b n n y Fuller, Eugene Perkins, Irma McLaurin, Lucille Patterson, Jerrod , Zack Gilbert (1925- ) , Alicia Johnson (1944- ), Ruwa Chiri and Robart Butler. Th e work of many Chicago area poets can be found in Nommo, Black Expressions, B]nck Horld, Blnck Writers' News, Muh.'.lmmact Speaks, and in the antholo :; ies ~ Broacls .Lde Treasury (1971) arvl Jump ll a<l: edited by Gwendolyn Brooks . .\ Ne w Clli ca :~ n .\n tho lo f'. V (1971), both They c.'.ln al s o he foun<l .in the numerous . other nationally-llistrilrnteJ antholo ~ ies a nJ journals already l i.~teJ. as nci1,l l! and conc ept, \-/llS concessio n won by Chic.:i~o ar e a artj_st ~ HJack h'o rLl, , 1,1 d i.l Ctivi s t: s , who prot e sted again s t the ,)ld na1i1e ,Je f- r o Digest in the lo.tc six tie s . Fuller continues to r, uidc th e ma z azine' s new i111a g e throue,h the ticklish · 1rnters· of · I controversy and chan r_:e; . I as Bln c k \!or] ,1' s But m.:iny readers have been critical of wh:1t is sel!n pi.!rtlcular i2ej st;:in.li,, lack o f "open" (orur11 on \k.C ti nent -I Blnck issues, and a tendency to circu:-:1scribc in<livi<lu.:11s and ~ r o ups .. But _ the ·j journal l1as an indispensable a id to man y · Blnck poets and writer 3 , printing t11eir \vork, ident Lf y i1 1,: antholor;ies, 11otin13 books published, an<l servin g as facilitator for prizes .:ind genercil contact. Among all neu poets, Hadhuu1 ti is sec o nd o nly to il ikki_ Giovanni in the nu1n!Jer of accolad e s anJ the comm <..!rcial nttenti o n h e nnJ his poetry have receiv e d. A sampling of critics, poets and s cholars \Jho feel he is one of the 3reatest of the new poet:, 1Jo uld h.Jve to in c: lude Stephen Henderson, Fuller, G,,en<lolyn Brooks l!ar g aret \h!lker, Prwla Gid ,lin[; s,· Dar<1ka, Hnri Evans, lbndall and Gayle. I .-1 1 �GwcnJul y n Broo l~s !ins said Had hubuLi r cser.1h lcs Jesus Christ n,1cl hL·r IntroJ ucti on t o Juiap Bnd hail s hi1:i as "th e r.os t signifjcant, inv entive , nnc.l influent .i. ::i l black poet in th e country. " Overlookinr: , fo r th e I11ouc nt, the necessity of r eading " all " the poetry in t he "countr y " before rnal · Ln r~ suc h a state1:1ent, iL sj 1,1 pl y i i; not Hise in view ,i f th e " collective" policy--,:1.ncl \\ the antl-intliviclu::ilist f..::clin~s--1,,h i c h ::iller;edly for m the cornerstone of th e Chic.::ico poetry scene . Lee ha s publis h e d five volumes of po e try : Think Dlack ! (1967) , Dlnck Pride (1968), Don ' t Cry, Scr eam (1 96 9), He IJa lk. the l'i.1y of th e New \Jo rl<l (1970 ), Di.r ec tion sco r c : (1973). Selected nn ,1 nc1J Pocr,1s (] 971) :ind Tl,L' His Dynamite Voice s, Vol. I ill)l)] : of L{fc (Broadside), published in 1971, i s a study of 1L1 Elnc k poets of the s i x ties; but it reveals , like hi s othe r criticism, that h e/\ .:i hazy thinker, who l.:icks discretion ancl firm underst;inJing of the Blc1ck poetry tradi t ion . l!e spends an entire pa ge , for examp le , illuminatin~ a nd apparently advoc a tin g th e use of the uord " motherfucker . " And any bo ok about th e sixties should not cor.1e off the press without ex:wni.:.. ning the poetry of LeRoi Jones/Im::imu nara!~a . Mad hubuti attributes · the f a th e rship of the New Black 1ioetry to B.:irakn , but apparently is inc ap abl e o f discus~Jng the man' s poetry . Tl1ere arc othe r, i ncredible flaws in the book; for ~rl1ich t his youn ~ poet ' s olJ e r mentors must 's hare some blame. As a critic , he did not (could not!) cultiv.:itc the "dist nncc " of a Johnson, DrOlm, P..eddin~, or Henderson, ancl consequenLly--nlreaJ y lackin g discipline and tralnin g- -could n o t really see the poetry . But: in fairness, it mu s t be snid that his biblio ~raphy and oth e r rand om bits of informa tion abo ut the n ew poetry a r c usable. As a poet, Lee· far es bett e_ r, employin~ wi.t, i.rony , unclerstnt emen t and sig nifying . nut there are exec] lent poL~ t s in Chi c.:igo uhich his politico- poetic .I �i.magl: lws d\-Jarfed (Plurnpp , Cunnin f~ lwm, Rodgers, Gilbcrt, etc . ) llis themes r a n r;e fror.1 what Arthur P . Davis has cnlled " The t!ew Poetry of Black llnte," t hr o u g h love and J3lacl~ pd.de , to the ha-gared pontifications i.n The Rook of Life wh e r e he re-arran:; es saying s and pa rnbl c s stnted better by Aesop, b u s h Africans, Plato, and nnrnka, and Tnlson . Like Nikki Giov.::inni .:ind othe r s -, his ea r ly \mrk re- inforced tlte self-love CLJ11cept, ca!3ti2,i.lted whitcy a nJ encouri.l/jl!d 1\L!cL unity . llost of his themes i.lrc! s unuacc.1 up in the ti.tlc!, ThinL el.,ck ! and Blnck Pride and l1is devices .::ire everyday conversation, often not well\vrOu[',ht hut sometir.1es quite st~1rtlin~ and mus-Lcnl rh yllw1s ("The \.'all"). These he a<ljustD in an often effective typor,raph) \.Jlrich 1,1ovcs 1.a pc1r:1llel column s vertically or hoi:izont;.1lly on Lh e p;:i :•,cs. In IntroJucti.ons t o h i.tJ bool~s and critical ar ticJ cs :ia<lhulrnti nh•ays r; ives "directions" tu l;l;:ick 1•1ritcrs - - as he c.loes in much of t he poetry itself. "First Impressioas of ~ 7r i.l Poet ' s De::ith , " his elegy for Conr.::id Kent tivcrs , subtl~ly rev c.::i l ~ th e often · un- tall:ed -il bo ut thln:~s that cau se pre1;1ature l\lack Jcaths . Spc.:11,.i.n)j · of "too much " sex nnd <lrink, he sGy::; many "poets who poet" I ·1 die fro 1 ovcre,:posurc . Du t he can unknowln ;:;ly dabble wilh LliL uost complex aspects of Blac k life as in "Thr: !, c l[-llatr cd of Don L. L..cL: 11 1Jitcre , nftcr stu<lyin~ ianck history , he le a rns to love tl1c "L1rner" person .::ind h.::itc (w.ith vehemenc 0 ) my li t:,li t �Cert n in Ly n profound and tragic dile1nmn is stntl:d here: since hating one ' s color will not chanze it; and since one h n s to live with it for the rest of one ' s life . It is a ioo<l poem for s tudying the so-called "solution" that some Black writers claim to have "found 11 to the iJentity probll!1:1. 'J'l1ere are o t her peaks of revelry .:1 11J dunt.;eons of confusion Ln HaJhubuti's poetry. of his most f cmo u s poems L "Don ' t Cry , Scream ." One PraiseJ hii~hly by Stephen :, ? llenJerson , the poem paruphrases the her tic ,11 rantings of lton l~,irengci \·1ho encourageJ Blacks to renounce the Blues . Mc1<lhubuti ' s poem, a tribute to Coltrane , is lnrgcly ~raphic 1-1ith occasiona 1 areas of intc] l i~ibility . Then there is the self-disgust : i cried for billy hollidny. the blues. we ain ' t blue the blues exhibiteJ illusion..., of manhood . Even the Germnn Janheim: J ahn knew better. must face the question: it 11 ? AnJ certainly , today, l·ladhubuti · if the blues were destructive , then ,.ow d Ld lw " make Indeed, h ov1 did anyone " r.1ake it" 11ithout the totem of survivnlisms· necessary to " c ross over 11 ? Madhubuti ' s influence on the new poetry - has been . s u bs t ant i al , however , though in most insta n ces t he influence has been in ·~he area of politics rather than poetry. Carolyn Ro<l~ers I volumes arc P.:1pi:~r Soul ( 1968), Sonr;s of a ·Blackbird ( 1969) , 2 Love Raps (Broadside) Got Over (1975) . 1.forncinly revolut i.onaries and music . (1969), Blues Gittin Up (1972) anJ How I ,id convi n cing , she writes of youn~ women , love , In " Phoenix" sl1e recalls travel in~ '\1i th the wind" and hearing the many voices screaming bloodc.lrops of ti11e. "J.:1~2 11 descril>cs "three" at the bar, the cli c king of drink.in:_; f.lnsscs, and the murmur of thicl~ mouths . . . . �11 Rc b o lw; ~1inary ::-nas / e nstuh juli.c 4/et c . e t c . 0 cc ." is a satire on " militants ." Anc! she tells 11s that hits of r.1c s plintered in to a t;lirror in "Look n t Hy Face cnn also ];0. i1 Colln g e ." Th e s e id e n s [tn,l th eme s, .1 nJ 1,wny o th e r s , fnu1Hl in t hL' poe try of Johnri Am ini, Plumpp , ,md Cunnin g ha m. Johari Arn ini I s books incluJe I m, :• es in Blnck (1967), /\. f o H (1%9), T.et ' s r.o F;:i lll e (hr oa dsiJe) SomewhPre .(1970), and A Hip Tnle in 1Je.1th St v l e (1972). She relies heavil y upon Black colloqu i nlisu s , usu.-ill y nchi e vin ~ success . But she h as oth e r nin n; es a s can be see n i.n "B rother " which lon g s for the "s oil " of Black po ep l c , wh e re they can _feel the u niverse s huJJer .... ,L Plumpp' s PortabJ. ,, Soul (1969), lla1 f Blnck, llc1lf Bl.1ckcr (197 0) and Steps t o Bre;:ik the Circle (1 975) . A southenwr ,1ith a back g round in psy ch o l o r:Y , b~ ha s also wr itt e n a provocative study called Black Rituals ( ). His interests are seen i.n titles like "From Ma n less Sisters to Big Bad Rappers,'.' "Black Hessar,es" ("believe in us"), "Liv in?. Truth" ("lllnck hi.story ... a li .:m1 1e d ,: I) Le "), an<l E~ypt (For Black ~iotli e rhood ) ,., : an e v e rl as tln t: sunrise m,•oke ... One o f the mo st pcrc e rtiv e , skill f ul a nJ .innov~itive poe t s , hu1: ·v s: r, i s Cunn.in g l1 a1t1. llis one volu1:1e is The Bl u e ,,nrrat o r (197 4 ) nnd li e h ~ts be e n p ull/ li sl 1eJ ,,.i.d c l y i.n pe ri o Ji.c a ] s . " Tll<.! l. l t y Rises " as a s a d stj f f \JO o de .1 pL " St .. Juli. e n ' s lve: ci= ror Den n.is Cro s s " li e 11011Jer[ully i,1 i xc i, Lli <.! Sl, n s ..; s ; tiie n a rr a t o r i s tl 1e " ,,a r " by llrnhms , and th e n th..:rc full o1vs f; rt.!i.l t po etry : tli ~ "' .i nd -1.1: 11 a s a man s L ,md s \Ju n d e 1.· i.n ~: tenriri'.j ::it the brid :;e �why does th e riv e r float u p to th-'. sl~y In n Tols on i:rn thru s t, "Ra ppl!l r_ Al on ;; with l'. 011,tL1 D,7 vis " is ,l deli ghtful comhination of }:oon \.J r,au:-; E. y a rn s anJ s hous Cunnin t: h, ,11 ' s :1 b i l l t y to pl.::ice dis par a t e o rJ e cL 1~s in l,is poetic vi Sl!. "A Street in Kaufma n-ville : place '' is i.l s tuJy of the 11 or a note thrm,m t o c:1r o l y11 f ro1:1 r oJ l,e rs fra1:;ments 11 of Bob Kn ufmnn in wh o111 tit , i1 oet se e s a madn ess unlike my oi-m . . .. Arrivin g " From the Narrator ' s Tr.: mce, " a song thur.1bcd-dow11 n crui se r for a r lJ e .... Cunningham nlso 1vrites of other poets nnJ artists. In cu nclu c ti n: ; l1i s f.:iscina tin~ experiments 1Jith the l a ngua g e, he celeurat e s the Hid e span of the l1yhricl Afro-Ameri c an herita~e. And certainly, h e r e is a po e t to be closely watched. AI.1ong o tl1er Chica go poeu, uho puhlished volumes are : Gi lu~rt, t-lv Ovm llallelu jnhs (1971); Chiri , J\n Acknm,lecl c: cmcnt to Hv Afro-Ame r l e an llrotllcr (1968); Perkins, lllack is Beautiful (1968); Wioberli (Ebon) ~l1etto Sc enes _ (1968) a nt.I Rev o lution (1968) (' 1a n e11 Black voice to alaro1 tile cstablishme1~t 11 - - Perkin s ); Nargarct Durroughs, \.lha t Sh3ll I Tell my Children W110 ·are Black (1968); Greenlee, Blues for an Africnn Princess (1971); Lucille Patterson, Hoon in Black (1974); Stephany, Hoving Deep (1970) ; Royster, Th e Black Door (1971); Kr; ositile, Spirit s Unch.'.lin c d (1969) anc..l For 1-:elb.'.1 (1970); Butler , Black \'isions (1968); and Jerorld To Paint .1 Black Picture (1969). Yet a newer ~j roup, not all Chicagoans , have been published in Third \forl<l Press' New Po e Ls series: An fl ela Jackson, Voodoo/Love Ma ~ic (1974); Damali (Denise Burnett), I Am th.'.lt Ive May lle (1974); Fred Hord, After !lours (1974) and �S.:rndra !~oys ter, \Jon,cn Talk (1974) . These young poets d eu l wit h a vnri c ty of subjects, th o u,;h Hith a smc1ller v ar iet y of forr1s; mostly, ho\l cvc r, they arc concern e d witl1 revolution, self-pride, het e ro sex ual relati ons c1nd Clc1ck life in urban i\mcrica . Among tli c_ many goo d thinr.;s which emer g ed from Chica go was the "ne:w" Gwendol yn Brooks who, a!; we s m -1 in Clinpter V, has alwnys beC!n t,olid in her Bla ckness and wonderfully magic in her pocLry. The Brooks of Tn the Mecca (1968) , Riot (1969), Family Pictures (]970) nnd /\]oneness (1971) is not drastically dif fcrcnt from her former self. In Report From Part One (1972), her autohio r, raphy, she npparently approved the use of a Mc1clhuL11U T'r e(ncc which tells more about his own readin ,1 and writing prob1cmi, rhan i.t Joes about this g reat woma n's r,oetry . Madhuhuti comp1nins ::th,1 ut h er comp] x verse; but her poetry has never been "easy" to read (probably never wjll) and Iliot continu es t l1at tradition of toughness, a poetry which y i e lds mcanin ~ after 11111ny readings. She employs mytholo gy , history, sarcasm :rnd . drama tic dia] or, uc to r e veal white middle class pomposity even in face of n "li.iot.," latGr incorporatin ~ Hin g Crosby and Melvin Van Peebles , and aspects of love. The "Black philosopher" is the thread that spines the section called The ThirJ Sermon on the WarplanJ. There arc traces of h e r ters e earlier style, p:.irL.i c u] a rl y her unlquc wor<l-sound pro;~r-L!ssions: as her underfed l1uunchc·s· ·je rk jazz. i\nd a 1-11\lLc 1.Lbcral, o l.rnt:rv.in 0 a ri,i t, asks " ll ut l.':IY do Tl1csc l'L!op l c offend tl1 unsclvL' :,? 11 a<ldin::: th at .it ls tlme to "help . " he r 11 2 11 Family Pj c ture s con tn.ins the s naps hots of yo11n;; !1 e roe s , the pcop_l e who helped her beco me "Bl.:ick." l\ut despite 11e:ll-r.1c,111ln 1; s,1 lut cs to K0 osi ti.l e , ]Jon, l~r.::id(ord , and younr~ i\fricans, thcrl! is a 111011otony o[ praise. - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - Ad mitt ed ly, no 011e is perfc!ct, a nd she ls .:..p 1>uren Ll y �s t ru,~;•,J it, 0 as h a r cl Hith co rmn itment us sh-2 i s 1,ith t i ll' n ew poet r y . In " Spee c h to th e Youn g , " d eJ icated to own childr e n , th e s e n s itive mother-po e t gives advi se that ma ny nnother younr, person ~1i1~ ht cud J le a ncl c h e rish : Live not for The-Encl-of-the-Son :; . Live i n tlt ~ a lon g . Such aclvicc come s at n n i 1apu rtant juncture 1,h e n th e 11orlJ i s mo ving ri g ht a lou~ , Lo use a cliche , ~mJ lenving behind tho s e to o mir e d in tlt e ir own " s elf-revelations " to look, listen 3 nd l e arn . Yet o n e crO\,'I in 3 s alute to this i rcat laJ y of Bl a ck letters was an impressive antholo ~y o f poetry and t es t imo n i:ils , Tor.wen with Love : assembled b y MaJhubu ti ancl A Trilrnte to G\-/c ndu l vn ilr ,,oh; ( l 'l7 L), ,the rs. Chica r,o poets were only a skip fro m pl ac e s like c ~1ry , Indi ~tndJW l is , Detroit, and St . Loui s , Cleveland , Kansas City , and the closen es s p rovided interchan g es ancl exchang es on all levels . Motovm ' s poetry output , l i ke that of otlter communities , was a]so in t erwoven with relatcJ symbuL; · ancl · expressions of the new consciousness : 11.:trgaret Danner ' s Boone House for · the Arts , Itev. Clea g e 1 s Shrine o f th e Dlac]; Hadonna , Mot own Rec ord s , Bro udside Press , Vau r, lm's Bo okstore, and are a Dlack studies projects . Th e poetry hub for the late sixtie s and seventies, of cour ~e , is RundallJs Broadside Pre s s. Randall h as cha nged as a poet and per so n , he says, in \vays thn t perhaps parallel the chi..inge s in Gwe ndolyn Br ool~:-; . A "f a ther " fi 3 ur e rnno ng so m"' n e w Black poet s , h e publish es c.l o zens of t hem (over 100 at this writin g ), releases new books of his own poetry , serves as distri.butor of nr e man ' s li e rita ~e Se rle s , and tr a v e l s wid e ly ns a lecturer, teacher , libraria n a nc.l t r:1n s lator of Rus s i a n po e lry . A foni1a]i s t by tr a inin z a nd tcmp e 1· nmcnt , Rarnla]J <l e s c rjb e d l1is new poetic st a n ce: in a stat eme n ~ in llo c.l e rn an ,l Contc.mpor a r v .\f r o-/wte rlc a n Po e try �(l}e l l, 1 9 7 2) : Ny poetics ls to try to write poetry as 11ell .:is I can. I think I have said elsewhere that the function of the poet is to write poetry . t!y earlier poetry was more formal. No1J I am tr y iq c to write a looser, more irregular, rnore colloquial and more idiom.:itic verse . I abhor logorrhe;.1, anJ try to m.-ike L1y poems as conceutrateJ as possjli]e. Indeed, R.::mdall has tried to Jo just th.:1t--moving from n traditional to conversational verse . il loose This he attem1its in volumes like Love You (1970) o.nJ Aft e r th .:: Killin g (1973). \Jhen R.:-mdall is descrihi1 g a L; irl i n a n Af r ic ,rn villaze or the " Hirac1e " of love, he cones over 1;2nui.uely ,:111J str o n-.; . f, ut poe1:1 9 like "Gr een Apples" and "Word s I-lords \lords" show him out of ltis field. These and other pieces are merely vertical prose, appcarin[; as rou ghed-out letters. But he is primarily a librarian, publisher, :ind cdit o. r whose service to Black poets h as been .:mcl remai.ns invaluable. This is see n not only in his production of their ,v0rk, but in the ma n y anthologies Hhich he h a s odit,~J. \-Jith Cliicai~ oan I!ar~aret Burroughs, he co- edited Hnlcolm: Poems on the Life and Dea th of Ma] calm X (196 7), a foresight ful nnd command in ~ work . · Also to his edi.tinr, credit are Black Poetrv (1%9) and The Black - Poets (1971), the latter imbal.1nced and apparently quickly thrown together since it has practically · 1 no Introduction and contains no bio~b1b lio grnpl1ical material on the poets. In addition to r:.n nuall and Hnrjaret Dan ner , otlter poets in this upper Midu-2s t area arc James llandall (1938Thomas (1 93·)- ) , !Uchard ) , \Hlli a m Thl~ren (1941';-1971), llao1:1 L Ha d:;dt , Hay,len, P-ock y T.iylor (Te j u1;iol~ Olo ~bonl) /\tlanta, 1043- ) , Jai,1es Thompson (193 6- I (Elt1_5) , I I �) , J ill \Jith e r spo on (19 4 7- ) , S tc J l a Cr m,,1 s ) , Ln Donna Tolbe rt (1956- ) , IJ arne J 1 Ha\Jkins (19 116 - (1 950 - ) , ) , Shirl ey \/ootlson (1936- Leone:1tl Da il y (190 6- ) anJ Frcncy ll o tlr, -.! s (1 9!10- ). Tiley c a n b e [,rn nd iL1 1' , n , A 1\ro ad s idc Trcasur.,r , fhc lilacL l\JL.ts , :rnJ i n t he s,n:11] (<. t" -" ~.(. •.. ,•.Ji..c.: ~ ,~,:. ._ I,·. ilt •?..1 lntliri d11 :1 l v o lum es 1c..:,uL1rly publi she d by nro;.1J s i Jc Pr ess . f' n r furt l1"' r d e t ai l s on De t roit :1nJ ot he r f roatl s idc po e ts s e e Br o adsid e Aut hors anJ .\ rLi s t s (Leoneatl Bailey , 1974) . J ames l~n Llal l h a s published Don 't Ask Me Who I Di s.:1 s t c r :, (197 3). 11 NetuorL 1\1.1 anJ Cities :rnJ Othe r lli s poe try is i n t e n s e , c o1:111inmlin ~ :mtl dr.JJ.i' t ic . In !ews ," we ;_ire tulcl that for years he ' d watch e d th e 6 r ow in ~ 111adnl!ss of the State . 1 Th e re i s irony and pathos as i n " Str e et Cnmc s ' \Jh c r e a boy is bl.:1ct a s the ancient cur se of Af ric a J\ diff e r e nt kind of poetry is written b y Ol o gboni \/h o int cnn i.n:; l cs drum rhyLhn1s , inc a ntatory me dita t ion_s am.I sharp est a blishment-d i r e ct e d bar bs in Drum So nB (1969), Intro d uced by Gwendolyn Brook s . \vho tells us in 11 Th e pot i s a l so a n a r tist Unti t l c tl 11 that th e ni i ht contai n s indif f erent stars ... . ll.'.ly<lcn has ue e n t e nchin g a t th ,! Un iv e rsity of lfichi r.,,:rn, hi s a l ma 1tia t e r, sinc e tl1e l a te sixties when h e l eft. fist under pre ss ur e . His \fords in th e Ho urni n°, time (19 70) n nticip a te the t heme of J a yne Corte z ' s ov e rp owering " Fe s tivals & Funer a ls . 11 He seeks a p l nce v1here m.'.ln uill n o lon g er be c a lled ni g~ er, gook, kit e or hun k. le , but " 1.1a n ." Th ere a r L~ fri !_', ht en i ng poems :rn <l t e rrif y ing i mage s in Hor ds .'.l s llnyd c n s _u rvey s the " Sphinx ' 11 Sol ed.1<l" (' ' cradled by dru g s , by jazz "), 11 1 1 (' my jok e nnd me " ) , 11 !Z odachror.1e s of th e Ts lnnd �("fin gerless hancls") and "El-llajj Halil~ Cl-Shabazz" ("the \J::tkin;; drea1:1 " ). " Zeus over l~eJcye" r eflects on a visit to the n.,,Jstnne Arsenal. It is an intense drama, joininr, other ~rea t poer:is as a major statement on our times . Hes tern man ' s mythic totem, his depravity , his quixo ti c movements at the speed of a blur, the liu1:1an " loom" of t ensio n--all are sta~ed ,1~~ains t the backdrop missile arsenal where death-machines bear the names of ancien t Gcaeco-Romnn mythological fi gur es. mythologies " to "c or.1e to birth ." Such naming allows death-dealing ''new Among terms nssociated with llnyden ' s ni ghtmarisl1 world of visible/invisible and antic ipated violence nre dragon, hydra, basilisk, tulip s , coro.llas , 7.eus, J\pollo, tab, nnJ llerc ul..~s . missiles toHcr ("st nsis ") The 2:; a sacred phallic grove .... Apparently th e gu ides at th e arsenal cj-Unot satisfactorily ansuer ciues ti ons about the missi les' destinies and dan ge rs: ✓ You r partial answe re reassur e me less than they appall. I feel ns thou[;h invi sible fuses \Jere burning all aro und us burning all around us. Il ea t-quiveri.n,;s tuitch dan ge r's hype rsensitive skin . The very sunlip,ht hero. scer.1s flmTJmable . And shadows give us no relieving shade. Dismal and final, llayclcn ' s poem adds its mm particular ton e , style and langua ge to the len gthenin g t otem of the New Tilack Poetry . For, despite his disa ~re ements with th e Black J\estheticians, th ere i s no doubt th a t �"Zeus" r0af firms a belief exp r essed by youn~er, sometimes lo uder, poe t s : the Hes tern world is <loomed to destruction at its a yo unce r poet might say) Olm that h:i.nJs (oill " off itself, " ind t h is is wha t has been decreed . In fact , the th eme of a n appr oachi n g e nd i s quit e "America n " in poe t ry , still being pre.:iched by white poets nnd spokl;s1,1,rn : from Uobby DyLrn to Dilly Graham . Rich contrihut.i.on s ltavc also been mac.le by poets und artists in sou t hern lllino.i.s .:rnd His sour .i.. East St . Luu is anc.l St . Louis , thou;;h loc1.1 teJ in t \vO different otates and separntecl by the Hississipp.i., have a mu t ual history Ll w t ~oes bacL before the days of the L1moL1s Dred Scott Case . These Blacl~ communities , al t ernately wur ring an<l loving , uorked closely to :;e th e r dur i_n~; t liL'. lH.:ick Arts Hovem '11t . ! tt! Lt•, ht of tlte Poe t s 1.1nd arti::;ts Here drawn to or supported by !\AG (ln~1cl, Artis t Group) , House of U1noja , The: nlacksmith Shop uf J;la ck Cultur e , lllack Liberator project , the llouse of Truth, Irnpack llouse , tlte Experiment in Higher Ed u cation a t SIU , Sop h ia Ho use , Ka t herine Dunham ' s Performin!; Arts Train.ing Cen t er ( tl!E_- SIU ), Black lt i ver \friters , and t he So ut hend Nei g huorhood Center . Some of the poe t s i n the area were Druce Ru t lin , Rhen Sharlem Carant , Sher nwn Fowl ~ r, lle<li.1onJ , Cynthia Conley. (1-,ho later joined ODAC) , Ar t hur Do::1icr , Bobb Elliott , ,\ustin Black (1928- ) (who v1ent to Los Angeles) , Fre<l llorton;_ Dwight Jenkins , Rornenetha foshi n gton , Do nnld llen c!erson , .llenry Osborne , Jon Hi l s6n , Vincent Clark , Gloria Walker; Vincent Terrell , Reginald. Allen ·r u rnage , Wayne Loftin , Derrick Wrigl1t , Gregory An thony , Katherine Ounham, and others . \.JritinLs by these poets are included in SiJes of the P.iver : A Mini - Antholo~y of Black. \fritin~s ( 1969 , Redmond) , Detty Lee ' s St . Louis-based ProuJ mar,azine wh i ch offers prizes , The Hill Creek IntellL gcncer , n special issue of Sou ' wester (fal l, 1 968 , selected by ncdmon<l), Th e Black Lib t2 r a tor, Th c Creator (1969) , Tambourine (1966 , \Jliite and Schwartz) , Collec t io11 (1968) , ,,o_ �\loluue [ of Poems by Blacks (1970). Dum.:1s, 1,ho t,1ur;lit for a ycc1r c1t East St . Louis (SIU-1:l!E, 1967-1963), .inJ ReJmond co-sponsor-.,<l writin ~ progr;__ims in thE:! l~ap-\-lrite NO\v l/orksl1ops c1n<l Black River Writers group. Collect ion was stu<lent-produceJ under Dumas ' supervision , with Fowler am Li n In Stennis servin 8 as e ditors. El1 i.ott writes , in " The Dream Time ," al.iout th~ " spirochete womb " of the mother of the uni.verse, the Phoenix , anJ th e Jeath "fashioned at the end " of 500 years. Great Phoenix that she was, the mother of the univ,~rse now leaves the dream e r \-llth only her J ~rc;__it murky sexu;:i lity .... Elliott .is .:1 dreamer and rrealisl but Dl.:1.ck ushers ln .:1 different l~ l!lJJL'ra- ment with hls Th e Tornado in My Houth (1966 ). lie !ias the i r re v erence of th e Bea t s , the funkiness _ nd dr i ve of the hard boppers , arnl the sexuality . 110\1p pursu1.t • o f one 1.n . " Asexual Flight " says a man ' s last wish is to be banished to the island of remiss and loose his love . Another mood is presented in "Ra~or M.:irnn Democr.:icy/. the nchc .i.n J-D " where the blue haze h u rts and 11011 the hair is turning " into ~ n ·.. ching grey. " 13lnd, snlutes " the gladiator" iu "Coeval Drum~ for l.L' roi " but in the me.:1nt imc he covers quite a bit of ground: 11 " the dead arterL1l ins:mity " ; " futility in jagged crags " ; Kierkeganrd / Sartre 11 ; " lil~e drippin~•. brine " ; " over the windO\-J of my being " ; and fin.:i.lly "Her pouer in howling \linds " bring s A Dl~lJHBEAT POil LEl~OI . �I I I I "Black &. 1'unky " is subtitl ~d " a h y poth<.! ti ca l or:;.1s1:1 " ;ind t he r e l s ir rev e r e n ce I in " DAH!-1 YOU!l ;~o d ! " His 11 ( a poer1 for ! !,\LCOLM X) " is subtj tl ed "th e lib e r a te d I wa r- hor se ." I In " C,1 rr y in~ a S ticl ·. , " f owl e r asks : l \T\10 cn r cs, t h;i t I had yes t e r<ln y ' s stal e ~ul'l f o r I breakfas t · I " Thin kin g " a ll ows various i ma ~e s st r e a m and burst forth only the mind can h c nr . S t ud e nt - mo th e r Ro1:ien e th .'.l "1a sh i n g ton writ e s a bout t'.1e pr r>r:stir ,·s o n t o<lny ' s Black woman wa tc h in8 pe o p l e Scu rr y i n ~ from s un t o s un •.. Al so pulled a l on r; , she says I p r otes t b ut s till I run. Lof t i n , a young poe t wh o writes with economy a n d simp lici t y , s umma r i z t.:s \,Jrl. g ht a n d Baldwin u p in " Re aljt y ": out o f the co tt on fi e lds anJ butnin g suns t o ov e rcr owded citi es an J s h ades of s lums li(:d.~,o nd ano..l F011 l e r f ounJ c d tl1~ J.;la c k Riv e r \Jrit c r s publi s hin~ c olll pan y whi c h ll r o u:.!, ht out Si.des cc t l1c !Uvcr . Cu r rentl y un UL' r th e sup t: rvi s i. u u of Ca'tl 1er i.nc Yo un Ge , t l1e Jl L"L'.~;s h as puh li. s h cd l:c d rnonJ ' s vo lumes : Toms (l iruc.1ds Ld c ) Se nt r y o( ,\ Ta l e uf Two (1 %13 ), ,\ Ta l c of Ti 1,1c L To Ll C't T .i. s~;ue ( pamp hlet) (1 969 ) , th e f o ur Go l Jcn l' .i. ll nrs (1 9 70) , 1nve r of' !!,ones ~i ncl Fl e sh a nd IHoocl . ;, Des i.re (197J) , (1 971) , Son ° s Fro1·1 an Afro / Phon e ( 1972) , In A Time o f n.-a in �anJ 3n Lp , 1aoodli.11Ls anu S;-icred Pln c.:c :; (1973). Thin:,s uas published in 1973 by Consi.Jcr Loneline ss as 'Jiicsc :c ntro :- Ludi [ Scnn,hj lnt c>n a:~ionali in I taly. Rc<lmond, a native of [as t St . Louis, strives fro I3L1ck faE1il yl1oo d (imm2di.atc and e:~tended) in his poe try; th o u ~~h ltc nttcrn pts to d o this \/ithout forced alle~ianc r•~;, 1d tl1out " Jj sf i~urcr.w .. t of pe r cep tion s , " but by .:1llm;ing the Jec<l-!.jlt· pin~ worJs co1:1c natural] y atHl hi s torically . ~ hu,norous fo J.k portraits lil~e His nose Wi..1S 11 llis poetry ranGeS from 11 va sio n of the ~;ose ": hi s re lar, !!is eye s ic y J irt s that mo, c J faster tkm speeJ-of- so uncJ jet s. He cou] d ri.lp 1 i.ke :: pneurna ic drill Or c r oon 1 i.k c SmoLcy Bill lien the occasion arose . to con s iJcrations of love unJer s train as in " Ins i de My Perimelcr ": Inside my pcrimc t e· Of fe.'.lrs A un it of ~;ucrlll:1 : Su ·.Lkcs a1 the hi.lr 1 c d-1s•ire llo vc ls th .i t ·honrd >llr love: Th a _ incarcerate c 1r nf•ctls-- An in s ur ge nt army St on.1s tJi,, bastil ~ of pride Shells this facaJ ( of custo1;1, Of the s trnw me,1 in i,ide us-Ac ce pts the sun , Al Lm-.'s the contorted fnce · of �I I I Str~ ss to smile again-- I To z low again! I Allows Love t o Live. I Els ewhere in the lc1r 0 er arei.l ll1c r e \Jere /an~ other go i ngs-on in poetry : I0\,1a , Nebr,1:,k:1 .1n,l l-'.ans.1s · C Lty wl1ere \!ilbu r Rutledge (1 9110- ) and others I I associ n.t e d \•J ith th e Afro -Ame rican Cu ltural Center and th< ~ J~ l..ick Writers Hork shop I r ecci.ved assistance and exposure . Amo n g these poets are !lary Ruth Spicer , Guiou Taylor, \.Jillesse Hes ter and .fa ckie Has hin g t o n . I So me of the1:1 are includ ed I in An th o l o,w : Dlacl: Fri tcr ' s \lorl:shop (l~iz na, 1970) and \./ashin g ton has pub- 1 lish ed Jo~ (19 71) . I Loc.1tccl a t the University of Denver for t he year 19711-1975 where he s ub stituted £or ~lphah e le dur ing a leave of absence, K~;os i tile (] 938eml ocl ies P,m-Africani ·m in f,ct and symbol. ) lie was born in Johanne s bur g , South Afric a , and h as been ex iled in the United States since- 1961 . His . articl es, po w s and int e rvi ew s have been published on an int e rnati o nal scale, a nd le hast; ug h t at several fun e rican coll ege s and universities . to 1, In adJition ,o ks alre a dy mentioned , he .h as publish~cl Hy }lmne Is Africa (1971 ) ;:ind cdiL ,1 The We rd is ll ere : Poetry from Hodern Africa ( 1973) . llis O\~n est)1etic is stated in his Introduction to the nntholo g y : Poe try, the wo rd .'.l t its most ex·pre ss ive, can be a prayer, an app ~. 1, cond cin na tion, encoura r e ment, aff irma tion--th e list of e ndeavor s is e ndl ess . And if it is authentic, as any t 1in g else expressive of a people ' s spirit , it is c1 hm ys ;o cial . This conce r L he embra c es in hi.s <•\ /11 poems, especially in Africn wh e r e in the Introduction, Gwendol y n Brooks writes th~t his Art is lif e worked with; ... I I I �Ilis Afr o - Ame r ican broth e rs incorporated th e i\fricanisms into t heir Horks ;ind6 ,.,,,. l~gos i ts il e comb i nes his own incli.r,inisms with a mastered flt1 c nc y of American Bl a cl: i sr.is . He :-1ss;:i y s th e •:rho le of o ur tu1c1ult·11ou s t i.m e s (in Africa an d Ame rica), i nterm i n g l-Ln ~ an acq u ire d Bl ack stree t la n :1, un g e with a Je1:wnd i n g an d s t rin ~:e nt form . One cf tlt e mos t ;:ib l r craf t s 111.2 n , h e un i t e s excel lent p o e ms :.i bo uL ch i ld r ..,.n , wome n , vL o lenc e , mu s ic , l·\: l c olrn X, Lun u1 ubn , 1.1!e nJoly n Bro oks , ,\ f r.I.can J,:mces, Bill y !Io llid ~ty , o r "The ii itt y l' ri t ty" in 11h .i. cl1 Lh c o nc e f u r iou s s o n ijs ar c now (roz en on ba tt(~r c> J LL 1..:!, li ps 1'111..! poet:, u f t !w Ea st , South , Hid1-1e s t ;1 11 d n e ar \lest cl re a bit more than I I a hop , sl~ip a nd jump fro m Cnlifornin , bu c. mnny o f th em we r e i ns p:ir ed b y tv I appe a r a nc ,:' s , nati o nal ma ~az i ne cov e r ag e, anJ c ross - co untr y t o u rLl of Llie \·/.::i tt s .I 0 po e ts . Born, as i t wer e , be t we en th e C, ,i ifor nl.a s un ,111.1· th e r ebell i on I l) [ 1 9 Ci5, t he lfa t ts \lriters' \/orks l1o p ,~as i 11i t:i.all y under the dir e ction of Budd · I Scl1ulLer ~ . I ·I l.:1ter , as ol d e r ,vr.I. t 2rs l eft and n c.1-.1e r ones ca1~ie in, t l1e sup e r - vi ~;ion of tlt l.! workshop Has ass L 1cd by l lai ry Dolan an J llerbcrt S.i.rn1•1o ns . centers of cult u re ,111d l.nfluen I.! ReL.1 t ~d includ e- I th e \!at t s llappen l. n ~ Coffee House , t he shor t - l i ved Shr l~IJ magaz in L, ~he \Jatt s Reper t o r y Theater , the Acquiarian Bookstore , L11e Son s u f \/atts , :: he Black !)anthers , Kareng a I s u:; or)janizatiDn , rtn cl Frederi c]~ !Jou r.J., s ~. lh i ter : ' !louse wh ich housed th e 1-/a t ts writers pro g r a m. /uno n g tho ~c , s socia ,. e d vli th t l s anJ tith e r \ffiting groups \verc Hilton tlcFarlan e , ) , Tr --- up e (194 3- ) , Rober t ) , Stanley Crouch (1 9L15- ) , ) , E!.1mery 1:vans (1943 ), Vallejo Ry:tn 1:enn c Jy ( L9 L, 7Clevela nd S i • s (1 9 ! ) , J;los _su111 Po11e , Oj ..-mke (,\ lvin Sa x on , 19!17 C . l~ . ~!u r c LrnJ , Jirn.1y Slle n:km (1 9!, 4- Ha y ltn ,J , J a1:ic.s Tl 011 as J :1..:k:., on (1 9 27 Dnvi J i- e es 12 Mo od y (1 9 3 3- ) ) , Simmons ( 1930- !, - ) , Johni e Sc o tc (1 948 - , , ) , Erne s t ) , Fa nni e Ca role ll rown (19 4 2- ) , f.Jn a Cl. ,ison (1 94ll- ) ) ) , ) , JJync Co rte z (1933- ) , ': �(19 29 f i rd Ql l Ch ew (1913antholo t; i c s: (1 91,/f- ) , Sonor a tlc l~e ll e r ) , Ridhi , na , and och e r s . ) , Ha rl ey Hi ms (1 925 - ) , Th e ir wor ks a r c in two fr om the As h es (19G7 , Sc hulb e r g ) and 1·h tt s Poc Ls a nd Wr iters (19 68 , Tro u pe ) . Othe r poems a r e s c a tt e r ed throu g h such pe ri odical s a s Lo s An ge les t!a ~,;_:i,:ine , Shr e_1, , Co nfront a ti o n , ..ind I/e st . Seen a s a mov e1:1ent , the \fa t s i; ro u p , i n qu a lit y a nd qu a nti ty , eme r ge a s o n e of the most powc r f u:).. o n tl ,2 llew Bl ac l~ Poe tr y scene (r o u;:•,h ly r esernblin i3 the mag nific e nt llm,,a rd g roup) . or excel l e nt, Tu r althou :1 h the pe e. try is no t uni f ormly e ood th erlc! i s c o ura ge i r. th e vi s i o n s , s t yles a nd th c nies th :i t o ne looks h :1r d t o fin d i n oth e r i; r o u p~ . patt e rn s of Black s Thi s r.iny be du e: lu p:.rl tu tl1c mi~~ra t ury Ln th e 1Je st-- mos t of t h ese poe ts \vere not born i n Los An ge l es -- a nd the r u l i a l k a ' e i d osco pe o f Calif or n i a . What eve r t h,~ r easo n s , t her e i s a pri. s mnti c ra n 2,e i n th e poetr y t h a t mov e s fr 01,1 the ear th-woman • mu s icallt y of J ay n 0 Co rt e z , a c ross t he all u s o r y a n d often mys l ica l ex cur s i ons of Ly l e , to the s i ;n i fy ln li blues in t erluJ c s of Cr o uch who h a s a l :;;0 11F i t t e n s o me darl n g and s e1,1 i na l c riti c ism in l3 lnck World a nd the J o urnn l of Black P oe try . .\ in ' t No Ambul anc e s £or · no Nir, g uhs Tonigh t b o th hi s ho o k and Lp r c c o rd i n r, whi c h includes lin e r n oL,!S h y Ly 10 . 11 (1972) is th e title of r ap 11 a s we ll :is poe tr y , wit h Cro u ch uses fol.k f orms ancl th ems a nJ v ari o u s <lr. a ma tic t e clrnici u es . in tcr t11Lnc d with music Man y o [ th e poems ,H e d e Ji en t e d t o lll u s ic i a n s li k e Parl : c r a nd Colt r a n e ; othe rs att L'T'lpt th e co1:1p lic a t ecl s~1o nt ane it y o f liv e j a~ ~ s o l os . Th e tltl e poc1•1 nnt ici p:-ite s th e J ay of th e fin a l ri. o t wh e n th e r e wil 1 not b e " n o " a mb uLm ccs f or 11 ni gr,ah s 11 • But the p oe m' s hero , Han key Junior, " g o t on hi.s j o b " li h~ na t Turner . I Ly 1c.: says hi s i.nflu c· n c cs arc> Art a u d , Oct nvi o Paz , Ce s a r Vallejo, Ccs:.1i.r e , .::me! ot h P ·s . His po e try j s g rounded in elli p tic a l phrases and obsc ure information �which h e constricts into fri ght e nin~ , surreal images nnd states. "So me times I Go to Cnmarillo & Si t in the Lounp,e" dL~scribes ]10\.J the poc•t st.:nes into "an nwninr., of i,pirit , 11 viewinr.:; t he \mrld .1c yellow tru1:1p'-'ts of stL1rving blu es Yet l1e.::irin._: ,l \' letn::t·IL!s-2 i.10th2r ' s "ult ra- L:~h - frequency screams ." told th.'.lt "cob.'.llt bull , iL;'' ·s1.1.::ish tlie hec:.L or Ll 1l.3re is a need t o Screm!1 . 11 IIO\,cVvt·, uf the "lone- ranr.,cr" i.n \Je ,He. 11 Lacrl111as Lyle ' s r1ost L11.1ous poc:..1 is 11 l Ca11 Get it for Yo u \ll1olcsulc ," n s t atenent on t;1e contemporary polltlc1l-re J l~:lousr.:icL.11 sc •nc. Ojenb~ Ji 1s an unlie1.i.t0cl nm::;c of l11LellectunJ anJ soc.i.3] concerns ~is lie sculpts his poetry from tlte diverse in:3redients tk1t prL)ducetl th e: Afro-Amee .Lean . J\pparently 1-1el l-v ersetl, reflectln:._. h i s ::reu t kno\l l .J!_;e ,)f Cr.'.lec,>-R,l11a11 cL.1s ,, Le :~, 11 l\L1c l: l'O\u~r" h:1s t!t-2 l yre of 11 Bl,1cJ: Orpheus " pi erce the dark solitude of :1 ll.:idean world : l l e ~ r s i11Lo ancient Greece nncl lli~erlo. in th e same poem . is a co1iu11otiun ca u sed by li).;h lnln:~ .:inJ [m1lne , ,bsass .i.H aLin:._; tin _people an<l whole i:rass-blad es? Later on Dioi~encs, Socr.:itcs anJ the Or.::icle of Delphi enter tl1c poem. Iiut the se characters only come to Hatts to find people esc:.1p i n3 into a "toxicnnt" an<l ·r1eein~; from so~ too-true truth Ojenke, ls o \,rote an Introduction l tl Eva ns' re.:i<ll.ng ability, Oj enke s.:ii<l: Evans ' book The LllVC Poet (1971). " Emmery i s cry in:; sly l y into your cnr ." Fo r this po 2 t, Ev:rns ' s " Roach es " <lcpicLs n L:rn1ili.:ir sc12nc Lo some : t wo ro ,tches dnnce across the room to th e tune of pover t y ; About �S,:o Lt i s one o f t ik r.1o r, we ll LnO\m o[ t!.c 1/atts poe t s . In "T lic Fish Part y ," he s.-iys Tl1c fish are in tit er in~ again tonight, ... And fish-\.;atcllecs , i ~;noran t of th~ \:orld' s problcws, ~ct tlw i r char,~es from Dur ing th e conversation, ~;co t t t:ilks t o 2uc~.s \•!hat ell ~ fish will do . ./ ✓ ;_ nu par:tnth c tically about 1:a r Hey, look? 11 pove rty, but nll is exc l ar.1.:itor i ly intcrrupt~d: Goldie has eat,~n Jesus up! 1-/atts, 1966 " is a poeu m~llions heard on nation.11 cv. th e1nc o[ iauck ra ;;e nnd \vh lte indlf fe r enc It has th e familiar Dut Scot t closes it on rne1,1oraule line s: The 1:1,m nnmeJ Fear bns inheri.te<l half an ncre , and i :, nngry . Other \/att s poets den] with love , violence , contemplation of freedom uml music . Hn nyToft hfatts a fl cr th e l a t e sixti es . Troupe went to Ohio Unive rsit y _ (t o edit Confrnntation) and published Embryo (1973), Ash Doors ancl .Tu.Ju Guitars (19751, and co-edited G ~ Talk: Third World Voices (197:i), a f ter moving '· I' on to New York. Lyl e, who hns not published a value~ , went to Washingt on University in St. Louis, an d recently returned to Los Angeles. Ja~ne Corte~ w1 r"flr:J!,., went to New Yo rk where she has lived an~ wrote since the late sixties. iler three books are Pisstained Stairs and the Monkey Man's Wnres (19o~), Festivals and Funerals (1971) and Scarificatioris (1~73). Celebrations and Solitudes ' (1974). She has also recorded an Lp , Her themes and styles are broad, but mo stly embrace music a s aspect and fo nn, Af rica, as stru gg le and spirit, is also a dominant th 0me in ~er poetry. Pisstnined is especially ricl1 in its interwcavin i•.s of mus! c and str_u ~:; le. "The Road" is "where another llank moans'.' and is �St on e y Lones ome "Lead" descri be s the k ind of hard li fe t ha t i s " c r a c kl in ho t a "'sunr i se ." Lead, o f c o urs e , is Lea d Be ll y whom th e "n i r,g u hs " <l esperat e l y want t o h ea r sp it t hP. blues out. lie r struf'. f' ) cs are n ot simp le "contriva nc es " a s th ey chr on ic le th e h a r dsJ-d1Js and goocltimc s of Dj n ah , li ir <l , Or n c tt e , Co ltra n e , " Pa ts" Nav a rr o , Cl i ffor d Brown and n t hers--a veri f i ab l e po e ti c t apest r y of Bl ack exp ressi on i n defia nc e o f death, f rorn one wh o wo uld ... ea t mu d t o tou c h th e r o ot o ( y ou •••. ) , Arthu_r Amo n g oth e r So uth e rn Ca li fo rn ia poe t s a r e Rob e rt r.owen (1 936Boze (194 .... - ), Kin amo Hodar i ( l~4~ - ; , ), Dee Dee McNeil ,1 :, -.:J- Bill Thomp son, and Lan ce Will iams . Northern Califor nia h as a lso been chara cterized by in- a n J t ra n sm i g rati on o f Bla c k poet s a n d wr j ter s. I n deed a li s ti n r~ o f po e t s f rom t h <.: of th e S;rn rr a n c is co 1:ay r c a ,ls like a na t io n al co nv e nt i o n : Re cd , Yo un ~ ( 193 9- ) , Ha r p e r (] 938- ), Cru z (]9 4 9( 19 47- ~c n e r a1 ·a rea Co n c11 Jv es (.19 3 7- ) (no w a t Br uwn), Co ny u s (19 L12 ) , An [: clo J. c 11is ( 1 950- ) , Miller , 1.m,rl!ncc llcCau1~ h (19 L10- (Ha rvin X), Lcoua Welch ( 1 ) , El llulwj i r ) , J oyc e Ca ro l Th omas · (1.93 8- ) I ), L.V . Ma ck (1.9!14 --:- ) ) , Jos ep_h ) , Gl e n ! ly 1 cs ( 19 33- ) , D:iv id flen d crson , .Jon Ec kel s ( ) , llcnnnn Bro1m ( ), - ) ) U1uumba ) , Pa t Parker ( De Lenn 1! ,1 rr iso n (1 9L1 I - ) , S.:irali We b s t e r Fabi o ( 192 a- m,d Ma y a An;;e l o u ( 1928- ) • ) , HJ.llln m ,\n<lers o n . Ha y are.:i ;1c l i v it y in t h e ar ts h a s hP. c n h e i ;;l 1L c n r d n n<l e n li a n ccJ by th e S,1n Fra n cisc o Afro - Ameri c an Hi s tori c a l and Cu] t urnl Soc i e t y , b oo kstores s uclt a s Her c , Harcus .:i nd New Day ( Go n calv es ), n c tiv iti c s of l' ,111t h c1- s a n J s .i. l!l ilar :· r o u p s , t he Rai nb o.1,1 Sir,n cul tu r a l ce nt e r in llt:: r kc ley, ' �N;iirobi Colle;,e , and numerous other c ult ur : 1 :111d lite rar y pr ojec ts. b y many bard s are in c luded in llill e r' s l)j Po ems ce s of BL1ck P, onc.s (l<J70), Jo ur nal of Black Poetr y , Yar<lbird Kea dc.r (a semiannu a l ediL e<l by nee d , Yo un g , Cecil Brown, Youn ~ and Myles), --,-.Umbra ]}ln ckwork:s (H e nders o n, all issues, espccLtlly 1970-71), and otlwr nation.-1lly distrihut2d antholo r, ies a n ,! per i odicals . I: c cJ h n s puhlished thre e voluues : chur ch (1971), Conjure: an d severa 1 nove 1 s . critics : c ::i t e chi sm o[ <l ne o.:1merica n hoodoo Select:ed Poems, 1963-1970 (1972), Chnttanooga (1973), . wor, l l 1as J r.:1wn o. curious · . ✓ I. t.ive s [· rom ]I 1s misture o f cllJec " brill iant, 11 " c ute," "jumbl es anc.l puzzles, " comics " and so on. 11 11 i 1i1p ortant," b:1J Inc.'.eec! , Recd writes his poetry inLo lits nOVL' 1 s ::ind hi s nov e l s into hi s poems . In thi s service, he emp]nys dialects, Voodoo , the occult, whimsicality, wit, mysticism, sa tir e, which he obviousl y cn _jo ys, al l reinforc e d by ns sorted libra ry information and street-instinct s . He violates time b :1ri- iers, placin :~ an ancient Gr e e!~ figure in a contemporary poem, or vic e v e r sa . His verse forms are experimental, rou ghly recalling· th o Beats ·. a nd other recent or p.:1st stylistic irreverencies. Tl1ere .:1 re no s ac red _cows [or Reed who sometimes L11,1ha sts · BL:icl: nntionalists and white lib cr:1 1s in the same poem . Generally, hi s techniques work (some are astonishin:J; bu t lie often s pends t oo 1: uch time a tt ackin·r 1·enl or cr e at ed antn ;~ o nists and li avi nr; iun at tlt L! expens e of reauers. 11.i s titles nlone are enou~h to keep you slapping your t h i gh or scra tchin :; "O u r he.'.1 d: 11 "Report o f the Reed Conu,ti ssio n," 1 am a cowboy in the boat of R:1," " There I s n whal e in my thi. gh," "The fe ral pi.oneers ," "The I3lack Cock," "C: r i s C:ris," "And the nevil Sent Pinto, which She also Routed ." .:.1 ford In ]973 Reed became the f irst Bl n ck writer to be nominated for a National Book Award in two cate g o ri es . �Gu nc Rlv es ( Dln ga n e ), a n oc c a sion .J I po e t, i s u n i que i n his int e llect ualt yp o grn ph ica l t ap e s t r y of i dea s ( see Bl nc k fir e ), but h i s se rvice to Blac k poe tr y h n s be en more obv i ou s i n h is wo r k n s found c r -ed i tor of Jo nn w 1 n' BL1 cl. Po etry . He a l so s er ve d a s po etr y edi t o r of Blnck Di. a l og u e . A q11icl, b ut stea d y , in f l uence on t h e ,;cw Bl n ck Poetry , h e h a s writt e n s ome o f t he mos t in f orme r! c ri t ici s m t o cn1.:c out of t he per i. u d . Ne u !J.iy Boo ks t o r e in Sa he,idquar t er e J . Fran c i sco , wher e Tlt c .Tourn.1. l a n d it s p r es s :.ire Amo n r, po e t s puh l i sh e, ] liy t h e p re ss u r e Nc .J l ,md \/e l t o n S1:1 l tl1 (P e n et r .'. l t i o n , 1 971 ) , n virtuo s o poe t \vh o 11 Cu r ren t ly h e ru n s / ope r a t t! s \luS ho r n a n,I r ;.i i f;c d in San l'r...1nc i. sc o . U:1 lcolm 11 e n ds dis c ussi.n ~ t h e kinds of tr ...i cks t e:1rs ii1:ll ~P ,1ncl L0 ll f n:j· t li e read e r th.: t i n 1.1y l1 e:1 r t ther e ar e ma n y unmarked g r aves . Ther e a re a lso word- gif t s in "the dan g er zone," "If I could h o l d You fo r . Li ght, 11 " f or n sor c ere ss " (" y ou kee p chan~i n ~ me into air") a n d "IHac·k · Mo the r " ("an odd ecsta sy mov i n g "); the s e j o i n blues, e x cur sio n s thr o up;h ·ci t y streets , and thoughts on Africa. tf Yo un p, a n d Harper both teach writing) at St a n fo r d a nd,, Brown , You_n g h as published Dnnc i n p, (19o9) a n d Th e So n c ~-~rnin r, Ba ck f nto -I t self (1971) , as we ll as n ov e ls and a rticl e s. lli s r, o c t r y s at i rize s milit a nt s , sa lutes wh i te a nd Thir d Wo rl d poets, and in cor po r a te s le g end s int o a broad b ns e of l inguist i c kn ow le d ;\ e, t i tl es o r h is books . Th e r e i s a co n s istenc y of i nter es t n s seen in the In "Er o son g " he finds hims el f d nnc i n r "na ked" th ou g h I I ·I 1 I All my s hore s h a d been pull e d u p " Ye s , the Se cret ~!ind Hhi s per s , " dedi c a ted t o Knu fm n n , c a lls poetry a "tree" for ever a t yc, ur doo r .... �YounR ranges over the whol~ of the life experience, writin ~ about squirrels, jazz musicians, Spain, Stockholm, ni ~ht time and sorrow. His poetry is markedly different from that of Harper who left California in 197u. llar per's volumes are Dear John, Dear Coltrane (1::,7,.;;, History is Your O,.m Heartbeat (l::,711, Photo ~ra ;)hs: Hant a Witness (1973 1 (1::,,4). Ne gatives: , History as Apple Tree ,19 /2;, Son ):L:.___!_ Debridement ,L. i3;, and Ni P,htmare Ber.ins Responsibility Praise for his poetry has come from a wide spectrum o f eminent critics and poets, primarily academicians, including Gwendolyn Brooks an<l Ha yden. Critic M.L. Rosenthal recently singled out Harper and Baraka as important examples of Black poets contributinr, to the new Ame rican poetr y s cene ,The New York Times Ma gazine, Movember 2.'.,, 197-.J. Laurence Lieberr.1an has also praised Har per who received nominations for the National Book Award as well as the Black Academy of Arts and Letters First Annual Poetry Award. Harper . has kept n consistency of tone which critics particularly enjo y and thou gh his poetry sometimes lacks metaphorical tension lfunk ? ) to ignite the important statements he makes about Black music, there is a firm intelli gince at work. His themes are i : lusion, pained creativity, war, racism, j nz~, _ nature, history, death, and the mythological evolution of mankind. Much of his poetry is personal, confessional, and he interweaves a medical vocabu. I lary into some of it. and musicians. He often inclu.cles ·chants, hums, and names of songs His musico-poetic concerns can be seen in these lines from "Dear .John, Dear Coltrane": Why you so black? cause I a m Why vou so funky? cause I a m �Why you so black? cause I am Why you so sweet? cause I am ~,Jhy y o u SQ black? cause I am a love supreme, a love supreme: ... El Muhajir (Marvin and adamantly Black: X1 is a different kind of poet, Islam-influenced -· Fl y to Allah (l~o~,, Black Man Listen ,l~u~,, Woman-- Man's Best Friend ,1 ~7 31, the latter obvi o u s l y a rejection of white America's· fetish for animals. Each book salutes Allah a nd cont ains irnme occasiona lly well-turned poetry intermingled with proverbs, parables and song s. He praises Eli jah Muhammad, Tommy Smith, and announces tha t "Bigg er·. Thomas Liv es !" In " The Ori gin s of nlackness" he says Black is not a color. bllt th a t / All colore come fro~ Black .•.• My l e s a nd Eckels are nlso at diff er ent e nds 11cNair is j n th e middle . of his drawin ~s a n ci po e ms. of th e p oe t ic s p~!c t n u1 ,1h.ile My les pu blish e d Down t Country in l 97 t; ~1,, a col l ri~~ e lie survey s. co nt empor a ry life, llis u pbrin13in g on " Bebop and blues in Phoenix," a n d his e xp eriences as an ,.irU st and art s tud ent . Ec kels lHrn 1.i oved from a p oet ry of :rne, er and protest to n "poetry \1ritten by n l mma n hei.n f'. , for hu m,:.rn h c inr;s." To morr o,;,.r, 111., ck lU f'. ht On, ! lli s boots inclucll! Bl nc k ll m m, This Time ome is hlh c r e th e Soul Is (1969) , Our Business i s in the Streets ( 1 970) , and Fire Si !~ n (1 973), which ;; ives its n.:1me to his press . In his earl y phn s e Eckels wrote ·about "!Hack Is," "ll ell, Mar y ," �"In Memory of Marcus, " "A Responsible t,Jeegrm1 Lcn,ler, " a nd other poems a lso coinin~ an interesting term: Western Syphilization Fire Sir;n "for the free and will be," shows a thematic and cultural h r ea dth 1/ as he writ<:s lov e po e ms and salutes freedom in ;;;eneral. NcNair, a cosmic poet 11ho bridges African spirituality and his o,-m psychic revelations, has published Earthbook (1972) -and J11bn Girl (1973). Cert:iinly tlic world \1ill hear more fro m this ~iftcd young writer. Amon g northern California women poets, Haya An ge lou is primarily a prose and script uriter, but has pµblished a book of pocr,1s: Drink of Water 'For I Die (1971). Pat Parker's 1>oetry Just Civo l!c A Coo 1 It wa s nomina t e d for th e Pulitzer Pr ize. can be found in a n excellent little volu me called Child of Myself (1972) and Dices. She uses her own wonw.n-feeling s t o assess landscape of the c urrent upheaval. "Brother " reveuls contradictions in the love-but-hurt app ro ach some Black men take towards their wonen . The "system " she has just been struck with, she says, is called a fist. 0tl1c1: poems deal with humor and tra gedy in husband-wif e relations. In "A Hornent Left behin9 11 she asks Have you ever tried to catch a tear? "F rom Deep Within" says the way of a woman is turbulent \Jith many forces and colors of feelings, but A ,JOman' s body must be tau ght to spcnk-- ... Pat Parker's work searches behind the cosmetics and the vo g ue to tl1 e truth and the disturbance. So cloes th e uork of Joyce Carol Thomas whose two books, �llitt~rs,,c c t (1973) a nd Crystal llreezes (1974), were pub lished by Fi r e Si ~n Press . Ile r poe1'1s are about ,1omei1' s mo ods, church, Black mus i c , children, a nd love. There i s a modern feel a nd te xture in her lines whicl1 e conomize and without d is playing abruptness or un decipherable co de . Ye t he r s treng th is unmistakable a s in "I r now a Lady": I kno11 a L 1d y /\ caref ul queen She bows to no one lier will is a Fine thread of s t eel .... In the s e poems, and the works of Pat Parker and Leona \lelc h , one sees a strong hea ]th nn d future in Bay a rea ,,omen poets. Welch's f ir s t boo k, wa s published in 1971. B1nck r.1-braltar, Leona He re and th e re, one fin ds sub- dued rage and impatience befor e racis m and i gnorance ; but her poetry also exalts th e Bla ck woma n and s pea ks in l ow t one s to men. f rom f olk ex pres sions to forma l exnminations of love. lie r lanB ua ~e ran t es "St n tus qu.o" 1.::; t lte stud y of a Bl ac k with "c las s" and d i 2nit y: Got my white poodle by the leash. Less able than the o ther women, h0r poet·r y s a lutes a number of heroines includin~ women in !er family and Ni ~k i Giovann· Finally ther e is the much-trave] ed Sarnh Fabio, instrumental in Black s tudies devel opmen t in nort hern Ca lifornia, but who noH lives in Iown . published two vo]umes, A ~ irror: She A Soul (1969) and Black Ts a Pa nth e r Ca :• ed (1972), and th en without notice, br ough t out s even volumes (!) all in 1973: Soul Is: Soul Ai n't, Boss Soul (also the name of her Lp), Black Back: Ba ck Bla ck, Juius & Jubilees, My Own Thing, Ju;us/Alchemy of the Blues, �and To gether/to the Tune of Coltrane's Equinox. /? (•' -. Her later work is more formal than the l a ter whic 11 shows that she has j oined the new poe try movement completely . One of her more memorable earlier pieces is "Evil is No Black Thin~•• in which she takes all dark thinp, s traditionally asso cia ted with evil and reverses them; or, allows them to be seen in a lar p,er cont.e xt wherein they invariabl y embrace somethin~ that is li ~ht. lier later volumi- nous efforts deal with experimental blues, ra p- styles, folk narratives, and the reconstruction of a general Black oral history. This she does quite well on her album but much of the writing in the new books is too conversational. Cruz has published Snaps (19~9) and Mainland (1~7JJ• A Puerto Rican now livin g in the Bay, he writes with brevity about other poe ts, New York City and other lar ge northern cities, and Spanish mythology, often interpolatinK bi-lingual phrases in lines. Barlow tGabriel, 1~7,; has done ~npressive things with languar,e and history. B. Rap published llevolution Is and Metamorphis of SupernigGer (1973 1 • \17~7 1 lfaile an inmate at Vacaville, Brown ,Muumba) published Some Poems and Thin3s (1~71). In Sacramento, the young po et Clarence MKie Wi gf all has shown promise in The Other Side ~19701, while I-Jes Young published Life Today (b10 1 and Ramblinp, and Thinp,s ,197:l;. Grant High School young Black poets ~ere included in Omnibus (1973,. At A number o f younger and older poets are studying with Redmond, who has tau ~ht at California State University since 1970. His workshops are located on the campus as well as in community sites like the Oak Park School of Afro-American Thou ght. Meanwhile, in Seattle, Black Arts West is attracting many poets; and across state at Washington State University po et Primus St. John writes and works with other w~iters. '.,! � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_07_50 Title A name given to the resource Copy of Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, typed partial manuscript, p. 1-36 Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/839134654590aa228d96d64ebb17ed52.pdf 1b88eb0395861cd3ee34f04d56678e0e PDF Text Text III EXPLORING BLACK POETRY: FORM AND MEANING There are many exciting and rewarding ways to pursue Black Poetry inside and outside of the classroom. However, the student must remember that he is studying "Black" Poetry and not simply a Black imitation of European or American poetry. This caution is given because students, steeped in the Western literary tradition, often recognize only those superficial similarities between the Black Poetry and the white writing traditions which dominate literature. The problem is aggravated by our knowledge that the Black poet is sometimes at odds with himself as he grapples with the very language of those whom he deems his oppressors. Then there is the anachronism of a Phillis Wheatley or a Jupiter Hammon--Black poets removed from the daily brutality of plantation slavery. Additionally, there is Paul Laurence Dunbar who resented his "curious" fame as a writer of dialect poetry. Equally complicating is the case of the brilliant Countee Cullen who did not want to be known as simply a "Negro" poet, or that of contemporary poet Robert Hayden who feels the Black poet should not be limited to "racial utterances" or haye . his work judged by standards other than those applied to other poets. Ironically, Cullen and Hayden (despite their pronouncements) write with a racial pitch and consciousness seldom seen in any Black poetry. So it appears that, with rare exceptions, the Black poet exhibits 104 �' I a racial consciousness regardless of what he "says." When he does not display this consciousness or predicament directly, he alludes to it in his fight and fire. For example, while Dunbar's "Sympathy" makes no definite reference to Blacks, slavery or social injustice, it is clear--after we know who wrote the poem--that the "caged bird" is symbolic of Black people. McKayJs two sonnets follow a similar pattern. Neither poem mentions race, but their titles ("The Lynching" and "If We Must Die") have much contextual relevance for us. The foregoing observations lead us naturally to a consideration of theme, structure and meanin5 in Black Poetry. In any poetry the three components are inseparable. But throughout history, discussions of them--which is most important, and so on--have sometimes occupied as much space as the poetry itself . But Black Poetry is not only a fludity of theme, structure and meaning; it is also interdependently associated with the psychological, social, political and religious attitudes, forms and manners ·or the Black Experience . Certain themes in Black Poetry are recurring because the plight of Blacks in America has not been radically altered over the past 350 years. Social alienation, physical and psychological aggression, cultural and physical rape, general exploitation and miscegnation--all continue to arouse, enrage, anger and embitter the Black poet. Running concurrent to themes caused by these stresses are those dealing with every- 105 �thing from Black invincibility to love and religious devotion. More often than not, the Black poet who sits down to write is not in the quiet, protected confines provided by grants-inaid. Though some of the poets receive financial assistance, most are without the funds that allow for what Hart Crane called "creative leisure." While there is much love and joy poetry, a great deal of contemplative and philosophical poetry, the dominant thrusts in Black Poetry are cultural reclamation and affirmation, indignation and protest The student will want to ask himself the following questions on Themes in Black Poetry: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8 .. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. When and how is anger a theme? How does violence appear as a theme? Why and in what way does pride become a theme? How is religion used thematically? When do the poems stem from "Blackness II or "Racial Consciousness 11 ? What are the dominant themes in the Spirituals? What are the dominant themes in the Folk Seculars? What are the dominant themes in the Black Poetry of the 18th and 19th centuries? What are the dominant themes in the Black Poetry of the Harlem Renaissance? How and when does slavery -become a theme? In what way does lynching become a theme? What are the important symbols that carry themes in Black Poetry? What are the secondary symbols? What are the differences between themes in Folk and Literary Poetry? What thematic differences exist among poets of the Harlem Renaissance? What themes dominate dialect poetry? Structure {physical organization of a poem) in Black Poetry is inextricably tied to theme and meaning and allows the student to sample the poets' rich diversity and experimentation. We observed earlier that Black poets have written 106 , �in practically every Western poetic form, discarded some, revived still others and invented a few (Gwendolyn Brooks, for example, invented the sonnet-ballad). Essentially, however, the early song form (which allowed for leader-audience exchange and intermingling) persists (in some variation) up to this very day. The student will want to consult handbooks to literature and poetry in order to become familiar with names of poetic devices and techniques. (For further dis- cussion of technique in Black Poetry, see bibliography.) Obviously, structure, since it carries the theme and the meaning, is very important . In fact, a failure to adhere to the demands and nuances of structure can often abort the oral reading and,ultimately, the meaning of the poem. Students should read the poems aloud to themselves, participate vigor- , ously in classroom readings and ask questions on structure at every opportunity . In this way, the demands of the structure (which in Black Poetry is often akin to that of a musical score or chart) can be met and explored. dialect poems, a ballad form or structure is used. In many The poets knew the ballad allowed them the flexibility to express themselves musically; but it was also familiar to the general American reading or listening public. In this case, a Western written art form and a Black oral art form were combined to form a new poetic vehicle . (The ballad in America is derived primarily from Irish and Scottish poetry via immigrants . ) We said earlier that the Spirituals and blues - 107 �are structural cousins in that they both employ the recurring leading line and iteration (response). Since the blues were written and sung by individuals and the Spirituals developed and rendered by groups, their structural differences reflect their particular needs or aims. for syncopation However, both forms allow (uneven rhythm) and spontaniety (beats between accents). Black dialect and literary poetry also absorbed these exciting forms and improved on them. For example, Dunbar's continual use of Jump back, honey, jump back, Campbell's refraining Ring, my bawnjer, ringl and DuBois' relentless I am the smoke king, I am black. --all aid in organizing and stabilizing sound (developing rhythm) but, like the spirituals and secular folk songs, they yield to added comment, shortened or lengthened sounds, additional beats or repetition and unexpected starts or stops. Fittingly, all three poems have the word 11 song 11 in their titles. Such a pattern prevails throughout Black Poetry, whether or not it is in dialect. That Pass in the Night, DunbarJs "We wear the Mask, 11 11 "Ships and "Sympathy" are built on the call .and response pattern--but each one allows for additional repetition and the rich spontaniety and surprises so akin to Black Music and speech. 108 �Even the earlier poets, deeply influenced in their writings by literary or hymn structure\ chose the chordal ~ pattern--the musical format. Wheatley's eulogy ~ This can be seen in Phillis "On the Death of the Rev. Mr. Whitefield, 1770, 11 wherein she builds power (incremental line power) to the crecendo by repeating the phrase "Take him, ••• ! 11 In examining structure in the poetry, the student will want to consider several questions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Some of them are: What are the dominant structures in Black Poetry? What dictates structure in Black Poetry? In what ways is structure related to theme and meaning? Does structure take precedent over theme and meaning in Black Poetry? How many different types- of structures can you find in Black Poetry? What are the structural differences between the Blues and the Spirituals? What are the structural differences between the folk poetry and the literary poetry? How does the structure affect or hinder understanding of the poem? What is "Black" or "African" about the structure of Black Poetry? -#le. What ingredients in~structure of Black Poetry are European or American? How does McKay's or Cullen's use of the sonnet make this Italian-English form 11 Black 11 ? How do structures operate to influence the graphic nature of the poem? How does structure in pre-twentieth Black Poetry differ from that of the Harlem Renaissance? What are the structural similarities between the written poetic tradition and the contemporary Black song? Meaning is locked into the other two components. For one cannot ascertain meaning in Black Poetry without first reading the poem carefully and coming to grip with its themes. Black Americans possess a double vision which allows them to 109 �~~ss themselves and whites--perhaps even to laugh or cry at the situation--while they go about their day-to-day chores. In the Black artist, this vision is amplified by his particular insights and the craft in which he expresses himself. The Black poet, writing in English, is oftentimes aware of his Black self and his white self. This is a complex pre- dicament which brings great strain to the poet and aggravates his on-going proble~ ~ But it is exciting--this almost con- stant state of limbo (p.f.)cullen, McKay, Toomer, Hayden)-because it gives him a view of himself and his white countrymen that is sometimes shocking both to whites and his own people. In the poem, the poet may exhibit his dilemma via anger, rage, love, accomadation, religious zealousness, hatred, violence, envy, coded language, sadism, iconoclasm, dreams, agnosticism, existentialism, hope, saturated Blackness, despair, metaphysicsor protest. Meaning, therefore, may be the most difficult of the three components. For while structure can be seen and the theme often appears in poem titles, meaning can be elusive, encoded, puzzling. Critics and students overlook profound meanings in Black Poetry because they expect meaning to be conveyed in the manner which traditional European or American written poetry has couched it (references to Greek and Roman mythology, etc.) It is true that Black Poetry uses arche- typal symbolism, allegory and narration. But these are usually set in the context of the general and specific Black Experiences. The student has to keep in mind the nature of 110 �the Black Experience. He ought to have a working knowledge of slavery, interracial vi~lence and fraternization, the problems Blacks confront in seeking employment, the negative images of Blacks in mass media, and Blacks' view, and modification, of Christianity. The student should also become acquainted with the various brands of English used by the Black poet and the linguistic interpretations the poets bring to their subjects. In folk poetry, the Black psyche expresses the love, joy and pain via the parables, aphorism{ fables, songs and t-- ditties in a phonological frame brought from Africa. African survivalismscan also be found in the wordings, idiomatic nuances, style and spirit. The student ought to be aware that spirituals often contained coded messages for leaders of the Underground Railroad; that folk songs often held calls for defiance, endurance and revolt--in such symbols and images as rainbows, rivers, lightening, howls, letters, trains, horses and other animals. Stories also carry morals-- but they are moral lessons for an enslaved or oppressed people: How does one "keep on keeping or/§0 Or "keep on gettin' up"? The ironies and paradoxes also come through in the written poetry where, for example, Benjamin Clark persistently asks A slave is what? and a ssails Christianity for enslaving a person who bas been ... bought, or stolen from himself, • • • Fot' so,-,,:Hd 1 pa.L-n-y pelf. 111 �One sees this double vision and cynicism in James M. Whitfield, who does not say America 1tis of thee, Sweet land of liberty ..... or 0 say can you see By the dawn's early light, •••• but America, it is to thee, Thou boasted land of liberty-It is to thee I raise my song, Thou land of blood, and crime, and wrong. Obviously, Whitfield was aware of American patriotism and the songs associated with it. But he chose to satirize a patriotic zealousness and a Democracy which overlooked and excluded large numbers of its citizens. Further indication of this dualism, this time with a Christian motif, is McKay's "The Lynching" in which the killing of a Black man is made analagous to the crucifixion of Christ. McKay, a converted Catholic, was well aware of the sentiment and guilt which this poem must have aroused in the consciences of Christians. As with theme and structure, then, the student will want to probe meaning in Black Poetry. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Some questions are: How does meaning work hand-in-hand with structure and theme in Black Poetry? What experiences contribute to meaning in specific poems? How does one know when one has gotten the meaning the poet intended? What are some of the broad keys to meaning in Black Poetry? Identify some double entendres in Black Poetry. What is the function and meaning of religion in Black P.oe.try? 112 �7"! 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14 . 1.5. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 2.5. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. How do sounds and rhythms convey meaning in Black Poetry? In your opinion, around what themes are the most meaningful poems written? What is the meaning of the Spirituals? What is the meaning of the Fo1k Seculars? How do Meanings differ among Black and other poets? What is the meaning of "Black" or "Blackness" in Black Poetry? What is the meaning of Africa in Black Poetry? What is the meaning of America in Black Poetry? What is the meaning of archetypal symbols (rivers, land, stars, etc.) in Black Poetry? What is the meaning of allegory ( le,ngthy storytelling) in Black Poetry? How is meaning hidden or -encoded in Black Poetry? Why is meaning hidden or encoded in Black Poetry?To/for whom does the Black poet write? Can the Black poet couch "Black" meaning in English? What is -t he nature of the Black poet 1 s language? Are there essential differences between the Black and white poets• languages? Does all Black Poetry contain both literal and figurative levels? Does Black Poetry demonstrate the inner-workings of the Black folk psyche? What is the Black world view? What is the Black poet's view of time, life and death? Does the Black poet believe in reincarnation? Is the Black poet an atheist? Is Black Poetry suicidal? D·oes despair play a big role in Black Poetry? What is the Black poet's view of love? Classroom and Research Activities Obviously, in asking and answering the preceding questions on theme, structure and meaning, the student will need to reinforce his inquiries and comments with in-class discussions and out-of-class research. We said earlier that students ought to pay close attention to Black popular culture. From course beginning to end, the student should avail himself of every opportunity to listen 113 �seriously to Black Music. of forms and concepts. This practice allows for saturation For music is the widest shared art form in the Black community and poetry is the written form closest to it. Therefore, the student must be prepared to look for musical implications and patterns in the poetry. This search will be made more rewarding and exciting if some of the following in-class activities are organized: l. 2. 3. 5. 6. 8 .. Ritual exercises--i.e., games utilizing voices, hand-clapping, foot-stomping, rhythmic instruments (tambourines, thumb pianos, triangles, rattles, maracas, harmonicas, etc.), gestures (dancing, etc.), and the call-and-response patterns. Use of the classroom as a listening laboratory where music is heard, discussed, imitated, etc. (this way students develop a 11f"eel" and "ear" for Black Music and phonology.) Dramatic readings from the dialect and literary poetry; this particular approach could involve all media--dance, music, slides, musical instruments, responding voices, etc. _ Also, other group projects involving panels, choruses, bands, classroom participation, films, tapes and records. One exciting kind of group or individual project is to study the written poetry in conjunction with the current Black popular song lyrics. The use of visual aids enhances most projects. There are numerous films and slide packages available through distributors of educational materials and other sources. Dance, Voice, ijusic or Social Science students taking ~lack Poetry classes can develop themes and projects that coincide with their on-going studies or interests: e.g., ''Dance in Black Poetry," "Black Poetry interpreted through Dance, 11 "Anger and Frustration in Black Poetry," "Black Poetry as an Extension of Black Music," . "The Black Poet's view of the Black Family," "Putting Black Poetry to Music," "The Singing of Black Poetry," "Black Poetry as .History," "Black Poetry and the Struggle for Freedom," etc • . Use of Black Poetry as a dramatic vehicle in which poems are organized around a larger idea or sequence 114 �of historical events. Here, interested students may want to put together a play from existing poetry. Countless other combinations and arrangements will open up for the student willing to think creatively and experiment . For example, many song writers and singers (notably Babs Gonzales, Isaac Hayes, Marvin Gaye, Roberta Flack, Curtis a.viJ Mayfield, Leon Thomas, Smokey "Bill" Robinson"- Nina Simone) possess a poetic versatility and richness which surpasses that of many literary poets. The student may want to tap this hitherto unexplored area for potential ~eseo.r,c,h pt' W\1'1ii'nj {>i"o..t~c.U• Additionally, there are numerous field language projects which will allow the student to pursue regional Black speech patterns,. using tape record~rs, notes, etc. Such material can be compared/contrasted to the written poetry and make for an exciting report which should be shared with the class. Collecting and contrasting of contemporary oral poetry IS and language~always good since researchers and classmates can make on-the-spot comparisons between the material being studied and that which is newly introduced. In conducting the out-of-class research, the student will find numerous resources (and some disappointments), depending on the library holdings, to guide him along the way. 1:h.e Back issues of A,;.--Crisis, 0 pp or tun it y, Black Orpheus and Negro Digest/Black World magazines (see bibliography for more listings) are often on microfilm or in their original forms. Reading of early Black �journals and newspapers help~one understand poetic temperament of the times. The student must remember that some ol:Jtiite newspapers and journals also published Black poetry. The out-of-class preparation should include an absorption of social history, literary criticism and biographies of the poets. We hinted above that students will often find their searches frustrated by unavailability of needed materials. In such cases; students may want to examine holdings of other libraries or archives in the area. Many state or local archives will have documented areas of Black literature. Although there may be problems at each turn, the persistent student can sometimes uncover a gold mine of information in the most unexpected places. One of these problems is that many libraries place Black literature in the same category as Social Sciences. Therefore, it is important to look beyond Humanities for the Poetry, criticism and commentary. But the student who is seriously bent on finding his materials and sources, may find, ~lso, that he has helped iron out some classification problems and "attitudes" at his campus or community library. As stated before, there are many ideas, topics and themes around which to organize a study of Black Poetry. for discussion and writing papers are: 1. 2. 3. 4* 5. Black Poetry of the Harlem Renaissance Black Poetry of the Post-Renaissance Black Women Poets The Black Poet as a Wanderer Blues influence in Black Poetry 116 Some topics �,l 1 I 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. Jazz influence in Black Poetry Black Poets of the Beat Movement Black Poetry and Pan-Africanism Black Poetry and Integration Black Poetry and Black History Church as a theme in Black Poetry Religion as a theme in Black Poetry The Verse Sermon as a Poetic Form The Ballad in Dialect Poetry Africa as an Image in Black Poetry Whiteness as a Symbol in Black Poetry Black Poetry of Colonial America Slavery as a theme in Black Poetry Lynching as a theme in Black Poetry Interracial association in Black Poetry Black Poet's view of America Love as a theme in Black Poetry Militancy in Black Poetry Violence in Black Poetry Freedom in Black Poetry Universal themes in Black Poetry Identity Crisis in Black Poetry Black Poetry as a galvanizing force for social action Black Dialect Poetry Black Speech in Black Poetry Structure in Modern Black Poetry Meaning in Black Poetry Pride in Black Poetry Soul in Modern Black Poetry Image of the Black Woman in Black Poetry Image of the Black Man in Black Poetry This list should bring about other associations for the student. For each topic contains several others, and the new ones call to mind still others, and so on. However, the student should involve himself deeply in Black creativity and thought so as · rl,e. l exi· t y, b readth and miss . i on of Bl ac k Poe t ry. t o perceive~comp 117 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_07_48 Title A name given to the resource Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, typed partial manuscript, p. 104-117 Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B. https://digitallis.isg.siue.edu/files/original/de2f56106a81ae4463b421983844115c.pdf aa3c9a7f05a4f4280b428f7aa8f2afae PDF Text Text .,. . BLACK POETRY OF THE POST-RENAISSANCE AND CONTEMPORARY PERIODS The psychological, social, political and economic issues that confronted Blacks after the Civil War and Reconstruction. persi-sTed through the Harlem Awakening. The collapse of the American economy in 1929 signaled, also 1 the collapse of white patronization of Black artists. However, several of the budding institutions)publications and social undertakings-begun before, during and after the Renaissance--have lasted up to this very day. And while the primary thrust of Black writing during the twenties was cultural reclamation and racial affirmation, the literature since that time has been dominated by variants on the theme of sociaJ/AA l1!9e~\hlflOS1; writings l~l 'inJ-uilu· . of the Post-Renaissance and Contemporary period~ protest is the most salient feature.~ 1,his factor, ~ ~ coupled with the appearance of new Black academic critics,~~~t off literary debates that still reverberate in Black letters. The two most vocal positions are l) or art remain free of overt 11 that Black literature protest 11 --thus avoiding "restrictions" which protest imposes on the creativity; and 2) that the Black artist's continuing responsibility is to engage in protest, to forge his work into weapons of liberation. These two views of the Black artist have always shadowed the developing Black literature. critical 11 But it was not until the emergence of a Black establishment 11 that the views received widespread attention or registered great influence. 96 At this writing, �I , • the issue of the writer's social responsibility constitutes one of the most vigorous on-going debates in the history of Black American literature.-----.... , fbe two major living Black • poets, Gwendolyn Brooks and Robert Hayden, are at sharp and critical odds on this particular issue. Hayden bas refused to place conscious racial concerns over the craft of poetry, holding that many of the new Black poets are minor versifiers with political ambitions. Miss Brooks, who stepped into the middle of the Black Poetry Movement of the late sixties, has shifted to the "Black first., poet second" position and holds the younger writers in high esteem. She noted that if she had died before she was fifty., she would have "died a Negro faction." In modern history., these debates have taken place in the midst., or on the heels, of treme~dous successes on the parts of Black writers. ¥et while the important Renaissance writers were prize-winners., it was not until the publication of Richard WrightJs novel.,Native Son., in 1940, that a Black writer received attention on par with the best white writers of his day. Wright's achievement was followed two years later by Margaret Walker's (Yale Poetry Prize for For My People), ten years later by Gwendolyn Brooks' (Pulitzer Prize for Annie Allen., poetry), and twelve years later by Ralph Ellison's (National Book Award, Invisible Man). Many of the Black writers of the 1930-1945 period sustained themselves by working for the Federal Writers' Project of the WPA. Some .:>f their own writings., as well as important 97 �cultural and historical studies, resulted from this work. During the same period, Black literary activity flourished despite the fact that, at times, ~lack unemployment reached up to fifty-six percent. Most of the Renaissance poets and fiction writers continued publishing, as did the historians and social critics (DuBois, Charles Johnson, Locke, Benjamin G. Brawley, and others). A new Black critic, J. Saunders Redding, had written a critical study in 1936. And in 1~41, poet-scholar Sterling Brown collaborated with Arthur P. Davis and Ulysses Lee on 0.:. monumental work, The Negro Caravan--the most ambitious anthology of Black literature yet published. Another pub- lishing landmark of the period was The Poetry of the American Negro (Hughes an.d Bontemps, 194 9). Both works carried earlie,r In-~ yer as well as contemporary poets. ~ween 1930 and· 1960Aanother group of poets, many of them teenagers at the close of the Harlem Renaissance, ~ , began to publish. In addition to Margaret Walker, Hayden and Gwendolyn Brooks, new names included Melvin Tolson, Margaret Danner, Dudley Randall (publisher of Broadside Press), Samuel Allen (also Paul Vesey), Frank :Marshall Davis, Ray Durem, Owen Dodson, James Emanuel, Bruce McM. Wright, Alfred Duckett, Myron O•Higgins (who colloborated with Hayden on a 1948 booklet of poems), M. Carl Holman, Russell Atkins (founder of Freelance in 1950), Donald Jef:frey Hayes, Richard Wright (who also wrote poetry), John Henrik Clarke(~ editor of ;EreeqQmk:!a~), Lance Je:ffers, Naomi Long Madgett , Gloria C. Oden, Zack Gilbert, Hoyt Fuller 98 �(editor of Negro Digest/Black World) and Lerone Bennet Jr. (historian ). pre o.rid. Many of these~post World War II poets were writing during the Renaissance but did not puhlish or achieve recognition at that time. Black poets writing before the sixties were recorded in Rosey Pool's Beyond the Blues (1962) -and Arna Bontemps• American Negro Poetry (1963). Some themes in Black Poetry of the post-Renaissance period are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20 .. 21. 22. Lynching Social injustice (discrimination, segregation, job bias) Paradoxes in Christianity The Black working-class man War Communism, Socialism, class struggle and other "left II movements Black ,Music (BeBop, Jazz, Blues, etc.) Black stamina and endurance Problems of the Black veteran Comparisons of Racism and bigotry abroad with similar situations in the U.S. Southern or rural Black life Black urban life Black women, especially mothers Patriotism Greek and Roman mythology and culture Racial slurs, stigmas and nicknames Black historical figures Academic pursuits Slavery Religion Poverty Status-climbing Many of these themes and preoccupations closely parallel political developments and pressures of the period. And. , Mt ove~atL ,are lthey};lioo removed from the "historical concerns of Black '• poets whom, Hayden notes, are "traditionally associated with protest." Nor are . these themes remote to the contemporary 99 �Black Poetry. For the student will note that while some of today's poets are not always well-read in either their own or the general literary tradition, they are usually politically-charged and often'relentlessly cynical in their appraisal of American society. Indeed, the contemporary poetry (which will only be alluded to here) ties all the loose ends of Black Poetry in to one amalgamating knot: A knot of stresses and twistings which constitute, in the words of Jane Cortez, Festivals and Funerals. For it is in the contemporary period that more poets than ever before are writing, publishing, and establishing unprecedented worldwide . recognition and distribution. . ('"r-tis) If Alain Locke could observe~that the Renaissance movement saw Black poets working as a grouphood, then an updated observation of Locke's reaction would acknowledge that Black poets are ini'luencing each other before our very eyes J--·o n television, on recordings, tapes, through a proliferation of printed collections and anthologies, via correspondence, through literary competition, at conferences and workshops, and through numerous new journals and other periodicals. The New Black Poetry movement--and its related ideological and aesthetical spin~outs--is, Hayden notes, one of the most "significant" developments of the contemporary era. The poets are not in agreement on the questions related to the Black aesthetic, to whom they (should?) direct their works, the use of racial consciousness, or the criteria for a "Black" poem. But most of them 1re discussing and examining these 100 �issues. James Baldwin (novelist, essayist, playwright), who succeeded Wright as the leading Black literary lion, has said that any Black man in the least perceptive "must be constantly on the verge of insanity." Indeed, LeRoi Jones (now Imamu Amiri Baraka, and an acknowledged leader of the New Black Poetry movement) appeared in the mid and late sixties as the embodiment of Baldwin's revelation. Like Baraka, many of the new Black poets "rage" in scalding lyrics that denounce American moral bankruptcy, send broadsides against "Uncle Toms" and the Black middleclass, and perform their poetry with a verbal vitality that rivals the old time preachers. More than ever before, Black poets are writing their poems to be read aloud--to move audiences to action. All contemporar Black poets, however, cannot be loosely lumped into the pattern ascribed to Baraka (who is an enigmatic, complex and multi-talented man). Indeed, many of the new poets align themselves with neutral writers, the "mainstream" of white poetry, "third world" acti vi ties 1 and other political, religious or ethnic co.Mp-;$•' · One · neiv and important factor in the new poetry is the sr..,-,,+e, of,.._ emerging ~African nations. Black Americans and Black Africans now fraternize in great numbers. S~k <U1 ~h1.11,~ . ' ,. . _ · hetS provided both subject matter and energy for the new poetry. Like the Beat poets of the fifties, many Black poets submerge themselves in everything from the occult to Eastern mysticism to private imagery 101 �and symbolism,. In general, however, the protest of earlier ~\llie,rt times continues to be /\ ; and the devices and referents are more often folk or cultural. Prevailing themes of con- temporary Black Poetry include: l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. Black Music (including instruments and salutes to musicians themselves) Religion: Islam, Bahai, Voodoo, African ancestor cult, Christianity War Interracial dating and marriage Art (Black art, especially) Sensuality Violence Urban life Rural life Social injustice (denouncements of racism, colonialism, Imperialism, capitalism, etc.) Assessment of the "system, 11 the "establishment, 11 etc. Love (especially among Black men and women) Black pride (self-development, community development) Africa (names, places, dates, heroes) Christianity (support and satire) Whiteness as evil Blackness as good Attacks upon hypocrisy and artificial self-restraint: upon those who are not "for real" Forecast of doom (for the Western World; America especially) Astrology, numerology, ancient knowledge Black Nationalism, Pan-Africanism, Negritude, Soul, etc. Black History Rejection of drugs, alcohol and other so-called indications of Western "decadence" The list could go on ad infinitum. However, the student must respect the individuality of the poets and treat their works as separate flashes of power and creativity within the vast Web of the Black Experience. Much of the new poetry is avail- able in the numerous new anthologies, some of which are The New Black Poetry (Major, 1969), Black Fire (Jones and Neal, 1970), The Black Poets (RPndalL, 197J), New Black Voices 102 �I II , I, (Chapman, 1972) and The Poetry of Black America (Adoff, 1973). Today's poets have inherited the psychosocial ambivalences and complexes of America, seen the almost constant economic depression among Black masses, witnessed America's persistent lynch-vogue and recurring riots, and .felt the ~o.Me I '·· alienation and rejection known to their forefathers. >1hen,itttLt ~any observers sayAthe "break-away" strand in new Black America--and consequently in the New Black Poetry--was to be expected. Whatever the student's conclusions, it is evident Black Poetry is now an indelible part o.f man's literature. 103 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context EBRWritings_07_47 Title A name given to the resource Drumvoices: The Mission of Afro-American Poetry: A Critical History, typed partial manuscript, p. 96-103 Relation A related resource Eugene B. Redmond Digital Collection Language A language of the resource English Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource For digital rights and permissions, see <a href="https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml">https://www.siue.edu/lovejoy-library/about/policies.shtml</a> or contact <a href="mailto:library@siue.edu">library@siue.edu</a> for direct inquiries. In copyright. <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Redmond, Eugene B.